Thebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyismarkedbyviolentcrisesandbythosefirstlabormovementswhichhavetheirimmediateorigininthedistressattendinglockouts。Theidealofthe\"naturalorder\"isoverthrown。
Wealthhasengenderedpoverty。Thegreatindustryinchangingallsocialrelationshasincreasedvices，maladiesandsubjection。Ithas，inaword，causeddegeneration。Progresshasengenderedretrogression。Whatmustbedonethatprogressmayengendernothingelsebutprogress，thatistosay，prosperity，health，security，educationandintellectualdevelopmentequalforall？WiththisquestionOweniswhollyconcernedandheshareswithFourierandSaintSimonthischaracteristicthathenolongerappealstoself-sacrificeandtoreligion，andthathewishestoresolveandsurmountthesocialantitheseswithoutdiminishingthetechnicalandindustrialenergyofman，butrathertoincreasethis。ItisbythisroadthatOwenbecameacommunistandheisthefirstwhobecamesointheenvironmentcreatedbymodernindustry。
Theantithesisrestsentirelyonthecontradictionbetweenthemodeofproductionandthemodeofdistribution。Thisantithesismust，then，besuppressedinasocietywhichproducescollectively。Owenbecomesutopian。Thisperfectsocietymustneedsberealizedexperimentallyandtothishedevoteshimselfwithaheroicconstancyandunequaledself-sacrificebringingamathematicalprecisionevenintohisthoughtsofitsdetails。
Theantithesisbetweenproductionanddistributiononcediscovered，therearoseinEnglandfromThompsontoBrayaseriesofwritersofasocialismwhichisnotstrictlyutopian，butwhichshouldbequalifiedasone-sidedforitsobjectistocorrectthemanifestvicesofsocietybyasmanyappropriateremedies。（22*）
Infactthefirststageofallthosewhoareontheroadtowardsocialismisthediscoveryofthecontradictionbetweenproductionanddistribution。
Then，theseingenuousquestionsimmediatelyarise：Whynotabolishpoverty？
Whynoteliminatelockouts？Whynotsuppressthemiddleman？Whynotfavorthedirectexchangeofproductsinconsiderationofthelaborthattheycontain。？
Whynotgivetheworkertheentireproductofhislabor，etc。Thesedemandsreducethethings，tenaciousandresistant，ofreallife，intoasmanyreasoning，andtheyhavefortheirobjecttocombatthecapitalistsystemasifitwereamachinefromwhichonecantakeawayortowhichonecanaddpieces，wheelsandgearing。
Thepartisansofcriticalcommunismhavebrokendefinitelywithallthesetendencies。Theyhavebeenthesuccessorsandthecontinuersofclassicaleconomics。（23*）Whatisthedoctrineofthestructureofpresentsociety？
Noonecancombatthisstructureinpractice，inpoliticsorinrevolutionwithoutfirsttakinganexactaccountofitselementsanditsrelationsandmakingafundamentalstudyofthedoctrinewhichexplainsit。Theseforms，theseelementsandtheserelationsariseincertainhistoricconditionsbuttheyconstituteasystemandanecessity。Howcanitbehopedtodestroysuchasystembyanactoflogicalnegationandhoweliminateitbyreasoning？
Eliminatepauperism？Butitisanecessaryconditionofcapitalism。Givetheworkertheentireproductofhislabor？Butwhatwouldbecomeoftheprofitofcapital，andwhereandhowcouldthemoneyexpendedinthepurchaseofcommoditiesbeincreasedifamongallthecommoditieswhichitmeetsandwithwhichitmakesexchangestherewerenotaparticularonewhichreturnstothebuyermorethanitcostshim；andisnotthiscommoditypreciselythelaborpowerofthewageworker？Theeconomicsystemisnotatissueofreasoningsbutitisasumandacomplexusoffactswhichengendersacomplextissueofrelations。Itisafoolishthingtoassumethatthissystemoffactswhichtherulingclasshasestablishedwithgreatpainsthroughthecenturiesbyviolence，bysagacity，bytalentandbysciencewillconfessitselfvanquished，willdestroyitselftogivewaytothedemandsofthepoorandtothereasoningsoftheiradvocates。Howdemandthesuppressionofpovertywithoutdemandingtheoverthrowofalltherest？Todemandofthissocietythatitshallchangeitslawwhichconstitutesitsdefenseistodemandandabsurdthing。TodemandofthisStatethatitshallceasetobethebucklerandthedefenseofthissocietyandofthislawisplungingintoabsurdities。（24*）Theone-sidedsocialismwhichwithoutbeingclearlyutopianstartsfromthehypothesisthatsocietyadmitsofcertainerratawithoutrevolution，thatistosaywithoutafundamentalchangeinthegeneralelementarystructureofsocietyitself，isamerepieceofingenuity。ThiscontradictionwiththerigidlawsoftheprocessofthingsisshowninallitsevidenceinProudhon，who，reproducingwithoutknowingit，orcopyingdirectly，someoftheone-sidedEnglishsocialists，wishedtoarrestandchangehistory，armedwithadefinitionandasyllogism。
Thepartisansofcriticalcommunismrecognizedthathistoryhasarighttofollowitscourse。Thebourgeoisphasecanbeoutgrownanditwillbe。
Butaslongasitexistsithasitslaws。Therelativityoftheseconsistsinthefactthattheygrowanddevelopincertaindeterminedconditions，buttheirrelativityisnotsimplytheoppositeofnecessity，amereappearance，asoap-bubble。Theselawsmaydisappearandtheywilldisappearbytheveryfactofthechangeofsociety，buttheydonotyieldtothearbitrarysuggestionwhichdemandsachange，proclaimsareform，orformulatesaprogramme。Communismmakescommoncausewiththeproletariatbecauseinthisresidestherevolutionaryforcewhich，bursts，breaks，shakesanddissolvesthepresentsocialformandcreatesinit，littlebylittle，newconditions；ortobemoreexact，theveryfactofitsmovementshowstousthatthesenewconditionsarealreadyborn。
Thetheoryoftheclassstrugglewasfound。Itwasseentoappearbothintheoriginsofthebourgeoisie（whoseintrinsicprocessuswasalreadyillustratedbythescienceofeconomics），andinthisnewappearanceoftheproletariat。Therelativityofeconomiclawswasdiscovered，butatthesametimetheirrelativenecessitywasunderstood。Hereinliesthewholemethodandjustificationofthenewmaterialisticconceptionofhistory。Thosedeceivethemselveswho，callingittheeconomicinterpretationofhistory，thinktheyunderstanditcompletely。Thatdesignationisbettersuited，andisonlysuited，tocertainanalyticattempts，（25*）which，takenseparatelyandinadistinctfashionontheonesidetheeconomicformsandcategories，andontheother，forexample，law，legislation，politics，customs，——proceedtostudythereciprocalinfluencesofthedifferentsidesoflifeconsideredinanabstractfashion。Quitedifferentisourposition。Oursistheorganicconceptionofhistory。Thetotalityoftheunityofsociallifeisthesubjectmatterpresenttoourminds。Itiseconomicsitselfwhichdissolvesinthecourseofoneprocess，toreappearinasmanymorphologicalstages，ineachofwhichitservesasasubstructureforalltherest。Finally，itisnotourmethodtoextendtheso-calledeconomicfactorisolatedinanabstractfashionoveralltherest，asouradversariesimagine，butitis，beforeeverythingelse，toformandhistoricconceptionofeconomicsandtoexplaintheotherchangesbymeansofitschanges。Thereliesouranswertoallthecriticismswhichcometousfromallthedomainsoflearnedignorance，notexceptingthesocialistswhoareinsufficientlygroundedandwhoaresentimentalorhysterical。AndweexplainourpositionthusasMarxhasdoneinhisCapital，notthefirstbookofcriticalcommunism，butthelastgreatbookofbourgeoiseconomics。
AtthemomentwhentheManifestowaswrittenthehistorichorizondidnotgobeyondtheclassicworld，thescarcelystudiedGermanantiquitiesandtheBiblicaltraditionwhichhadonlylatelybeenreducedtotheprosaicconditionsofallprofanehistory。Ourhistorichorizonisnowquiteanotherthing，sinceitextendstotheAryanantiquitiesandtotheancientdepositsofEgyptandMesopotamiawhichprecedealltheSemitictraditions。Anditextendsstillfurtherbackintoprehistory，thatistosay，intounwrittenhistory。Morganhasgivenusaknowledgeofancientsociety，thatistosayapre-politicalsociety，andthekeytounderstandhowfromitcameallthelaterformsmarkedbymonogamy，thedevelopmentofthepaternalfamily，theappearanceofproperty，firstofthegens，thenofthefamily，lastlyindividual，andbythesuccessiveestablishmentofthealliancesbetweengenteswhicharetheoriginoftheState。Allthisisillustratedbytheknowledgeoftheprocessoftechniqueinthediscoveryandintheuseofthemeansandinstrumentsoflaborandbytheunderstandingoftheeffectofthisprocessuponthesocialcomplexus，urgingitincertaindirectionsandmakingittraversecertainstages。Thesediscoveriesmaystillbecorrectedatcertainpoints，notablybythestudyofthedifferentspecificfashionsaccordingtowhichindifferentpartsoftheworldthepassagefrombarbarismtocivilizationhasbeeneffected。But，henceforth，onefactisindisputable，namely，thatwehavebeforeoureyesthegeneralembryogenicrecordofhumandevelopmentfromprimitivecommunismtothosecomplexformationsasatAthensoratRomewiththeirconstitutionsofcitizensarrangedinclassesaccordingtocensuswhichnotlongagoconstitutedthecolumnsofHerculesforresearchintowrittentradition。TheclasseswhichtheManifestoassumedhavebeenlaterresolvedintotheirprocessofformationandinthiscanalreadyberecognizedtheplexusofreasonsandofdifferenteconomiccausesforthecategoriesoftheeconomicscienceofourbourgeoisepoch。ThedreamofFouriertofindaplaceforanepochofcivilizationintheseriesoflongandvastprocesshasbeenrealized。AscientificsolutionhasbeenfoundfortheproblemoftheoriginofinequalityamongmenwhichRousseauhadtriedtosolvebyargumentsofanoriginaldialectic，relyinghoweverupontoofewrealdata。
Attwopoints，theextremepointsforus，thehumanprocessispalpable。
Oneoftheseistheoriginofthebourgeoisie，sorecentandinthefulllightofthescienceofeconomics；theotheristheancientformationofsocietydividedintoclasses，whichmarksthepassagefromhigherbarbarismtocivilization（theepochoftheState）touseexpressionsemployedbyMorgan。
Allthatisfoundbetweenthesetwoepochsiswhathas，uptothistime，formedthesubjectmatterofthechroniclers，thehistoriansproperlyso-called，thejurists，thetheologiansandthephilosophers。Wemustnotbeover-hastyintabulatingit。Attheverybeginningwemustunderstandtheeconomicsrelativetoeachepoch，（26*）inordertoexplainspecificallytheclasseswhichdevelopinit，avoidinghypotheticalanduncertaindataandtakingcarenottocarryoverourownconditionsintoeachepoch。Forthat，skilledfingersareneeded。Thus，forexample，whattheManifestosaysofthefirstoriginofthebourgeoisieproceedingfromtheserfsoftheMiddleAgesincorporatedlittlebylittleintothecitiesisnotageneraltruth。ThismodeoforiginispeculiartoGermanyandtotheothercountrieswhichreproduceitsprocess。
ItisnotthecaseeitherinItaly，norinSouthernFrance，norinSpain，whichwerethefieldsuponwhichbeganthefirsthistoryofthebourgeoisie，thatistosay，ofmoderncivilization。InthisfirstphasearefoundallthepremisesofthewholecapitalistsocietyasMarxinformedusinanotetothefirstvolumeofCapital。（27*）ThisfirstphasewhichreachesitsperfectformintheItalianmunicipalitiesformsthepre-historicbackgroundforthatcapitalistaccumulationwhichMarxhasexplainedwithsomanycharacteristicdetailsintheevolutionofEngland。ButIwillstopthere。
Theproletarianscanhaveinviewnothingbutthefuture。Thatwithwhichallscientificsocialistsareprimarilyconcernedisthepresentinwhicharespontaneouslydevelopedandinwhichareripeningtheconditionsofthefuture。Theknowledgeofthepastispracticallyofuseandofinterestonlyinsofarasitthrowslightuponandexplainsthepresent。Forthemomentitisenoughtosaythatthepartisansofcriticalcommunismfiftyyearsagoconceivedtheelementsofthenewanddefinitephilosophyofhistory。
Soonthisfashionofseeingwillimposeitselfbecauseitwillbeimpossibletothinkthecontrary；andthisdiscoverywillhavethefateofColumbus’
egg。Andperhapsbeforeandarmysoscientistshasmadeanapplicationofthisconceptiontothecontinuousnarrationofthewholehistory，thesuccessoftheproletariatwillhavebecomesuchthatthebourgeoisepochwillappeartoallassomethingthatmustbeleftbehindbecauseitwillnearlybesoinreality。Tounderstandistoleavebehind（Hegel）。
When，fiftyyearsago，theManifestomadeoftheproletarians，oftheunfortunateswhoexcitedpity，thepredestinedgrave-diggersofthebourgeoisie，thecircumferenceofthisburialplacemusthaveappearedverysmalltotheimaginationofthewriterswhoscarcelyconcealedinthegravityoftheirstyletheidealismoftheirintellectualpassion。TheprobablecircumferenceintheirimaginationthenembracedonlyFranceandEngland，anditwouldscarcelyhavetouchedthefrontiersofothercountries，forinstance，Germany。
To-daythecircumferenceappearstousimmensebyreasonoftherapidandcolossalextensionofthebourgeoisformofproductionwhichbyinevitablereactionenlarges，makesuniversalandmultipliesthemovementoftheproletariatandimmenselyexpandsthesceneuponwhichisprojectedthepictureofthecomingcommunism。Theburialplaceextendsasfarastheeyecanreach。Themoreproductiveforcesthismagiciancallsforth，themoreheexcitesandpreparesforcesthatmustrebelagainsthimself。
Allthosewhowerecommunistsideological，religiousandutopian，orevenpropheticandapocalypticinthepasthavealwaysbelievedthatthereignofjustice，equalityandhappinesswasdestinedtohavetheworldforitstheatre。To-daythewordisinvadedbycivilizationandeverywhereisdevelopingthatsocietywhichlivesuponclassantagonismsandclassdomination，theformofbourgeoisproduction（Japanmayserveusforanexample。）Theco-existenceofthetwonationsinoneandthesamestate，whichthedivinePlatohadalreadydescribed，isperpetuated。Theearthwillnotbewonovertocommunismto-morrow。Butastheconfinesofthebourgeoisworldenlarge，morenumerousarethosewhoenterintoit，abandoningandleavingbehindthelowerformsofproduction，——andthustheattemptofcommunismgainsinfirmnessandprecision。especiallybecauseinthedomainandstruggleofcompetition，thedeviationsduetoconquestandcolonizationarediminishing。TheproletarianInternational，whileembryonicintheCommunistLeagueoffiftyyearsago，henceforthbecomesInteroceanicanditaffirmsonthefirstofveryMaythattheproletariansofthewholewordarereallyandactivelyunited。Thefuturegrave-diggersofthebourgeoisieandtheirdescendantstomanygenerationswilleverrememberthedateoftheCommunistManifesto。
NOTES
1。IrefertothatformwhichtheManifestodesignatesironicallyunderthenameof\"Germanor’True’Socialism。\"Thisparagraph，whichisunintelligibleforthosewhoarenotwellversedintheGermanphilosophyofthatepoch，notablyincertainofitstendenciesmarkedbyacutedegeneracy，has，withgoodreason，beensurpressedintheSpanishtranslation。
2。Itisbettertousetheexpression\"democraticsocializationofthemeansofproduction\"thanthatof\"collectiveproperty\"
becausethelatterimpliesacertaintheoreticalerrorinthat，tobeginwith，itsubstitutesfortherealeconomicfactajuridicalexpressionandmoreoverinthemindofmorethanoneitisconfusedwiththeincreaseofmonopolies，withtheincreasingstatizationofpublicutilitiesandwithalltheotherfantasmagoriaoftheeverrecurringStatesocialism，thewholeeffectofwhichistoincreasetheeconomicmeansofoppressioninthehandsoftheoppressingclass。
3。Twenty-fiveoctavopagesintheoriginaledition（London，February，1848）foracopyofwhichIamindebtedtothespecialkindnessofEngels。
IshouldsayhereinpassingthatIhaveresistedthetemptationtoaffixanybibliographicalnotes，referencesandcitations，forIshouldthenhavebeenmakingaworkofscholarship，orabook，ratherthanasimpleessay。
Ihopethereaderwilltakemywordforitthatthereareinthisessaynoallusions，orstatementsoffactoropinion，whichIcouldnotsubstantiatewithauthorities。
4。The\"UmrissezueinerKritikderNational-oekonomie\"appearedintheGerman-FrenchYearBook，Paris，1844，pp。85-114；andhisbookonTheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEnglandatLeipzigin1845。
5。Intheselastyearsmanyjuristshavethoughttheyfoundinthere-adjustmentofthecivilCodeapracticalmeansforamelioratingtheconditionoftheproletariat。Butwhyhavetheynotaskedthepopetobecometheheadofthefreethoughtleague？ThemostdelightfuloftheseisthatItalianauthorwhooccupyinghimselfwiththeclassstruggleasksthatbythesideofthecodewhichestablishestherightsofcapitalanotherbeelaboratedwhichshouldguaranteetherightsoflabor。
6。ThisdevelopmenthasbeengiveninMarx’sCapitalwhichcanbeconsideredasaphilosophyofhistory。
7。ItwasnotuntilafterthepublicationoftheItalianeditionofthisessaythatIhadatmaydisposalforsomemonthsacompletecollectionoftheNeueRheinischeZeitungforwhichIoweheartythankstothePartei-ArchivofBerlin。Theimpressionderivedfromthisreadingsurpassesexpectation。
Itisdesirableeitherthatthisjournalwhichnowhasbecomeveryrare，bereprintedentireorthatthemostimportantarticlesandlettersinitbereproduced。
8。MiseredelaPhilosophie，byKarlMarx，ParisandBrussels，1847；newedition，Paris，GiardandBriere，1896。
9。Thisismadeupofarticleswhichappearedin1849intheNeueRheinischeZeitungandwhichreproducedthelecturesgivenbyMarxtotheGermanWorkingmen’sCircleofBrusselsin1847。Ithassincebeenpublishedasapropagandaleaflet。
10。SeeChapterIIoftheManifesto。
11。Zü；rKritikderpolitischenOekonomie，Berlin，1859，pp。
IV-VIofthepreface。（InsteadofretranslatingthisextractfromtheFrenchIhaveavailedmyselfoftheassistanceofComradeHitch，whohastranslateddirectfromtheGermanofMarx。
12。ThesearticleswhichappearedintheNeueRheinischePolitischokonomischeReview，Hamburg，1850，haverecentlybeenbroughttogetherintoapamphletbyEngels（Berlin，1895）underthetitleofDieKlassenkampfeinFrankreich1848bis1850。ThislittleworkhasaprefacebyEngels。
13。AppearedforthefirsttimeinNewYorkin1852inareview。SeveraleditionshavesincebeenmadeinGermany。AFrenchtranslationappearedin1891publishedbyDelory，Lille。
14。IntheprefacetotheClassStruggleinFrancein1848-50andelsewhereEngelstreatedfundamentallytheobjectivedevelopmentofthenewrevolutionarytactic。（ItiswelltorememberthatthefirstItalianeditionofthisessayappearedJune18th，andthesecond，October15，1895。
15。InmyopinionthisisthecaseinFrance。TherecentdiscussionsoftheagrarianprogrammesubmittedtothedeliberationsofthesocialdemocracyinGermanyconfirmthereasonswhichIhaveindicated。
16。ItwasotherwiseinGermany。After1830socialismwasimportedthereandbecameacurrentliterature；itunderwentphilosophicalalterationsofwhichGruenwasthetypicalrepresentative。Butalreadybeforethenewdoctrinesocialismhadreceivedacharacteristicimprintwhichwasproletarian，thankstothepropagandaandthewritingsofWeitling。AsMarxsaidin1844intheParisVorwaerts，\"itwasthegiantinthecradle。\"
17。ItiswhatmanypeoplecallMarxism。Marxismisandremainsadoctrine。
Partiescandrawneithertheirnamenorthejustificationfromadoctrine。
\"IamnoMarxist\"said——guesswho？Marxhimself。
18。ItishewhoestablishedthefirstrelationsbetweenMarxandtheLeagueandwhoservedastheintermediaryinthepublicationoftheManifesto。
Hefellintheinsurrectionof1849atMurg。
19。Marx’sCapital，Vol。III，Hamburg，1894，pp。xix-xx。Thedateof1845refersprincipallytothebookDieheiligeFamilie，Frankfort，1845，whichwasproducedincollaborationbyMarxandAngels。Thisbookisindispensabletoanunderstandingofthetheoreticaloriginofhistoricalmaterialism。
20。IstopwithCabetwholivedattheepochoftheManifesto。
IdonotthinkIoughttogoasfarasthesporadicformsofBellamyandHertzka。
21。TheBalzacofthe17thcentury。
22。ItisthesewriterswhomMengerthoughthehaddiscoveredastheauthorsofscientificsocialism。
23。Itisforthisreasonthatcertaincritics，Wieserforexample，proposetoabandonRicardo’stheoryofvaluebecauseitleadstosocialism。
24。ThustherearisesnotablyinFrancetheillusionofasocialmonarchywhich，succeedingtheliberalepoch，shouldsolveharmoniouslywhatiscalledthesocialquestion。ThisabsurdityreproducesitselfininfinitevarietiesofsocialismofthepulpitandStatesocialism。Tothedifferentformsofideologicalandreligiousutopianismisjoinedanewformofbureaucraticandfiscalutopianism，theUtopiaoftheidiots。
25。ForexampleintheessaysofTh。Rogers。
26。WhowouldhavethoughtafewyearsagoofthediscoveryandtheauthenticinterpretationofanancientBabylonianlaw？
27。Note189，p。740，ofthe3rdGermanedition。
Part2：
HistoricalmaterialismI
Thisclassofstudies，likemanyothers，butthismorethananyother，isconfrontedwithagreatdifficulty，indeedanirksomehindrance，inthatviceofmindseducatedbyliterarymethodsalonewhichisordinarilycalledverbalism。Thisbadhabitcreepsintoandspreadsitselfthroughalldomainsofknowledge；butinstudieswhichrelatetotheso-calledmoralworld，thatistosay，tothehistorico-socialcomplexus，itveryoftenhappensthatthecultandthedominionofwordssucceedincorruptingandblottingouttherealandlivingsenseofthings。
Inthefieldwherealongobservation，repeatedexperiences，thecertainuseofimprovedinstruments，thegeneralorpartialapplicationofthecalculushaveresultedinputtingthemindintoaconstantandmethodicalrelationwiththingsandtheirvariations，asinthenaturalsciencesproperlyso-called——therethemythandsuperstitionofwordsareleftbehindandvanquished；
therethequestionsofterminologynolongerhavemorethanthesecondaryvalueofpureconvention。Inthestudyofhumanrelationsandactions，onthecontrary，thepassions，theinterests，theprejudicesofschool，sect，classandreligion，theliteraryabuseofthetraditionalmeansofrepresentingthought，andscholasticism，evervanquishedandalwaysreborn，concealtheactualthings，ortransformtheminvoluntarilyintoterms，intowords，intoabstractandconventionalfashionsofspeech。
Wemust，firstofall，takeaccountofthisdifficultywhenweusetheexpressionortheformula\"materialisticconceptionofhistory。\"
Manyhaveimagined，doimagine，andwillimaginethatitispossibleandconvenienttopenetrateintothesenseofthephrasebythesimpleanalysisofthewordswhichcomposeitinsteadofarrivingatitfromthecontextofanexplanation，fromthegeneticstudyoftheformationofthedoctrine，（1*）
orfromthepolemicalwritingsinwhichitspartisansrefutetheobjectionsofitsopponents。Verbalismtendsalwaystoshutitselfupinpurelyformaldefinitions；itgivesriseinthemindstothiserroneousbelief，thatitisaneasythingtoreduceintotermsandintosimpleandpalpableexpressionstheagitatedandimmensecomplexusofnatureandhistoryandthatitiseasytopicturethemultiformandcomplicatedinterlacingsofcausesandeffects；
inclearerterms，itobliteratesthemeaningoftheproblemsbecauseitseesinthemnothingbutquestionsofnomenclature。
If，moreover，itthenhappensthatverbalismfindsasupportincertaintheoreticalhypotheses，forexample，thatmatterindicatessomethingwhichisbeloworopposedtoanotherhigherornoblerthingwhichiscalledspirit；
orifithappenstobeatonewiththatliteraryhabitwhichopposesthewordmaterialism，understoodinadisparagingsense，toallthat，inaword，iscalledidealism，thatistosay，tothesumtotaloftheanti-egoisticinclinationsandacts；thenourembarrassmentisextreme！Thenwearetoldthatinthisdoctrineitisattemptedtoexplainthewholeofmanbythemerecalculationofhismaterialinterestsandthatnovaluewhateverisallowedtoanyidealinterest。Theinexperience，theincapacityandthehasteofcertainpartisansandpropagandistsofthisdoctrinehavealsobeenacauseoftheseconfusions。Intheireagernesstoexplaintootherswhattheythemselvesonlyhalfunderstand，atatimewhenthedoctrineitselfisonlyinitsbeginningsandstillhasneedofmanydevelopments，theyhavebelievedtheycouldapplyit，suchasitwas，towhateverhistoricfacttheywereconsidering，andtheyhavealmostreducedittotatters，exposingitthustotheeasycriticismandtheridiculeofpeopleonthewatchforscientificnovelties，andotheridlepersonsofthesametype。
Sinceithasbeenmyprivilegeinthesefirstpagessimplytorebuttheseprejudices（inapreliminaryfashion）andunmasktheintentionsandthetendenciesunderlyingthem，itmustberememberedthatthemeaningofthisdoctrineought，beforeallelse，tobedrawnfromthepositionwhichittakesandoccupieswithregardtothedoctrinesagainstwhichitisinrealityopposed，andparticularlywithregardtotheideologiesofeverysort；——thattheproofofitsvalueconsistsexclusivelyinthemoresuitableandmoreappropriateexplanationofthesuccessionofhumaneventswhichisderivedfromit；——
thatthisdoctrinedoesnotimplyasubjectivepreferenceforacertainqualityoracertainsumofhumaninterestsopposedbyfreechoicetootherinterests，butthatitmerelyaffirmstheobjectivecoordinationandsubordinationofallinterestsinthedevelopmentofallsociety；andthisitaffirms，thankstothatgeneticprocessuswhichconsistsingoingfromtheconditionstotheconditioned，fromtheelementsofformationtothethingsformed。
Lettheverbalistsreasonastheylikeoverthevalueofthewordmatterinsofarasitimpliesorrecallsametaphysicalconception，orinsofarasitistheexpressionofthelasthypotheticalsubstratumofexperience。
Wearenothereinthedomainofphysics，chemistryorbiology；weareonlysearchingfortheexplicitconditionsofhumanassociationinsofarasitisnolongersimplyanimal。Itisnotforustosupportourinductionsorourdeductionsuponthedataofbiology，but，onthecontrary，torecognizebeforeallelsethepeculiaritiesofhumanassociation，whichformanddevelopthroughthesuccessionandthegrowingperfectionoftheactivityofmanhimselfingivenandvariableconditions，andtofindtherelationsofco-ordinationandsubordinationoftheneedswhicharethesubstratumofwillandaction。
Itisnotproposedtodiscoveranintentionnortoformulateacriticism；
itismerelythenecessityarisingfromthefactsthatmustbeputinevidence。
Andasmen，notbyfreechoice，butbecausetheycouldnotactotherwise，satisfyfirstcertainelementaryneeds，which，intheirturn，giverisetoothersintheirupwarddevelopment，andasforthesatisfactionoftheirneeds，whatevertheymaybe，theyinventandemploycertainmeansandcertaintoolsandassociatethemselvesincertaindefinitefashions，thematerialismofhistoricalinterpretationisnothingelsethananattempttoreconstructbythoughtwithmethodthegenesisandthecomplexityofthesociallifewhichdevelopsthroughtheages。Thenoveltyofthisdoctrinedoesnotdifferfromthatofalltheotherdoctrineswhichaftermanyexcursionsthroughthedomainsoftheimaginationhavefinallyarrived，verypainfully，atreachingtheproseofrealityandhaltingthere。
II
Thereisacertainaffinity，apparentlyatleast，betweenthatformalviceofverbalismandanotherdefectofthemind，whoseoriginsmay，however，bevaried。InconsiderationofsomeofitsmostcommonandpopulareffectsIwillcallitphraseology，althoughthiswordisnotanexactexpressionofthethinganddoesnotsetforthitsorigin。
Forlongcenturiesmenhavewrittenonhistory，haveexplainedit，haveillustratedit。Themostvariedinterests，fromtheinterestsmoreimmediatelypracticaltotheinterestspurelyesthetic，havemoveddifferentwriterstoconceiveandtoexecutethistypeofcomposition。Thesedifferenttypeshavealwaystakenbirthindifferentcountrieslongaftertheoriginsofcivilization，ofthedevelopmentofthestateandofthepassagefromtheprimitivecommunistsocietytothesocietywhichrestsuponclassdifferencesandclassantagonisms。Thehistorians，eveniftheyhavebeenasartlessasHerodotus，werealwaysbornandformedinasocietyhavingnothingingenuousinit，butverycomplicatedandcomplex，andatatimewhenthereasonsforthiscomplicationandcomplexitywereunknownandtheiroriginsforgotten。
Thiscomplexity，withallthecontrastswhichitbearswithinitselfandwhichitrevealslaterandmakesburstforthinitsvariousvicissitudes，stoodforthbeforethenarratorsassomethingmysteriousandcallingforanexplanation，andifthehistorianwishedtogivesomesequenceandacertainconnectiontothethingsnarrated，hewasobligedtoaddcertaingeneralviewstothesimplenarration。FromthejealousyofthegodsofFatherHerodotustotheenvironmentofM。Taine，aninfinitenumberofconceptsservingasmeansofexplanationandascomplementstothethingsrelatedhavebeenimposeduponthenarratorsbythenaturalvoicesoftheirimmediatethought。Classtendencies，religiousideas，popularprejudices，influencesorimitationsofacurrentphilosophy，excursionsofimaginationandadesiretogiveanartisticappearancetofactsknownonlyinafragmentaryfashion，allthesecausesandotheranalogouscauseshavecontributedtoformthesubstratumofthemoreorlessartlesstheoryofeventswhichisimplicitlyatthebottomofthenarration，orwhichservesatleasttoflavorandadornit。Whethermenspeakofchanceorofdestiny，whethertheyappealtotheprovidentialdirectionofhumaneventsoradheretothewordandconceptofchance，theonlydivinityleftintherigidandoftencoarseconceptionofMachiavelli，orwhethertheyspeak，asisfrequentenoughatthepresenttime，ofthelogicofevents，alltheseconceptionswereandareeffectsandresultsofingenuousthought，ofimmediatethought，ofthoughtwhichcannotjustifytoitselfitscourse，anditsproducts，eitherbythepathsofcriticismorbythemethodsofexperience。Tofillupwithconventionalcauses（e。g。，chance）orwithastatementoftheoreticalplausibility（e。g。，theinevitablecourseofeventswhichsometimesisconfusedinthemindwiththenotionofprogressthegapsofourknowledgeastothefashioninwhichthingshavebeenactuallyproducedbytheirownnecessitywithoutcareforourfreewinandourconsent，thatisthemotiveandtheresultofthispopularphilosophy，latentorexplicit，inthechroniclers，whichbyreasonofitssuperficialcharacterdissolvesassoonasscientificcriticismappears。
Inalltheseconceptsandalltheseimaginingswhichinthelightofcriticismappearassimpleprovisionaldevicesandeffectsofanunripethought，butwhichoftenseemto\"culturedpeople\"thenonplusultraofintelligence——inalltheseagreatpartofthehumanprocessusisrevealedandreflected；
and，consequently。Weshouldnotconsiderthemasgratuitousinventionsnorasproductsofamomentaryillusion。Theyareapartandamomentinthedevelopmentofwhatwecallthehumanmind。Iflateritisobservedthattheseconceptsandtheseimaginingsaremingledandconfoundedintheacceptedopinionsofculturedpeople，orofthosewhopassforsuch，theymakeupanimmensemassofprejudicesandtheyconstituteanimpedimentwhichignoranceopposestotheclearandcompletevisionoftherealthings。Theseprejudicesturnupagainasetymologicalderivationsinthelanguageofprofessionalpoliticians，ofso-calledpublicistsandjournalistsofeverykind，andofferthesupportofrhetorictoself-styledpublicopinion。
Toopposeandthentoreplacethismirageofuncriticalconceptions，theseidolsoftheimagination，theseeffectsofliteraryartifice，thisconventionalismbytherealsubjects，ortheforceswhicharepositivelyacting——thatistosay，menintheirvariousanddiversifiedsocialrelations——thisistherevolutionaryenterpriseandthescientificaimofthenewdoctrinewhichrendersobjectiveandImightsaynaturalizestheexplanationofthehistoricalprocessus。
Acertaindefinitenation，thatistosay，notacertainmassofindividuals，butaplexusofmenorganizedinsuchandsuchafashionbynaturalrelationsofconsanguinity，orfollowingsuchorsuchanartificialorcustomaryorderofrelationshipandaffinity，orbyreasonofpermanentproximity；——thisnation，onacertaincircumscribedandlimitedterritory，havingsuchandsuchfertility，productiveinsuchandsuchamanneracquiredthroughcertaindefiniteformsbycontinuouslabor；——thisnation，thusdistributedoverthisterritoryandthusdividedandarticulatedbytheeffectofadefinitedivisionoflaborwhichisscarcelybeginningtogivebirthtoorwhichhasalreadydevelopedandripenedsuchandsuchadivisionofclasses，orwhichhasalreadydisintegratedortransformedawholeseriesofclasses；——thisnationwhichpossessessuchandsuchinstrumentsfromtheflintstonetotheelectriclightandfromthebowandarrowtotherepeatingrifle，whichproducesaccordingtoacertainfashionandsharesitsproductsconformablytoitswayofproducing；——thisnation，whichbyalltheserelationsconstitutesasocietyinwhicheitherbyhabitsofmutualaccommodationorbyexplicitconventions，orbyactsofviolencesufferedandendured，hasalreadygivenbirth，orisonthepointofgivingbirthtolegal-politicalrelationswhichresultintheformationofthestate；——thisnation，whichbytheorganizationofthestate，whichisonlyameansforfixing，defendingandperpetuatinginequalities，byreasonoftheantagonismswhichitbearswithinitself，renderscontinuouslyunstabletheorganizationitself，whenceresultthepoliticalmovementsandrevolutions，andthereforethereasonsforprogressandretrogression；——thereisthesumofwhatisatthebottomofallhistory。
Andthereisthevictoryofrealisticproseoverallthefantasticandideologicalcombinations。
Certainlyitrequiressomeresignationtoseethingsastheyare，passingbeyondthephantomswhichforcenturieshavepreventedrightvision。Butthisrevelationofrealisticdoctrinewasnotandisnotdesignedtobetherebellionofthematerialmanagainsttheidealman。Ithasbeenandis，onthecontrary，thediscoveryoftheprinciplesandthemotiveswhicharerealandwhichbelongtoallhumandevelopment，includingallthatwecalltheidealinpositiveconditions，determinedbyfactswhichcarryinthemselvesthereasonsandthelawandtherhythmoftheirowndevelopment。
III
Butitwouldbeacompleteerrortobelievethatthewriterswhonarrate，explain，orillustratehavethemselvesinventedandgivenlifetothisenormousmassofunripeconcepts，imaginings，andexplanationswhich，thankstotheforceofprejudice，concealedforcenturiestherealtruth。Itmayhappen，anditcertainlydoeshappen，thatsomeoftheseconceptsarethefruitandtheproductofpersonalviews，orofliterarycurrentsformedinthenarrowprofessionalcircleoftheuniversitiesandacademies。Thepeopleinthiscaseareabsolutelyignorantofthem。Buttheimportantfactisthathistoryitselfhasputontheseveils；thatistosay，thattheveryactorsandworkersofthehistoricevents——greatmassesofpeople，directingandorderingclasses，mastersofstate，sectsorparties，inthenarrowestsenseoftheword，ifwemakeexceptionforanoccasionalmomentoflucidinterval——
neverhaduptotheendofthepastcenturyaconsciousnessoftheirownwork，unlessitbethroughsomeideologicalenvelopewhichpreventedanysightoftherealcauses。Alreadyatthedistantepochwhenbarbarismwaspassingoverintocivilization，thatistosay，whenthefirstdiscoveriesofagriculture，thestableestablishmentofapopulationuponadefiniteterritory，thefirstdivisionoflaborinsociety，thefirstalliancesofdifferentgentes，gavetheconditionsinwhichdevelopedpropertyandthestate，oratleastthecity——eventhen，attheepochofallthefirstsocialrevolutions，menideallytransformedtheirwork，seeinginitthemiraculousactsofgodsandheroes。Somuchsothat，whileactingastheycouldandastheymust，grantedthenecessityandthefactoftheirrelativeeconomicdevelopment，theyconceivedanexplanationoftheirownworkasifitdidnotbelongtothem。Thisideologicalenvelopeofhumanworkshaschangedsincethenmorethanonceinform，inappearance，incombinationsandinrelationsinthecourseofthecenturies，fromtheimmediateproductionoftheingenuousmythsuptothecomplicatedtheologicalsystemsandtoTheCityofGodofSt。Augustine——fromthesuperstitiouscredulityinmiraclesdowntothebewilderingmiraclesofthemetaphysicians，thatistosay，downtotheIdeawhichforthedecadentsofHegelianismengendersofitself，initself，byitsowndisaggregation，themostincongruousvariationsofsociallifeinthecourseofhistory。
Now，preciselybecausethevisualangleofideologicalinterpretationhasnotbeenfinallyoutgrownuntilverylately，andbecauseitisonlyinourdaysthatasumtotaloftherealandreallyactingrelationshasbeenclearlydistinguishedfromtheingenuousreflectionsofmythandthemoreartificialreflectionsofreligionandmetaphysics，ourdoctrinestatesanewproblemandcarrieswithinitselfgravedifficultiesforwhoeverwishestofititforprovidingaspecificexplanationofthehistoryofthepast。
Theproblemconsistsinthis：thatourdoctrinenecessitatesanewcriticismofthesourcesofhistory。AndIdonotwishtobeunderstoodasspeakingexclusivelyofthecriticismofdocumentsintheproperandordinarysenseoftheword，becauseasforthiswemaycontentourselveswithwhatisdeliveredtousreadymadebythecritics，thescholars，andtheprofessionalphilologists。
ButIwouldspeakofthatimmediatesourcewhichisbehindthesocalleddocumentsproperlyandwhich，beforeexpressingitselfandfixingitselfinthese，residesinthespiritandintheformoftheconsciousnessinwhichtheactorsaccountedtothemselvesforthemotivesoftheirownwork。Thisspirit，thatistosay，thisconsciousness，isofteninadequatetothecauseswhichwearenowinapositiontodiscover，fromwhichitfollowsthattheactorsseemtousenveloped，asitwere，inacircleofillusions。Tostripthehistoricfactsfromtheseenvelopeswhichclothetheveryfactswhiletheyaredeveloping——thisistomakeanewcriticismofthesourcesintherealisticsenseofthewordandnotintheformaldocumentarysense。
Itis，inshort，tomakereactupontheknowledgeofpastconditionstheconsciousnessofwhichwearenowcapable，andtherebytoreconstructthemanew。
Butthisrevisionofthemostdirectsources，ifitmarkstheextremelimitofthehistoricself-consciousnesswhichmaybereached，maybeanoccasionforfallingintoaseriouserror。Asweplaceourselvesatapointofviewwhichisbeyondtheideologicalviewstowhichtheactorsinhistorywereindebtedforaconsciousnessoftheirworkandinwhichtheyoftenfoundboththemotivesandthejustificationoftheiraction，wemayfalselybelievethattheseideologicalviewswereapureappearance，asimpleartifice，apureillusioninthevulgarsenseoftheword。MartinLuther，liketheothergreatreformers，hiscontemporaries，neverknew，asweknowto-day，thattheReformationwasbutanepisodeinthedevelopmentoftheThirdEstate，andaneconomicrevoltoftheGermannationagainsttheexploitationofthePapalcourt。Hewaswhathewas，asanagitatorandapolitician，becausehewaswhollytakenupwiththebeliefwhichmadehimseeintheclassmovementwhichgaveanimpulsetotheagitationareturntotrueChristianityandadivinenecessityinthevulgarcourseofevents。Thestudyofremoteeffects，thatistosay，theincreasingstrengthofthebourgeoisieofthecitiesagainstthefeudallords，theincreaseoftheterritorialdominionoftheprincesattheexpenseoftheinter-territorialandsuper-territorialpoweroftheemperorandthepope，theviolentrepressionofthemovementofthepeasantsandthemoreproperlyproletarianmovementoftheAnabaptistspermitusnowtoreconstructtheauthentichistoryoftheeconomiccausesoftheReformation，particularlyinthefinalproportionswhichittook，whichisthebestofproofs。Butthatdoesnotmeanthatweareprivilegedtodetachthefactarrivedatfromthemodeofitsrealizationandtoanalyzethecircumstantialintegralitybyaposthumousanalysisaltogethersubjectiveandsimplified。
Theinnercauses，or，aswouldbesaidnow，theprofaneandprosaicmotivesoftheReformation，appeartousclearlyinFrance，whereitwasnotvictorious；
clearlyagainintheLowCountries，where，apartfromthedifferencesofnationality，thecontrastsofeconomicinterestsareshownstrikinglyinthestruggleagainstSpain；veryclearlyagaininEngland，wherethereligiousrenovationrealized，thankstopoliticalviolence，placedinfulllightthepassagetothoseconditionswhichareforourmodernbourgeoisietheforerunnersofcapitalism。Postfactum，andafterthetardyrealizationofunforeseenconsequences，thehistoryoftherealmovementswhichweretheinnercausesoftheReformation，ingreatpartunknowntotheactorsthemselves，willappearinfulllight。Butthatthefactcameaboutpreciselyasitdidcomeabout，thatittookoncertaindeterminedforms，thatitclotheditselfincertainvestments，thatitpainteditselfincertaincolors，thatitputinmovementcertainpassions，thatitdisplayedaspecialdegreeoffanaticism——intheseconsistitsspecificcharacter，whichnoanalyticabilitycanmakeotherwisethanasitwas。Onlytheloveofparadoxinseparablefromthezealofthepassionatepopularizersofanewdoctrinecanhavebroughtsometobelievethattowritehistoryitwassufficienttoputonrecordmerelytheeconomicmoment（oftenstillunknownandoftenunknowable），andthereupontocasttotheearthalltherestasauselessburdenwithwhichmenhadcapriciouslyloadedthemselves，asasuperfluity，ameretrifle，oreven，asitwere，somethingnotexistent。
Fromthefactthathistorymustbetakeninitsentiretyandthatinitthekernelandthehuskarebutone，asGoethesaidofallthings，threeconsequencesfollow：
First，itisevidentthatinthedomainofhistorico-socialdeterminism，thelinkingofcausestoeffects，ofconditionstothethingsconditioned，ofantecedentstoconsequents，isneverevidentatfirstsightinthesubjectivedeterminismofindividualpsychology。Inthislastdomainitwasarelativelyeasythingforabstractandformalphilosophytodiscover，passingaboveallthebaublesoffatalismandfreewill，theevidenceofthemotiveineveryvolition，because，infine，thereisnowishwithoutitsdeterminingmotive。Butbeneaththemotivesandthewishthereisthegenesisofboth，andtoreconstructthisgenesiswemustleavetheclosedfieldofconsciousnesstoarriveattheanalysisofthesimplenecessities，which，ontheoneside，arederivedfromsocialconditions，andontheothersidearelostintheobscurebackgroundoforganicdispositions，inancestryandinatavism。Itisnototherwisewithhistoricaldeterminism，where，inthesameway，webeginwithmotivesreligious，political，aesthetic，passionate，etc。，butwherewemustsubsequentlydiscoverthecausesofthesemotivesinthematerialconditionsunderlyingthem。Nowthestudyoftheseconditionsshouldbesospecifiedthatwemayperceiveindubitablynotonlywhatarethecauses，butagainbywhatmediationstheyarriveatthatformwhichrevealsthemtotheconsciousnessasmotiveswhoseoriginisoftenobliterated。
Andthencefollowsindubitablythissecondconsequencesthatinourdoctrinewehavenottore-translateintoeconomiccategoriesallthecomplexmanifestationsofhistory，butonlytoexplaininthelastanalysis（Engels）allthehistoricfactsbymeansoftheunderlyingeconomicstructure（Marx），whichnecessitatesanalysisandreductionandtheninterlinkingandconstruction。
Itresultsfromthis，inthethirdplace，that，passingfromtheunderlyingeconomicstructuretothepicturesquewholeofagivenhistory，weneedtheaidofthatcomplexusofnotionsandknowledgewhichmaybecalled，forlackofabetterterm，socialpsychology。Idonotmeanbythattoalludetothefantasticexistenceofasocialpsychenortotheconceptofanassumedcollectivespiritwhichbyitsownlaws，independentoftheconsciousnessofindividualsandoftheirmaterialanddefinablerelations，realizesitselfandshowsitselfinsociallife。Thatispuremysticism。NeitherdoIwishtoalludetothoseattemptsatgeneralizationwhichfilluptreatisesonsocialpsychologyandthegeneralideaofwhichistotransportandapplytoasubjectwhichiscalledsocialconsciousnesstheknowncategoriesandformsofindividualpsychology。NoragaindoIwishtoalludetothatmassofsemi-organicandsemi-psychologicaldenominationsbytheaidofwhichsomeattributetothesocialbeing，asSchaeffledoes，abrain，aspinalcolumn，sensibility，sentiment，conscience，will，etc。ButIwishtospeakofmoremodestandmoreprosaicthings，thatistosay，ofthoseconcreteandprecisestatesofmindwhichmakeusknowastheyreallyweretheplebeiansofRomeatacertainepoch，theartisansofFlorenceatthemomentwhenthemovementoftheCiompiburstforth，orthosepeasantsofFrancewithinwhomwasengendered，tofollowTaine’sexpression，the\"spontaneousanarchy\"of1789，thosepeasantswhofinallybecamefreelaborersandsmallproprietors，or，aspiringtoproperty，transformedthemselvesrapidlyfromvictorsovertheforeignerintoautomaticinstrumentsofreaction。Thissocialpsychology，whichnoonecanreducetoabstractcanonsbecause，inmostcases，itismerelydescriptive，thisiswhatthechroniclers，theorators，theartists，theromancersandtheideologistsofeverysorthaveseenanduptonowhaveconceivedastheexclusiveobjectoftheirstudies。Inthispsychology，whichisthespecificconsciousnessofmeningivensocialcondition，theagitators，oratorsandpropagandiststrusttoday，andtoittheyappeal。Weknowthatitisthefruit，theoutcome，theeffectofcertainsocialconditionsactuallydetermined——thisclass，inthissituation，determinedbythefunctionswhichitfulfills，bythesubjectioninwhichitisheld，bythedominionwhichitexercises；andfinally，theseclasses，thesefunctions，thissubjectionandthisdominioninvolvesuchandsuchadeterminedformofproductionanddistributionoftheimmediatemeansoflife，thatistosay，adeterminedeconomicstructure。Thissocialpsychology，byitsnaturealwayscircumstantial，isnottheexpressionoftheabstractandgenericprocessoftheself-styledhumanintellect。Itisalwaysaspecifiedformationfromspecifiedconditions。Weholdthisprincipletobeindisputable，thatitisnottheformsofconsciousnesswhichdeterminethehumanbeing，butitisthemannerofbeingwhichdeterminestheconsciousness（Marx）。
Buttheseformsofconsciousness，evenastheyaredeterminedbytheconditionsoflife，constituteinthemselvesalsoapartofhistory。Thisdoesnotconsistonlyintheeconomicanatomy，butinallthatcombinationwhichclothesandcoversthatanatomyevenuptothemulticoloredreflectionsoftheimagination。
Inotherwords，thereisnofactinhistorywhichdoesnotrecallbyitsorigintheconditionsoftheunderlyingeconomicstructure，butthereisnofactinhistorywhichisnotpreceded，accompaniedandfollowedbydeterminedformsofconsciousness，whetheritbesuperstitiousorexperimental，ingenuousorreflective，impulsiveorself-controlled，fantasticorreasoning。