Greatandsuccessfulinwarandpolicy，intouchwiththenoblestinfluencesinthelifeofthetime，Llywelynappliedhimselftoonelasttask。Hiscompanionsandallieshadnearlyalldiedbeforehim；
buthewishedthatthepeaceandunity，whichtheyhadestablished，shouldliveafterthem。Hehadtwosons——Griffith，whowasthechampionofindependence；andDavid，whowishedforpeacewithEngland。LlywelynlaidmorestressonstronggovernmentathomethanontherepudiationoffeudalallegiancetotheKingofEngland。SohepersuadedthecouncilofprincesatStrataFloridatoacceptDavidashissuccessor。
CHAPTERXI——THELASTLLYWELYN
DavidII。，amildandwell—meaningprince，wastooweaktocarryhisfather’spolicyout。Hetriedtomaintainpeace，anddidhomagetohisuncle，theKingofEngland。But，astheheadofthepatrioticparty，hismoreenergeticbrother，Griffith，opposedhim。ByguilehecaughtGriffith，andshuthiminacastleontherockofCriccieth。TheotherprincesshookofftheyokeofGwynedd，andHenryIII。triedtoplaythebrothersagainsteachother。DavidsentGriffithtoHenry，whoputhimintheTowerofLondon。Intryingtoescape，hisropebroke，andhefelltothegrounddead。Soonafterwards，in1246，inthemiddleofawarwithHenry，Daviddiedofabrokenheart。
ThesonsofGriffith——Owen，Llywelyn，andDavid——atoncetooktheiruncle’splace；andby1255LlywelynapGriffithwassoleruler。BythatyearHenryIII。hadgivenhisyoungsonEdwardtheearldomofChester，whichhadfallentothecrown，andthelandsbetweentheDeeandtheConway，whichheclaimedbyatreatywiththedeadGriffith。
ThusEdwardandLlywelynbegantheirlongstruggle。
Between1255and1267Llywelyntriestorecoverhisgrandfather’spositioninWales。In1255hispowerextendedoverGwyneddonly。HefounditeasytoextenditovermostofWales，becausetheruleoftheEnglishofficialsmadetheWelshchiefslongfortheprotectionofGwynedd。TheBarons’WarparalysedthepoweroftheKing，andLlywelynmadeanalliancewithSimondeMontfortandthebarons。
EvenafterMontfort’sfallin1265thebaronsweresopowerfulthattheKingwasstillattheirmercy。In1267Llywelyn’spositionasPrinceofWaleswasrecognisedintheTreatyofMontgomery。HisswayextendedfromSnowdontotheDeeontheeast，andtotheTeivyandtheBeaconsonthesouth——practicallythewholeofmodernWales，exceptthesouthernseaboard。WithinthesewideboundsalltheWelshbaronsweretoswearfealtytoLlywelyn，theonlyexceptionbeingMeredithapReesofDeheubarth。
ThesecondstruggleofLlywelyn’sreigntookplacebetween1267and1277。Hetriedtoweldhislandintoacloserunion，andmanyofthechiefsofthesouthandeastbecamewillingtocallintheEnglishKing。Twoofthem，hisownbrotherDavidandGriffithofPowys，fledtoEngland，andwerereceivedbyEdward，whohadbeenkingsince1272。LlywelynandEdwarddistrustedeachother。EdwardwishedtouniteBritaininafeudalunity，andtocrushallopponents。
Llywelynthoughtofhelpingthebarons；hemightbecometheirleader。
Eleanor，thedaughterofSimondeMontfort，theoldleaderofthebarons，wasbetrothedtohim。Warbrokeout。Thebarons——ClaresandMortimers，andall——joinedtheKing。Llywelyn’sdominionswereinvadedatallpoints，hisbaronshadtoyield，oneaftertheother；
andfinally，in1277，LlywelynhadtoaccepttheTreatyofRhuddlan。
HisdominionsshrunktotheoldlimitsofSnowdon，hisswayovertherestofWaleswastakenfromhim，andthetitleofPrinceofWaleswastoceasewithhislife。
Thethirdstrugglewasbetween1277and1282。TheruleofthenewofficialsdrovetheWelshtorevolt；andthechiefswhohadopposedLlywelyn，especiallyhisbrotherDavid，beggedforLlywelyn’sprotection。Eleanor，Llywelyn’swifeandEdward’scousin，triedtokeepthepeace，butshediedwhiletheywerearmingforthelastbitterwarof1282。
ItwascomparativelyeasyforEdwardtooverrunPowysorDeheubarth，ifhehadanarmystrongenough。ButatthattimeGwyneddwasalmostimpregnable。FromConwaytoHarlechliesthevastmassofSnowdon，agreatnaturalrampartrunningfromseatosea。Itssteepsideistowardstheeast，andtheinvaderfoundbeforehimheightswhichhecouldnotclimb，androundwhichhecouldnotpass。IfyoustandintheValeofConway，lookatthehillsontheArvonside——thegreatnaturalwallofinmostGwynedd，withitslasttower，thePenmaenMawr，risingrightfromthesea。Thegentleslopesaretothewest，andtherethecornandflocksweresafe。
Edwardhadtoputalargearmyintothefield，anditcosthimmuch。
InthewarwithLlywelynhehadtochangetheEnglisharmyentirely；
and，inordertogetmoney，hehadtoallowtheParliamenttogetlifeandpower。Tocarrysupplies，andtolandmeninAngleseytoturntheflankoftheWelsh，hewantedafleet。Buttherewasnoroyalnavythen，andthefishermenoftheeastcoastandthesouthcoast——whohadnoquarrelwiththeWelsh，butwereveryanxioustofighteachother——werenotwillingtolosetheirfishharvestinordertofightsofaraway。
In1282，Edward’sgreatarmyclosedroundSnowdon。ThechiefsstillfaithfultoLlywelynhadtoyieldorflee。Butwinterwascomingon，andcouldEdwardkeephisarmyinthefield？AnattempthadbeenmadetoenterSnowdonfromAnglesey，buttheEnglishforcewasdestroyedatMoelyDon。ItlookedasifEdwardwouldhavetoretire。LlywelynleftSnowdon，andwenttoCeredigionandtheValeofTowytoputnewheartinhisallies，andfromtherehepassedontothevalleyoftheWye。Hemeant，withoutadoubt，togetthebaronsoftheborder，WelshandEnglish，touniteagainstEdward。
Butinsomechanceskirmishasoldierslewhim，notknowingwhohewas。WhentheyheardthattheirPrincewasfallen，hismeninSnowdonentirelylostheart。TheyhadnofaithinDavid，andinafewmonthsthewholeofWaleswasatEdward’sfeet。
CHAPTERXII——CONQUEREDWALES
ThewarbetweenEdwardandLlywelynwasnotawarbetweenEnglandandWales，aswethinkofthesecountriesnow。SomeofthebestsoldiersunderEdwardwereWelsh，especiallythebowmenwhofollowedtheEarlofGloucesterandRogerMortimerfromtheWyeandSevernvalleys。
ItisnotrightthatweWelshmenshouldfeelbitteragainstEngland，because，inthislastwar，EdwardwonandLlywelynfell。ItiseasytosaythatEdwardwascruelandfaithless，anditiseasytosaythatLlywelynwasshiftyandobstinate；butitisquiteclearthateachofthemthoughtthathewasright。EdwardthoughtthatBritainoughttobeunited：LlywelynthoughtWalesoughttobefree。Now，happily，wehavetheunionandthefreedom。
Ontheotherhand，IshouldnotlikeyoutothinkthatWaleswasmorebarbarousthanEngland，orLlywelynlesscivilisedthanEdwardI。
GiraldusCambrensissawaprincegoingbarefoot，andthefussylittleArchbishopPeckhamsawthatWelshmarriagecustomswerenotwhatheliked；andmanyhistorians，whohaveneverreadalineofWelshpoetry，takeforgrantedthattheconquestofWaleswasanewvictoryforcivilisation。
InmanywaysWaleswasmorecivilisedthanEnglandatthattime。Itslawwasmoresimpleandlessdeveloped，itistrue；butitwasmorejustinmanycases，andcertainlymorehumane。Wasitnotbetterthatthelandshouldbelongtothepeople，andthattheyoungestsonshouldhavethesamechanceastheeldest？And，incrime，wasitnotbetterthatifnoopportunityforatonementwasgiven，thedeathofthecriminalwastobeamercifulone？InthereignofJohn，aWelshhostage，alittleboyofseven，washangedatShrewsbury，becausehisfather，aSouthWaleschief，hadrebelled。InthereignofEdwardI。，themiserableDavidwasdraggedatthetailsofhorsesthroughthestreetsofthesametown，andthetorturesinflictedonthedyingmanweretoohorribletodescribetomodernears。AndwhattheNormanbarondid，hisWelshtenantlearnttodo。InWalesyougetfiercefraysandfrequentsheddingofblood；onthebordersyougetcallouscrueltytoaprisoner，orthedisfiguringofdeadbodies——
eventhatofSimondeMontfort，thegreateststatesmanoftheMiddleAgesinEngland——onthebattlefieldwhenallpassionwasspent。
TaketherulersofWalesagain。GriffithapConanandLlywelyntheGreathadtheenergyandtheforesight，thoughtheirspherewassomuchsmaller，ofHenryII。AndwhatEnglishking，exceptAlfred，attractsoneonaccountoflovablenessofcharacterasOwenGwyneddandOwenCyveiliogandtheLordReesdo？
WhenEdwardenteredintoSnowdon，WelshwasspokentotheDeeandtheSevern，andfarbeyond。Thereweremanydialects，astherearestill，thoughanytwoWelshmencouldunderstandeachotherwherevertheycamefrom，withalittlepatience，astheycanstill。Buttherewasalsoaliterarylanguage，andthiswasunderstood，ifnotspoken，bythechiefsallthroughthecountry。ItwasmoreliketheWelshspokeninmid—Wales——especiallyinthevalleyoftheDovey——thananyother。Therearemanysignsofcivilisation；oneofthemisthepossessionofaliterarylanguage——forromanceandpoem，forcourtandEisteddvod。
ConqueredWalesmaybedividedintotwoparts——theWalesconqueredbytheNormanbaronsandtheWalesconqueredbytheEnglishking。
TheWalesconqueredbytheEnglishkingwasthecountryruledbyLlywelynandhisallies。In1284，bythestatuteofRhuddlan，itwasformedintosixshires。TheSnowdondistrict——whichheldoutlast——
wasmadeintothethreeshiresofAnglesey，Carnarvon，andMerioneth。
ThepartofthelandbetweenConwayandDeethatbelongedtotheking，nottobarons，wasmadeintotheshireofFlint。ThelandsofLlywelyn’salliesbeyondtheDoveyweremadeintotheshiresofCardiganandCarmarthen。InsteadofthechiefsoftheWelshprince，theking’ssheriffsandjusticesruledthecountry。Butmuchoftheoldlawremained。
TheWalesconqueredbytheNormanbaronslaytotheeastandsouthoftheWalesturnedintoshiresin1284。ItincludedthegreaterpartofthevalleysoftheClwyd，Dee，Severn，andWye；andtheSouthWalescoastfromGloucestertoPembroke。ItremainedinthepossessionoflordswhoweresubjecttotheKingofEngland，butwhoruledalmostlikekingsintheirownlordships。Thelawsandcustomsofthevariouslordshipsdifferedgreatly；sometimesthelordusedEnglishlaw，andsometimesWelshlaw。Thegreatrulingfamilieschangedmuchinwealthandpower，fromcenturytocentury。InLlywelyn’stimethemostimportantweretheClares（GloucesterandGlamorgan），theMortimers（WigmoreandChirk），Lacy（Denbigh），Warenne（BromfieldandYale），Fitzalan（Oswestry），Bohun（Brecon），Braose（Gower），andValence（Pembroke）。
LlywelynwasthelastprinceofindependentWales。Fromthattimeon，thetitleisconferredbytheKingofEnglandonhiseldestson，whoisthencrowned。ThepresentPrinceofWalesalsocomes，throughadaughterofLlywelyntheGreat，fromtheHouseofCunedda，theprincesofwhichruledWalesfromRomantimesto1284。Ofallthehousesthathavegonetomaketheroyalhouse，thisisthemostancient。
CHAPTERXIII——CASTLEANDLONG—BOW
SofarIhavetoldyouverylittleaboutwar，exceptthatabattlewasfoughtandlost，oracastlebuiltortaken。
Warhastwosides——attackanddefence。Newwaysofattackinganddefendingarecontinuallydevised。Whentheartofdefenceismoreperfectthantheartofattack，theworldchangesverylittle，forthestrongcankeepwhathehasgained。Whentheartofattackisthemoreperfect，newmenhaveabetterchance，andmanychangesaremade。Thechiefsourceofdefencewasthecastle，thechiefweaponofattackwasthelong—bow。Walescontainsthemostperfectcastlesinthiscountry；itisalsothehomeofthelong—bow。From1066to1284EnglandandWaleswereconquered，andtheconquestwaspermanentbecausecastleswerebuilt。From1284to1461，EnglandandWalesattackedothercountries，andtheweaponwhichgavethemsomanyvictorieswasthelong—bow。
Iwilltellyouaboutthecastlesfirst，abouttheNormancastlesandabouttheEdwardiancastles。
TheNormancastlewasasquarekeep，withwallsofimmensethickness，sometimesof20feet。ButiftheNormanhadtobuildonthetopofahillorontheruinsofanoldcastle，hedidnottrytomakethenewcastlesquare，butalloweditswallstotaketheformofthehilloroftheoldcastle；andthiskindofcastlewascalledashellkeep。
Theouterandinnercasingofthewallwouldbeofdressedstone，themiddlepartwaschieflyrubble。Atfirst，iftheyhadplentyofsupplies，averyfewmencouldholdacastleagainstanarmyaslongastheyliked。ThesewerethecastlesbuiltbytheNormaninvaderstoretaintheirholdovertheWelshdistrictstheyconquered。
Butmanywaysofstormingacastlewerediscovered。Theycouldbescaledbymeansoftallladders，especiallyinastealthynightattack。Stonescouldbethrownoverthewallsbymangonelstoannoythegarrison。Sometimesawallcouldbebroughtdownbyabattering—
ram。Butthequickestandsurestwaywasbymining。Theminersworkedtheirwaytothewall，andthenbegantotakesomeofthestonesoftheoutercasingout，proppingthewallupwithbeamsofwood。Whentheholewasbigenough，theyfilleditwithfirewood；
theygreasedthebeamswell，theysetfiretothemandthenretiredtoasafedistancetoseewhathappened。Whenthegreatwallcrasheddown，thesoldiersswarmedoverittobeatdowntheresistanceofthegarrison。IfeveryougotoAbergavennyCastle，intheValeofUsk，lookatthecleftintherockalongwhichthedaringbesiegersonceclimbed。AndifyougototheValeofTowy，andseeDryslwynCastle，rememberthatthewalloncecamedownbeforetheminersexpected，andthatmanymenwerecrushed。
Inordertopreventmining，manychangesweremade。Moatsweredugroundthecastle，andfilledwithwater。Bratticesweremadealongthetopofthetowers，galleriesthroughthefloorofwhichthedefenderscouldpourboilingpitchonthebesiegers。Thewallswerebuiltatsuchanglesthatawindow，witharcherspostedbehindit，couldcommandeachwall。Strongertowerswerebuilt——roundtowerswithacopingateachstorey，solidasarock，whichwouldcrackandleanwithoutfalling；thereisaleaningtoweratCaerphillyCastle。
OneotherwayImustmention——thechildorthewifeofthecastellanwouldbebroughtbeforethewalls，andhangedbeforehiseyesunlessheopenedthegates。
ThenewerorEdwardiancastles，thoseofthereignsofHenryIII。andEdwardI。，areconcentric——thatis，thereareseveralcastlesinone；
sothatthebesiegers，whentheyhadtakenonecastle，foundthemselvesfacetofacewithanother，stillstronger，perhaps，insideit。Ofthesecastles，themostelaborateisthecastleofCaerphilly，builtbyGilbertdeClare，theRedEarlofGloucesterwhohelpedEdwardintheWelshwars。Anditwasbymeansofthesemagnificentconcentriccastles——Conway，Beaumaris，Carnarvon，andHarlech——thatEdwardhopedtokeepWales。
Therearemanykindsofbows。Inwartwowereused——thecross—bowandthelong—bow。Thecross—bowwasmeantatfirstforthedefenceoftowns，likeGenoaorthetownsofCastile。Sostrengthwasmoreimportantthanlightness，andthearcherhadtimetotakeaim。Itwasabowonacrosspieceofwood，alongwhichthestringwasdrawnbackpegafterpegbymechanism。Thebowwasthenheldtothebreast，andthearrowletoff。Itwasclumsy，heavy，andexpensive。
Thelong—bowwasonlyonepieceofsinewyyew，andastring。Itwasusedatfirstforthechase，andthearcherhadtotakeinstantaim。
Itwasdrawntotheear，anditwasamostdeadlyweaponwhenastrongarmhadbeentrainedtodrawit。Itsarrowcouldpickoffasoldieratthetopofthehighestcastle；itcouldpiercethroughanoakdoorthreefingersthick；itcouldpinamail—cladknighttohishorse。Itwasthispeasantweaponthatbroughtthemailedknightdowninbattle。
Thehomeofthelong—bowisthecountrybetweentheSevernandtheWye。Itwasfamousbefore，butitwasfirstusedwitheffectinthelastWelshwars。ItwasusedtobreakthelinesoftheSnowdonlancesandpikes，sothatthemail—cladcavalrymightdashin。Butlateron，thesamebowswereusedtobringthenoblesofFrancedown。
FromtheWelshwaron，archersandinfantrybecameimportant；battlesceasedtobewhattheyhadbeensolong——theshockofmail—cladknightsmeetingeachotheratfullcharge。
Thelong—bowmadenobleandpeasantequalonthefieldofbattle。
Therevolutionwasmadecompletelateronbygunpowder。
CHAPTERXIV——THERISEOFTHEPEASANT
Ihavetoldyoumuchaboutprincesandsoldiers，butverylittleaboutthelowlylifeofpeasants，andthetradeoftowns。
TheconquestofWales，byNormanbaronandEnglishking，tendedtoraisetheserftothelevelofthefreeman。Thechiefcausesoftheriseoftheserfwerethefollowing：
1TheignoranceoftheEnglishofficials。TheNormanbaronveryoftenpaidcloseattentiontotheprivilegesoftheclassesheruled，andtheWelshfreemanretainedhissuperiority。ButtheEnglishofficials——andEdwardII。foundthattheywerefartoonumerousinWales——oftenrefusedtodistinguishbetweenaWelshmanwhowasaninnatefreemanandaWelshmanwholivedonaserfmaenol。Theiraimwastomakethemallpaythesametax。
2。Thefallinthevalueofmoney。AtthetimeoftheNormanConquest，silvercoinswererare，andtheirvaluehigh。But，inexchangeforclothandwool，ofarrowsandspears，ofmountainponiesandcattle，coinscameingreatnumbers，anditwaseasierfortheserftoearnthem。Thatisthevalueofcoinsbecameless。
Thiswasagreatboontoallwhowereboundtopayfixedsums——thefreemanwhopaidtothekingtheduesheusedtopaytohisprince，theserfwhopaidtohislordasumofmoneyinsteadofservice。Allancientservitude，politicalandeconomic，wascommutedformoney；asthemoneybecameeasiertoget，theserfbecamethemorefree。
3。Theriseoftownsandthegrowthofcommerce。Wemustnot，however，thinkofcommerceasifithadbeenfirstbroughtbytheNormans。TherehadbeenroadsandcoinsinRomantimes。TheDaneshadbeentraders，probably，beforetheybecamepiratesandinvaders。
Timber，millstones，cattle，coarsecloth，andarrow—headscrossedtheSeverneastwardsbeforetheNormanssawit；andcornwascarriedwestward。Therewerecloserelations，politicalandcommercial，betweenWalesandIrelandfromveryearlytimes。
ButtheNormanandEnglishConquestsrevivedandquickenedtrade。
Townsrose，regularmarketswereestablished，andthebaronswhotooktollsprotectedthemerchantswhopaidthem。Everybaronhadacastle，everycastleneededawalledtown，andatowncannotliveexceptbytrade。InthetownthebarondidnotaskaWelshmanwhetherhehadbeenfreeorserf；thetownsmenwerestrangers，andtheywelcomedtheserfwhocametowork。
4。Themonkandthefriar。Thebardwasafreemanborn，askilledweaverofcourteousphrases，notachurlishtaeog。Themonkorfriarmightbeaserf。Theyworkedlikeserfs，andennobledlabour。TheChurchcondemnedserfdom，andwefindchaptersgivingtheirserfsfreedom。
5。TheScotchandFrenchwarsoftheEnglishkingsgaveemploymenttohostsofbowmenandofmen—at—arms，andtothenumerousattendantsrequiredtolookafterthehorsesbymeansofwhichthearmymoved。
ThegreateruseofinfantryafterthereignofEdwardI。causedagreaterdemandforthepeasant；andtheuseofthecheaplong—bowgavehimavalueinwar。TherewerefivethousandWelsharchersandspearmenonthefieldofCressy。Intheseandotherwaystheserfwasbecomingfree。
Youwouldexpectagradual，almostunconsciousstruggle，betweentheserfandhislordforpoliticalpower。Thestrugglecame，butitwasconsciousandveryfierce。Itwasbroughtaboutbyaterriblepestilence，knownastheBlackDeath。ThisplaguecameslowlyandsteadilyfromtheEast；in1348itreachedBristol，anditprobablysweptawayonehalfofthepeopleofthetownsofWales。Itwasnotthetownsalonethatitvisited；itcametothemountainglensaswell。Itwasamostdeadlydisease。Itkilled，foronething，becausepeoplebelievedthattheywoulddie。Theysawthedarkspotsontheskinbeforetheybecamefeverish；theyrecognisedtheblackmarkoftheDeathandtheygavethemselvesupforlost。
Labourersbecameveryscarce。Theyclaimedhigherwages。Thelordstriedtodragthembackintoserfdom；theytriedtoforcethembylawtotaketheoldwage。OnbothsidesoftheSevernthelabourerstookarms，andwagedwaragainsttheirlords。ThepeasantwarinEnglandiscalledthePeasantRevolt；thepeasantwarinWalesissometimescalledtherevoltofOwenGlendower。
AchangecameovertherebellionsinWales。Atfirst，therebellionswerethoseofLlywelyn’scountry；theallieswhohaddesertedhim，andthenturnedagainstEdward，likeReesapMeredith；orhisownfollowers，likeMadoc，whosaidhewashisson；ormenhehadprotected，likeMaelgwnVychaninPembroke。Lateron，underEdwardII。andEdwardIII。，therebellionswereagainstthemarchlords，andthekingwaslookeduponasaprotector——suchastherebellionofLlywelynBrenagainsttheClaresandMortimersinGlamorganin1316。
ButthewilderspiritswenttotheFrenchwars，andfoughtforbothsides。WiththeassassinationofOwenofWalesin1378，thelastofLlywelyn’snearrelativestodreamofrestoringtheindependenceofWales，therebellionsagainsttheKingofEnglandcametoanend。
Whentheybrokeoutagain，itwasnotinSnowdonorCeredigion；theolddominionsofLlywelynwerealmostunwillingtorise。Thenewrevoltswereinthemarchlands，andespeciallyinthetowns。
CHAPTERXV——OWENGLENDOWER
TheEnglishbaroninWalestriedtoaddtohispossessionsbyencroachingonthelandsoftheWelshfreemen。Hisestatealwaysremainedthesame，becauseitallwenttotheeldestson，accordingtowhatiscalledprimogeniture；theirlands，ontheotherhand，weredividedbetweenthesonsaccordingtowhatiscalledgavelkind。Healso，bylawstheydidnotunderstand，tookthewasteland——forestandmountain。Asonemancanmoreeasilywatchhisinterestthanmany，thebaronsucceeded；butthefreemenfeltthattheywerebeingrobbed。
Thetenantsofthebaronswererestlessandrebellious；theysaidtheywerefree，thattheywouldnotworkasserfs，thattheywouldnotbringfoodrents，butthattheywouldpayafixedrentforeveryacretheyheld。
AtRuthin，intheValeofClwyd，therewasabaroncalledLordGrey；
andinthevalleyoftheDeetherewasaWelshsquirecalledOwenGlendower。Theirlandsmet，andGreytookpartofOwen’ssheepwalk。
OwenhadbeenalawstudentatWestminster，andhehadservedHenryofLancaster。In1399RichardII。hadbeendethroned，andthebaronshadmadeHenryofLancasterkingasHenryIV。Owensaw，however，thatthekingwastooweaktocurbhislawlessbarons，andin1400heattackedLordGrey，andburntRuthin。
Therebellionthathadlongbeensmoulderingburstintoaflamealloverthecountry。Owenwasatoncewelcomedbythebard，thefriar，andthepeasant。Thebardhailedhisstarasthatoftheheiroftheprinces，whohadcometodeliverhiscountry。Thefriarwelcomedhimasthefriendofthepoorandoflearning；andunrulystudentsfromOxford，thenthecentreofagreatintellectualawakening，flockedhometomarchunderhisbanner。Thepeasantwelcomedhimashisprotectoragainstthestewardofhislord。Themainstrengthofthemovementwasthepeasantrevolt；andWelshpoets，liketheEnglishones，sangthepraisesoftheploughmanandoftheplough。
Owen’ssuccesswasmostrapid，sorapidthatitwasputdowntomagic。InfouryearsthewholeofWalesrecognisedhimasitsprince。HenryIV。andPrinceHenrycametoWales，maderapidmarchesandretookcastles，punishedthefriarsofLlanVaesandthemonksofStrataFlorida。Buttheirvictoriesledtonothing，andthestormsfoughtagainstthem。Owen’svictorieswereusedtothefull——thatoftheVyrnwywasfollowedbyanagreementwithGreyofRuthin，thatofBrynGlasbyanalliancewiththeMortimers。Hismarcheswerenearlyalltriumphant；hewaswelcomedalongthewholelineofthemarchesbythepeasantstothefurthestcornersofGwent。
Owenwaswiseenoughtoseethatnoabidingpowercanbebasedonapopularrising。HetriedtoestablishagovernmentthattheKingofEnglandcouldnotoverthrow。Hehadthreeinstitutionsinmind——anindependentWales，governedbyhimasPrinceinaParliamentofrepresentativesofthecommotes；anindependentWelshChurch，withanArchbishopofStDavid’satitshead；andanindependentsystemoflearningandcivilisation，guidedbytwoUniversities，oneinNorthWalesandoneinSouthWales。
ThenewWaleswastohesafeguardedbyfouralliances——withtheEnglishbarons，withthePope，withScotland，andwithFrance。HefailedtosavethePerciesfromtheirdefeatatShrewsburyin1403；
buthebasedallhisplansonanalliancewiththeMortimers，theenemiesofLancasterandthePercies。TheheadoftheMortimerfamilyhaddiedinIrelandin1398，andhadleftfouryoungchildren。
Theyweretherealheirstothecrown，andOwenmeanttowintheirthroneforthem。Theiruncle，EdmundMortimer，marriedGlendower’sdaughter。ButtheyoungEarlofMarch，theelderoftheMortimerboys，hadnoambition，andaplottobringhimandhisbrothertoOwenfailed。
ThePapacyhadalwaysprovedtobeabrokenreedforWelshprinces；
butOwen’salliancewithPeterdeLuna，theanti—PopeBenedictXIII。，gaveacertainamountofprestigetohistitle。ThealliancewithScotland，basedoncommonkinship，couldbringhimnohelpatthattime：becauseitwastornbetweentwofactionsduringthereignoftheweakRobertIII。；andthenextking，thepoetJamesI。，wascapturedatseaandputintoanEnglishprison。
TheFrenchalliancewasmuchmorepromising；itwouldgivewhatOwenwantedmost——siegeengines，afleet，andanarmyoftrainedsoldiers。
CharlesVI。ofFrance，thefather—in—lawofthedeposedRichard，refusedtomakepeacewiththeusurperHenry；hisfleetprotectedtheWelshcoast，andin1405aFrencharmyof2，800menlandedatMilford。
Owenstruggledon，withwaningpower，untilhisdeathin1415。Hecametoosoonforsuccess，whilethepoweroftheHouseofLancasterwasincreasing。
OfallfiguresinthehistoryofWales，thatofOwenGlendoweristhemoststrikingandthemostpopular。Theplaceofhisgraveisunknown，hislineageandthedateofhisdeathamatterofconjecture；thereismuchmysteryaboutevenhismostbrilliantyears。Buthismajesticfigure，hiswisdom，andhisidealsremainedinthememoryofhiscountry。Hisghostwandered，itwassaid，aroundValleCrucis。Hisspirit，morethanthatofanyheroofthepast，seemstofollowhispeopleontheironwardmarch。Thisisnotonaccountofhispoliticalideals，butbecausehewasthechampionofthepeasantandofeducation。
CHAPTERXVI——THEWARSOFTHEROSES
ThereignofHenryV。wasareignofbrilliantvictoriesinFrance，andthereignofHenryVI。oneofdisastrousdefeats。DuringbothreignsthelordswerebecomingmorepowerfulinWalesaswellasinEngland。Theholdofthekingoverthembecameweakereveryyear；
theypackedtheParliament，theyappointedtheCouncil，theyoverawedthelawcourts。Ifamanwantedsecurity，hemustwearthebadgeofsomelord，andfightforhimwhencalledupontodoso。InthemarchesofWalesthereweremorethanahundredlordsholdingcastleandcourt；anditwaseasyforarobberoramurderertoescapefromonelordshiptotheother，oreventofindawelcomeandprotection。
InWalesandinthemarchesthelordspreyedupontheirweakerneighbours，andthecountrybecamefullofprivatewar。
Theselfishfamilies，allfightingformorelandandmorepower，graduallyformedthemselvesintotwoparties——thepartiesoftheRedRoseandoftheWhiteRose。TheleadingfamilyintheRedRosepartywasthatofLancaster，representedbythesaintlyKingHenryVI。；theleadingfamilyintheWhiteRosepartywasthatofYork。IntheWarsoftheRoses，YorkandLancasterfoughtoverthecrown，andthosewhosupportedthemoveracastleoranestate。
Waleswasdivided。ThewestwasforLancaster，fromPembroketoHarlech，andfromHarlechtoAnglesey。TheeastwasforYork，fromCardiffandRaglantoWigmore，andfromWigmoretoChirk。LancasterheldestatesinWalesandontheborder——thecastlesofHereford，Skenfrith，Ogmore，andKidwellybeingcentresofstrengthandwealth。
York’schiefcountrywasthemarchofWales，withLudlowasitscentre。TheWelshbaronstooksidesaccordingtotheirinterests。
JasperTudor，EarlofPembroke，heldthewestforhishalf—brother，theking。SirWilliamHerbert，whowasverypowerfulinthecountrysouthoftheMortimers，tookthesideofhispowerfulneighbour。
Otherswavered，especiallyGreyofRuthinandtheStanleysinNorthWales。
OnebattlewasfoughtbetweentheWelshYorkistsandtheWelshLancastrians。ThiswasthebattleofMortimer’sCross，nearWigmore，inFebruary1461。ThevictorwastheyoungDukeofYork，whowascrownedkingasEdwardIV。laterintheyear。Anoldman，OwenTudor，thefatherofJasperTudor，andthegrandfatheroftheboywhowas\"toruleafterthemall\"asHenryVII。，wastakenprisoner。TheytookhimtoHereford，andtheretheycuthisheadoffandsetitonthemarketcross。ThebattlesoftheWarsoftheRoseswereverycruelones；thenobleprisonersthathadbeentaken，evenchildrenoftenderage，weremurderedincoldbloodontheeveningofthebattle。
\"ByGod’sblood，\"saidone，ashekilledachild，\"thyfatherslewmine，andsowillIdothee。\"
TheWelshbaronsledtheirmentonearlyalltheimportantbattles。
NorthWalesarchers，wearingthethreefeathersofthePrinceofWales，foughtforLancasterinthesnowatthegreatdefeatofTowtononthePalmSundayof1461；thearchersofGwent，ledbyHerbert，foughtvainlyforYorkatthebattleofEdgecote，inthesummerof1469。AndtheWelshwavererandtraitorwasseeninbattlealso——
GreyofRuthinledthevanforLancasteratthebattleofNorthamptonin1460，andcausedthebattletobelostbydesertingtoYorkatthebeginningofthefighting。InWalesitself，also，thewarwasfoughtbitterly；andthestubborndefenceofHarlechfortheLancastriansbecamefamousthroughthewholecountry。ThelastbattlefoughtbetweenLancasterandYorkwasthebattleofTewkesbury，inMay1471，andLancasterlostit；thePrinceofWales，theking’sonlyson，waskilled；andhisheroicmother，MargaretofAnjou，gavethestruggleup。AyoungWelshnoble——HenryTudor，EarlofRichmond——becametheLancastrianheir。Thefortunesofhishousewerehopeless，however；andhisuncle，Jasper，senthiminsafetytoBrittany。
TheYorkistkings，EdwardIV。andRichardIII。，inspiteofcrueltyandmurder，ruledwell。Theybrokethepowerofthebarons，andtheymadethepeoplerich——bymaintainingpeace，byrepressingpiracy，byprotectingthewoollenindustryofthetowns。
InWalestheirrulewasforpeaceandorder。TheymadeaCourtforWalesatLudlow，thehomeoftheirrace。FromLudlowtheybegantoforcethebaronstodojusticeandtoobeytheking。ItseemedasiftheruleoftheYorkistswastobealongone，fortheywereverypopularinLondonandthetowns。
Butthenobleswerenotwillingtoseetheirpowertakenfromthemdaybyday。JasperTudorappealedtotheloyaltyoftheWelsh，andthemenofWestWaleswantedakingoftheirownblood；forthelawshadbeenmadeunjusttothemeversincethetimeofOwenGlendower。
Manyattemptsweremade，andtheyfailed。Butatlast，onAugust7，1485，thefugitiveEarlofRichmondcametoMilfordHaven。HemarchedontothevalleyoftheTeivy，andhewasjoinedbySirReesapThomas，andanarmyofSouthWalesmen；hejourneyedonthroughthevalleyoftheSevern，andtheNorthWalesmenjoinedhim；EnglishnoblesjoinedhimashemarchedbyShrewsbury，Stafford，Lichfield，andTamworth。Richard’sarmywasalsoonthemarch。AtBosworth，August22，1485，thetwoarmiesmetinthelastbattleoftheWarsoftheRoses。Richardfoughtfiercely，wearinghiscrown；andwhenhewasdefeatedandkilled，thecrownwasplacedonHenry’shead。
ThepeopleofEnglanddidnotcarewhoruled，RichardorHenry，aslongashekeptorder，fortheywereverytiredofcivilwar。
ButthepeopleofWaleswelcomedHenryasaWelshmanwhowouldrulethemkindlyandjustly。
CHAPTERXVII——TUDORORDER
TheTudors——HenryVII。，hisson，HenryVIII。，andhisthreegrandchildren，EdwardVI。andMaryandElizabeth——ruledEnglandandWalesfrom1485to1603。Underthemthepeoplebecameunited，law—
abiding，patriotic，andprosperous。TheTudorperiodisjustlyregardedasthemostgloriousinBritishhistory，withitsgreatstatesmen，itsgreatadventurers，anditsgreatpoets。
TheTudorswereloyallysupportedbyWales，bythemilitarystrengthofmenlikeSirReesapThomasortheEarlofPembroke，andbythediplomaticskilloftheCecils。Undertheirrule——hardandunmerciful，butjustandefficient——thelawbecamestrongenoughtocrushthemightiestandtoshieldtheweakest。Welshmenfoundthat，evenundertheirownsovereigns，theirancientlanguagewasregardedasahindranceandtheirpatriotismasapossiblesourceoftrouble；
buttheyobtainedtheprivilegesofanequalrace，andtheywerepleasedtoregardthemselvesasadominantone。
Theyobtainedequalpoliticalprivileges。ThelawswhichdeniedthemresidenceinthegarrisontownsinWales，ortheholdingoflandinEngland，cametoanend。Thewholeofthecountry，shiregroundandmarchground，wasdividedintoonesystemofshiresandgivenrepresentationinParliament，bytheActofUnionof1535。ItiscalledanActofUnionbecause，byit，WalesandEnglandwereunitedonequalterms。
Anglesey，Carnarvon，Merioneth，Flint，Cardigan，andCarmarthenhadbeenshiressinceI284；andsmallportionsofGlamorganandPembrokehadbeengovernedlikeshires，sothatsomeTudorwriterscallthemcounties。Thechiefdifferencebetweenashireandalordshipisthattheking’swritrunstotheshire，butnottothelordship。Thekingadministersthelawintheshire，throughthesheriff；thelordadministersthelawinthelordshipthroughhisownofficials。
In1535themarchesofWaleswereturnedintoshireground。Thebulkofthemwenttomakesevennewshires——Pembroke，Glamorgan，Monmouth，Brecon，Radnor，Montgomery，andDenbigh。TheotherswereaddedtotheolderEnglishandWelshcounties。Ofthese，thoseaddedtoShropshireandHerefordshireandGloucestershirebecamepartofEngland。MonmouthalsowasdeclaredtobeanEnglishshire，forjudicialpurposes；butithasremainedsturdilyWelsh，andnowitispracticallyregardedbyParliamentaspartofWales。Thewholecountrywasnowgovernedinthesameway，andWaleswasrepresented，likeEngland，inParliament。Noattempthadbeenmadetodothisbefore，exceptbythefirstEnglishPrinceofWales，theweakandunfortunateEdwardII。
Ofevengreatervaluethanpoliticalequalitywasthenewreignoflaw。TheTudorsusedtheStarChamber，theCourtofWales，andtheGreatSessionsofWales，tomakeallequalbeforethelaw。TotheStarChambertheysummonedanoblewhowasstilltoopowerfulforthecourtoflaw。
ButitwastheCourtofWalesthatdidmostwork。ItwasheldatLudlow。Ithadveryablepresidents，menlikeBishopLee，theEarlofPembroke，andSirHenrySidney。BishopLeestruckterrorintothewholeWelshmarch，between1534and1543。Beforehistimealordwouldkeepmurderersandrobbersathiscastle，protectthem，andperhapssharetheirspoil。ButnomancouldkeepafelonoutofthereachofBishopRowlandLee。Ifhecouldnotgetthemalivehegottheirdeadbodies；andyoumighthaveseenprocessionsofmencarryingsacksonponies——theyweredeadmenwhoweretoswingonLudlowgibbets。But，severeasLeewas，thepeasantwasgladthathecouldgototheCourtatLudlowinsteadofgoingtothecourtofamarchlord，ashehadtodobefore1535。Theshirehadbeenmuchbettergovernedthanthelordship。WhenthelordshipofMawddwywasaddedtotheshireofMerionethin1535，theofficersoftheshirefoundthatitwasanestofbrigandsandoutlaws。
InthemorepeacefulandhumanedaysofQueenElizabeth，SirHenrySidneybecamePresidentoftheCourtofWales。Hewasoneofthebestmenoftheday；andhewasproudofrulingWalesandthebordercounties，\"athirdpartofthisrealm，\"becausehishighofficemadehimable\"todogoodeveryday。\"
BesidestheCourtofWalesforthewholecountry，acourtofjusticewasheldineachoffourgroupsofshires；andthesecourtswerecalledtheGreatSessionsofWales。So，thoughthelawwasthesameforeverybody，Waleshadaseparatesystemtoitself，partlybecausetherewassomuchtodo，andpartlybecausethecentralcourtsinLondonweresofaraway。Muchwasalsodonetogetwiseandlearnedjusticesofthepeace，andfairjuries。
BytheendofthereignofElizabeth，thelastoftheTudors，onemaysaythatWalesrejoicedinthefollowing：
1。TherewasnohatredbetweenEnglandandWales；theWelshgentryservedtheQueenonlandandsea，andthepeopleweremorehappyandcontentedthantheyhadbeensincethetimeofLlywelyn。
2。Therewasnodangerofprivatewarbetweenlords，towhichthepeasantmightbesummoned。Thebrigandswhichinfestedpartsofthecountryhadbeenclearedaway。
3。Thelawoflandhadbeenfixed。Itwasdeterminedthatlandwastogototheeldestson，accordingtotheEnglishfashion。Allthelandbecamethepropertyofsomelandlord，anditwasdecidedwhowasalandowner，andwhowasnot。TheWelshfreemenwereheldtoowntheirland；theWelshserfs，thedescendantsofanoldconqueredrace，sometimesbecameownersandsometimestenants。TheyallthoughtthatHenryVII。，theWelshvictorofBosworth，hadsetthemfree。
4。TheTudorstrustedtheirpeople，andcalleduponthemtogovernandtoadministerjusticethemselves。Thesquiresweretobejustices，thefreemenweretobejurors；theshirewastolookafterthemilitia，andtheparishafterthepoor。
CHAPTERXVIII——THEREFORMATION
TheReformationinEnglandwas，tobeginwith，apurelypoliticalmovement。HenryVIII。wishedtorulehispeopleinhisownway，inreligionaswellasinpolitics；and，eventually，hebecameSupremeHeadoftheChurchaswellasthekingofthecountry。Hisnewpowerbroughtchanges。ItwasnecessarytoreformtheChurch，andthewealthofthemonasteriestemptedhimtodoit。Therewasanewspiritofenquiry，andtheKingwasledonbythatspirit，withdilatoryandhesitatingsteps，toexamineoldcreeds。ThereligiousfervouroftheReformationhadcaughtthepeople；andtheKingstoodstill，ifhedidnotturnback。
Buthisministershadnomisgivings。ThomasCromwelltriedtohurrytheReformationon——themonasteriesweredissolved，theBiblewastranslated，andtheswayofRomewasdisowned。Thekingappointedthebishops，decidedchurchcases，andevendeterminedwhatthecreedofhiscountrywastobe。Somerset，inthereignofEdwardVI。，madethemovementadoctrinalone，andforceditonwithequalvigour。
Waleslookedon，withindifferenceandapathyatfirst，andthenwithmurmurs。Themovementhadnoattraction：ithadmanycausesofoffence。InEnglandthepoliticalmovementbecameapatriotic，anintellectual，andareligiousmovement；anditsucceeded。InIreland，also，itwaspolitical，butitcouldnotappealtopatriotism，becauseitwasanEnglishmovement；anditfailed。InWales，itwasneitherwelcomednoropposed；itwassimplytolerated，andwithabadgrace。
Foronething，itbroughtEnglishinsteadofLatinintopublicworship。Latin，theoldlanguageofprayerandevenofsermon，wasvenerated，thoughnotunderstood。ButEnglishwasnotonlynotunderstood，itwasalsoregardedasinferiortoWelsh。TheTudors’
dislikeofvarioustongueswasasstrongastheirdislikeofvariousjurisdictions。HenryVIII。，ingivingWelshmentheActof1535，saysthatthetongueofOwenTudoris\"nothinglikeneconsonanttothenaturalmother—tongueusedwithinthisrealm，\"andenactsthatallofficialsinWalesshallspeakEnglish。And，inthesamespirit，theWelshmanwastoldthattheKingdomofHeavenwasnowopentohim，butthathemustseekitinEnglish，ornotatall。
Again，thereformers——menofthetypeofBishopBarlow——despisedandshockedapeopletheyneverunderstood。ThesanctityofStDavid’s，thethemeofthebestpoetsoftheMiddleAgesandthegoalofgenerationsofpilgrims，wasdescribedbyitsProtestantbishop——whounroofedthepalaceinordertogetthelead——asadesolateanglefrequentedonlybyvagabondpilgrims。AWelshmanisnotappealedtobywhatisaninsulttohiscountryandashocktohisreligionatthesametime。Therelicswereruthlesslysweptaway；theyweretakenpossessionofbytheagentsofCromwellanddestroyed，orsenttoLondon。Theimagescarriedinthevillageprocessionswerelost——
theimagesthatcouldkeepthesuperstitiousWelshmanfromhell，orevenbringhimbackfromit，orhealhisdiseases，orkeephiscattlefromthemurrain，andhiscropsfromblight。Ionlyknowofoneofthoserelicsthatcanstillbeseen。ItisthehealingcupofNantEos，amerefragmentofwood。Thepeople’sfaithintherelicscanbeestimatedfromthefactthatthecuphasbeenusedwithinthelastcentury。
Again，themonasteriesweredissolved。Thewealthofthemonasteries，theirmeadowsandbarnsandsheep—runsandfishponds，werecovetedbytherich；thepoorthoughtofthemassourcesofalms。Themonksweregoodlandlords；andtheygavefreely，notonlythecomfortsofreligion，butoftheirmedicinalherbsandstoresoffood。TheWelshmonasterieswerenotsorichasthoseofEngland，andtheywerealldissolvedamongthelessermonasteries——thosewithanincomeunder200poundsayear。Butthoughnoneofthemwereveryrich，theynearlyallhadalmost200poundsayear。Theirlossaffectedthewholecountry，aseachpartofWaleshadoneortwoofthem——Tintern，Margam，Neath，andWhitlandinthesouth；StrataFlorida，CwmHir，YstradMarchell，andtheVannerincentralWales；
andBasingwerkandMaenaninthenorth。
TheReformationbroughtthepoorerclassesinWales，notonlyinsultstotheirnationalandreligiousfeelings，butmaterialloss。ItappealedonlytotheEnglishbishopswhohadadoptedthenewProtestanttenets，andtotheWelshandEnglishlandownerswhohadlosttheirreverenceforrelics，andhadlearnttohungerforland。
ThemovementwasaseverestrainontheloyaltyoftheWelshmantotheTudors，buthehadlearnttolooktothekingforguidancesandhesufferedinsilence。Marywaswelcomed，andnoWelshbloodwasshedfortheProtestantfaith。ThepassiveresistancetotheReformationmighthavebrokenoutintoarebellionifaleaderhadcome。
InElizabeth’sreigntwoattemptsweremadetodisturbthereligioussettlement。OnewasmadebytheJesuits——thewonderfulsocietyestablishedtochecktheReformationmovementandtoleadareactionagainstit。In1583JohnBennettcametoNorthWales；in1595RobertJonescametoRaglan；andseveralWelshJesuitssufferedmartyrdom。
TheotherattemptwasthatofJohnPenry，whowishedtoappealtotheintellectofthepeoplebymeansofthepulpitandtheprintingpress。Theapostleofthenewcreedwascrushed，likethosewhowishedtorevivetheold；hewasputtodeathasatraitorin1593，afterashortlifeofimportunatepleadingthathemightpreachtheGospelinWales。
BeforetheendofthereignofElizabeth，however，theWelshlanguagewasrecognised。Thelastschoolfounded，thatofRuthinin1595，wastohaveamasterwhocouldteachandpreachinWelsh。Andin1588
therehadappeared，bythehelpofArchbishopWhitgift，theWelshBibleofWilliamMorgan。ItwastheappearanceofthisBiblethatarousedthefirstrealwelcometotheReformation。ButtheReformationthatgaveEnglandaSpenserandaShakespearearousednonewlifeinWales，notasinglehymnorasingleprayer。
CHAPTERXIX——THECIVILWAR
AftertheTudorscametheStuarts。TheTudorsdidwhattheirpeoplewanted；thekingandthepeople，betweenthem，crushedthenobles。
TheStuartsdidwhattheythoughtright，andtheydidnottrytopleasethepeople。UndertheTudors，therewasharmonybetweenCrownandParliament；andElizabethleftaprosperouspeoplewithstrongviewsabouttheirrightsandtheirreligion。ButJamesI。，andespeciallyhissonCharlesI。，triedtochangelawandreligion。
FromtheTudorperiodofunity，then，wecometotheStuartperiodofstrife。
From1603to1642thestrugglewentoninParliament。TheWelshMembersnearlyallsupportedtheking，andtheWelshpeoplefollowedtheWelshgentryinstrongloyalty。ThemostfamousWelshmanoftheperiodwasJohnWilliams，whobecameArchbishopofYorkandLordKeeper。Hewasawiseman；hesawthatbothsideswerealittleinthewrong；andifanyonecouldhavekeptthepeacebetweenthem，hecouldhavedoneit。Butthekingdidnotquitetrusthim，andtheParliamentalmostdespisedhim；andthishappensoftentowisemenwhogetbetweentwoangryparties。
From1642to1646，theFirstCivilWarwaswaged。ThiswasawarbetweenthekingandtheParliamentovertaxation，militia，andreligion。Thesouth—east，andLondonespecially，wereforParliament；thewilderparts，especiallyWales，werefortheking。
TheonlyimportantpartofWalesthatdeclaredforParliamentwasthesouthernpartofPembrokeshire，whichhadbeenEnglisheversincethereignofHenryII。
Waleswasimportanttothekingfortworeasons。Foronething，itcouldgivehimanarmy，andhecame，timeaftertime，togetanewone。WhenheunfurledhisflagandbeganthewaratNottinghamin1642，hecametoShrewsbury，andtherefivethousandWelshmenjoinedhim。WiththeseandothershemarchedagainstLondon，fightingthebattleofEdgehillontheway。WhilethekingmademanyattemptstogetLondonuntil1644，andwhiletheNewModelarmyattackedhimbetween1645and1647，theWelshfoughtinnearlyallhisbattles，theirinfantrysufferingheavilyinthetwogreatestbattles，MarstonMoorandNaseby。ThewarwentoninWalesitselfalso——RupertandGerardbeingthechiefRoyalistleaders，andMiddletonandMichaelJonesbeingthechiefParliamentaryones。Nogreatbattleswerefought，buttherewereseveralskirmishes，andmuchtakingandretakingofcastlesandtowns。
Waleswasimportanttotheking，also，becauseitcommandedthetwowaystoIreland。TheKingthought，almosttothelast，thatanIrisharmywouldsavehim。WelshgarrisonsheldthetwoportsforIreland，ChesterandBristol。Bristolwasstormedbyagreatmidnightassault，andChesterwasforcedtoyield。InMarch1647Harlechyielded，andthewarcametoanend。Bythattimethekingwasaprisonerinthehandsofthearmy。
TheSecondCivilWar，in1648and1649，wasastrugglebetweenthetwosectionsofthevictoriousarmy。TheParliamentwishedtoestablishonereligion，thearmysaidthateverymanmustbeallowedtoworshipGodasheliked。OnewascalledthePresbyterianideal，theothertheIndependent。ThearmywasledbyCromwell，andParliamentwasoverawed。ThenthePresbyterianpartsroseinrevolt—
—Kent，Pembrokeshire，andthelowlandsofScotland。TheNewModelarmymarchedagainsttheWelsh，inordertobreaktheconnectionbetweenthenorthernandsouthernPresbyterians。TheWelshgeneralswereLaugharne，Poyer，andPowell，whohadallfoughtforParliamentinthefirstwar。TheyweredefeatedatStFagans，nearCardiff，andthendrivenintoPembroke。Theydeterminedtoholdouttothelastwithinitswalls。Cromwellbesiegedthem，andthegreatfeatureofthewarwasthesiegeofPembroke。WallsandcastleslikethoseofPembrokehadbecomeuselessbecauseofgunpowder。ButCromwellcouldnotatoncebringhisgunssofar。Hisdifficultieswereincreasingdaily：theParliamentwastryingtocometotermswiththeking，allWalesaroundhimwasdisaffected，theScotchhadcrossedtheborderandweremarchingonLondon。Aftermanyweeksofassaultsanddesperatedefence，thegunscameandtheoldwallswerebattereddown。PembrokeCastle，whosegreatroundtowerstillstands，hadprotectedWilliamMarshallagainstLlywelynandhadenabledanimportantdistricttoremaina\"littleEnglandbeyondWales，\"wasthelastmediaevalcastletotakeanimportantpartinwar。TheScotchweresoondefeatedatthebattleofPreston，andthekingwasbroughttotrialandputtodeath，thedeath—warrantbeingsignedbytwoWelshmen——JohnJonesofMerionethandThomasWoganofCardigan。ThedateofCharles’executionisJanuary20，1649。
TheCommonwealthwasestablishedimmediately，andWaleswaslookeduponwithmuchdistrust——thePresbyterianpartsandtheRoyalistparts——bythenewGovernment。ItwasrepresentedintheEnglishParliaments，itistrue，butitsrepresentativeswereoftenEnglish，andpracticallyappointedbytheGovernment。Whenthecountrywasputunderthemilitarydictatorshipofthemajor—generals，HarrisonwassenttoruleWales。
Honestattemptsweremadetogiveitanefficientclergy；butthezealofVavasourPowelarousedmuchopposition。Waleseitherclungtenaciouslytoitsoldreligion；or，ifitchangedit，thechangeswereextreme。ThoughthecountrygenerallyreturnedtoitsoldlifeandthoughtattheRestorationin1660，muchofthenewlifeoftheCommonwealthremained：congregationsofIndependentsstillmet；
Quakeridealssurvivedallpersecution；andeventhemysticismofMorganLloydpermeatedtheslowlyawakeningthoughtofthepeasantswhom，inhisdreams，hesawwelcomingthesecondadventofChrist。
CHAPTERXX——THEGREATREVOLUTION
Excepttothereaderwhoisofalegalorantiquarianturnofmind，thesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiesaretheleastinterestinginthehistoryofWales——theverycenturiesthatarethemostgloriousandthemoststirringinthehistoryofEngland。Theolderhistoriansstopwhentheycometotheyear1284，andsometimesgiveahastyoutlineofafewrebellionsupto1535。TheythengivetheWelshaglowingtestimonialasalaw—abidingandloyalpeople，andfindthemtoouninterestingtowriteanymoreaboutthem。
ThehistoryofWalesdoes，indeed，appeartobenothingmorethanthegradualdisappearanceofWelshinstitutions。TheCourtofWaleswasrestoredwiththekingin1660；butitsworkhadbeendone，anditcametoanendin1689。TheGreatSessionscametoanendin1830；
and，thoughwenowseethattheirdisappearancewasamistake，thebillabolishingthempassedthroughParliamentwithoutadivision。
ThelastdifferencebetweenEnglandandWaleswasdeleted；andifWaleshasnoseparateexistenceleft，whyshouldwewriteorreaditshistory？
Becausethetwocenturiesofapparentsettlementandsleepweretheperiodofasilentrevolution，moreimportant，ifouraimistoexplainthelivingpresentratherthanthedeadpast，thanalltheexcitingplotsandbattlesoftheHouseofCuneddafromtheriseofMaelgwntothefallofthelastLlywelyn。Duringthesecenturies，thehistoryofWalesceasestobethehistoryofprincesandnobles，itbecomesthehistoryofthepeople。OwenGlendower’sfewyearsofpowerwereakindofprophecy；butOwenonceappearedtotheabbotofValleCrucis，sotraditionsays，todeclarethathehadcomebeforehistime。Wepassthen，verygradually，fromthehistoryofaprivilegedclass，speakingliteraryWelsh，withaliteraturefamousforthewealthofitsimaginationandtheartisticbeautyofitsform——wepassontothehistoryofapeasantry，rudeandignorantatfirst，retainingtheserviletraitsofcenturiesofsubjection，butgraduallybecomingself—reliant，prosperous，andthoughtful。
Therealhistoryofanationisshownbyitsliterature。Itsrecordsanditschroniclesarebutthenotesandcommentsofvariousages。
Intheperiodoftheprincesandnobles，youcantracetheriseanddeclineofagreatliterature；watchhowitgathersstrengthandbeautyfromCynddelwtoDafyddapGwilym，andhowthestrengthbeginstofailandthebeautytowane，fromDafyddapGwilymtoTudurAled。
Intheperiodofthepeople，fromTudortimeson，thepeasantstriedatfirsttoimitatethepoetryofthepast；thentheybegantowriteandthinkintheirownway。ItisnotmyaimtoexplaintheperiodsofWelshliteraturenow；Iamgoingtodothatinanotherbook。But，asIhavementionedthreetypicalpoetsintheperiodoftheprinces，Iwillalsomentionthreepoetsintheperiodofthepeople。
In1579ReesPrichardwasborn；in1717，WilliamsPantyCelyn；in1832，Islwyn。Wehave，inthesethree，writerstypicaloftheseventeenth，eighteenth，andnineteenthcenturiesrespectively。ReesPrichard，stillaffectionatelyrememberedineveryWelshhomeasthe\"OldVicar，\"wrotestanzasinthedialectoftheValeofTowy——rough，fullofpeasantphrasesandmangledEnglishwords；andhewrotethem，notinbooks，butonthememoryofthepeople。Inthesamevalley，acenturylater，WilliamsPantyCelynwrotehymns，melodiousandinspiring，ofgreatpoeticbeauty，thoughwithatraceofdialect；
theywerewrittenandpublished，buttheyalsohauntedeveryearthatheardthem。BeyondtheBlackMountains，inthehillsofWestMonmouth，afteranothercentury，Islwynwroteodeswithoutatraceofdialect；theywerewrittenandremainedforsometimeinmanuscript；
whenpublished，theymetwithawelcomewhichshowsclearlythatIslwynisthetypicalpoetofmodernWelshthought。IfyouwishtoseeandrealisetheriseoftheWelshpeasant，passfromthehomelystanzasofthegoodOldVicar’sWelshmen’sCandletothepoetictheologyofPantyCelyn，andfromthattothepoeticphilosophyofIslwyn，whereconcentratedintensityofthoughtisexpressedinastylethatis，atanyrateatitsbest，superiortothebestworkofthepoetsoftheprinces。
IfIweretotellyouthereasonsforthischange，Iwouldbewriting，inaslightlydifferentform，whatIhavealreadywritteninthisbookaboutearlyWelshhistory。ThefallofLlywelyn，theBlackDeath，OwenGlendower’sidealsandtheTudorlegislation，allpreparedtheway。
Thelong—bowandgunpowder，wehaveseen，madethepeasantasimportantasthenobleinwar。Thelong—bowmadethecoatofmailuseless，gunpowdermadethecastleuseless——thedefenceoftheprivilegesoftheMiddleAgesdeparted。
Ideasofequalitywereadvanced。Theywerelookeduponatfirstastruthsapplicableonlytoaperfectandimpossiblecondition，andtheirdiscovererswereignored，ifnothangedorburnt。Buttheyalwaysbecameareality，andwerevictoriousintheend。TakethetruthsdiscoveredorchampionedbyWelshmen。WalterBruterediscoveredthetheoryofjustificationbyfaith——thatallmenareequalinthesightofGod，andthatnolordcouldberesponsibleforthem。BishopPecockadvocatedthedoctrineoftoleration——thatreason，notpersecution，shouldrule。JohnPenryclaimedthatthepeoplehadarighttodiscusspubliclythequestionsthatvitallyaffectedthem。Thehistoryofthepastshowsthattheapostleswerecondemned，thelifeofthepresentshowsthattheirideaslived。
Industryandcommercebecamemorefree。InTudortimespiracywasrepressed，themarchlordshipswereabolished，theprivilegesofthetownsceasedtofettermanufacture，tradewithEnglandbecamefree。
InStuarttimesroadsweremade，theindustriesdependingonwoolrevived，andtheindustriesofBritainbegantomovewestwardstowardstheironandthecoal。IntheHanoverianperiodwastelandswereenclosed，theslateminesofthenorthandthecoalpitsofthesouthwereopened。
TheTudorssucceededingettingtheupperclassestospeakEnglish，andtoturntheirbacksonWelshlife。Thepeasantwasleftsupreme：
heknewnotwhattodoatfirst，butlightsooncame。
PassthroughWales，andyouwillseethelifeofbothperiods——theruinedcastlesandtheruinedmonasteriesoftheold；thequarriesandpits，thetownsandports，thechurchesandchapels，theschoolsandcollegesofthepresent。
CHAPTERXXI——HOWELHARRIS
Itisdifficulttowriteaboutreligionwithoutgivingoffence。
Religionwillcomeintopolitics，andmustcomeintohistory。Ithasgivenmuch，perhapsmost，ofitsstrengthtomodernWales；ithasgivenitmany，ifnotmost，ofitspoliticaldifficulties。
Thereareperiodsofreligiouscalmandperiodsofreligiousfervourinthelifeofeverynation。Idonotknowwhetheritisnecessary，butitiscertainlythefact——thetwoperiodscondemneachotherwithgreatenergy。Withregardtocreed——thelifeofreligion——youwillfindthattheperiodsofenergytendtobeCalvinistic——anintensebeliefthatmanisamereinstrumentinthehandsofGod，workingoutplanshedoesnotunderstand；whileinperiodsofrestittendstobeArminian——acomfortablebeliefthatmanseeshisfutureclearly，andthathecanguideitashelikes。WithregardtotheChurch——thebodyofreligion——itisfortunate，intimesofcalm，ifitisestablished，tokeepthespiritofreligionalive；itisfortunate，intimesoffervour，ifitisfree，inorderthatthenewlifemaygiveitamoreperfectshape。
Nowwemustrememberthattherecanbenocalmwithoutalittleindifference，andthattherecanbenoenthusiasmwithoutalittleintolerance。Somencalleachotherfanaticsandbigotsandhypocrites，becausetheyhavenottakenthetroubletorealisethatthereismuchvarietyinhumancharacterandintheworkingsofthehumanmind。Perhapsitisalsoworthrememberingthataninstitutionisnotplacedatthemercyofareformer，butgraduallychanged。
TheeighteenthcenturywasacenturyofindifferenceinreligioninWales，thenineteenthcenturywasacenturyofenthusiasm。TheChurchatthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury，atanyrateasfarasthehigherclergywereconcerned，wasapathetictoreligion，andaliveonlytoselfishinterests。TheWhigbishopswereappointedforpoliticalreasons；theyhatedtheToryprinciplesoftheWelshsquires，andtheyneglectedanddespisedtheWelshpeopletheyhadnevertriedtounderstand。InEngland，theDefoesandtheSwiftsofliteraturewereencouragedandutilisedbythepoliticalparties；inWales，whereclergymenweretheonlywriters，theWhigbishopsdistrustedthem，andsilencedthemwheretheycould，becausetheywroteWelsh。TheChurchdidnotshowmoremisapplicationofrevenuethantheState，perhaps；but，whilethepeoplecouldnotleavetheStateasaprotestagainstcorruption，theycouldleavetheChurch。
And，duringthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury，agreatnationalawakeningbegan。
ThetrumpetblastoftheawakeningwasHowelHarris。HewasaBreconshirepeasant，ofstrongpassionwhichbecamesanctifiedbyalife—longstruggle，ofdevouringambitionwhichhenearlysucceededintamingtoalifeofintenseservicetoGod。Manybitterthingshavebeensaidabouthim，butnothingmorebitterthanhehassaidabouthimselfinthevolumesofprayersandrecriminationshewrotetotorturehisownsoul，andtogoadhimselfintoharderwork。Thefameofhiseloquencefilledtheland，anddistrictsexpectedhisappearanceanxiously，asinoldtimestheyexpectedOwenGlendower。
HowelHarriswas，however，nopoliticalagitator。Hehadanimperiouswill，andhewishedtorulehisbrethren；hewasaggressiveandmilitaryinspirit；GodtohimwastheLordofHosts；hepreachedthegospelofpeaceintheuniformofanofficerofthemilitia，andhesentmanyofhisconvertstofightabroadinthebattlesofthecentury。Hehadaloveoforganisation；heestablishedatTreveccawhatwaspartlyareligiouscommunity，andpartlyaco—operativemanufacturingcompany。But，whereverhestoodtoproclaimthewrathofGod，noshowerofstonesorcondemnationofministerorjusticecouldmakethosewhoheardhimforgethim，orbelievethatwhathesaidwaswrong。
IfIwerewritingforantiquarians，andnotforthosewhoreadhistoryinordertoseewhythingsarenowastheyare，Iwouldwritedetails——importantandinstructive——abouttheChurchoftheeighteenthcentury，andaboutthecongregationsofDissenterswhichtheseventeenthcenturyhandedovertotheeighteenthtopersecuteanddespise。TheIndependentsandBaptistssturdilymaintainedtheirprinciplesofreligiousliberty，buttheyfoundthecenturyastiff—
neckedone，andtheircongregationswerecontentwithmerelyexisting。TheQuakersmaintainedthatwarwaswrongwhileBritainpassedthroughwarfeverafterwarfever——theSevenYears’WarandthewarsagainstNapoleon。HowelHarris’voicemighthavebeenavoicecryinginthewilderness，ifithadnotbeenforthespirituallifeoftheexistingcongregations，conformistanddissenting。
ModernideasinWaleshavebeenprofoundlyaffectedbytheQuakers，andespeciallyindistrictsfromwhich，asasect，theyhavelongpassedaway。
ThevoiceofHowelHarriscalledallthesetoanewlife；anditisaboutthatnewlife，inthevarietygivenitbyallthedifferentactorsinit，thatIwantyoutothinknow。Itmadepreachingnecessary，foronething；anditwasfollowedbyacenturyofgreatpulpitoratory。Itprofoundlyaffectedliterature。ItgaveWales，tobeginwith，ahymnliteraturethatnocountryintheworldhassurpassed。ThecontrastbetweentheReformationandtheRevivalisverystriking——onegavethepeopleaChurchgovernmentestablishedbylawandaliteratureoftranslations，theothergaveitinstitutionsofitsownmakingandoriginallivingthought。TheRevivalgaveliteratureineverybranchanewstrengthandgreaterwealth。
Itcreatedademandforeducation。GriffithJonesofLlanddowrorestablishedasystemofcirculatingschools，theteachersmovingfromplacetoplaceasaroomwasofferedthem——sometimesachurchandsometimesabarn。CharlesofBalaestablishedasystemofSundaySchools，andthewholenationgraduallyjoinedit。ThePressbecameactive，newspapersappeared。Itbecamequiteclearthatanewlifethrobbedintheland。
CHAPTERXXII——THEREFORMACTS
Thenewlifebroughtaninevitabledemandforashareinthegovernmentofthecountry，andthisbroughttheoldorderandthenewfacetoface。Thepoliticalpowerwasentirelyinthehandsofthesquires，alienatedfromthepeasantsinmanycasesbyadifferenceoflanguage，andinmostcasesbyadifferenceofreligion。
TheActof1535had，aswehaveseen，givenWalesarepresentationinParliament。Eachshirehadonememberonly；exceptMonmouth，whichhadtwo。Eachshiretownhadonemember，exceptthatofMerioneth；
andHaverfordwestwasgivenamember。Thecountyfranchisewasthefortyshillingfreehold；itthereforeexcludednotonlythosewhohadnoconnectionwiththeland，butthecopyholder——whowasreallyalandowner，butwhosetenurewasregardedasbase，onaccountofhisvilleinorigin。ThiscopyholderwasundoubtedlythedescendantoftheWelshserfofmediaevaltimes。
ThefirstReformAct，thatof1832，waswonforthegreatmanufacturingtownsofEngland，butWalesbenefitedbyit。Itextendedthefranchisetothecopyholder，andtothefarmerpaying50
poundsrent，inthecounties；itgavethetownsauniform10poundshouseholdfranchise。Italsobroughtmanyofthetownsintothesystemofrepresentation。Itraisedthenumberofmembersfromtwenty—seventothirty—two；theagriculturaldistrictsgettingtwo，andtheminingdistrictstwo。
Theslightchangeinrepresentationisarecognitionofthegrowingindustriesofthecountry，especiallyinthecoalandirondistricts。
ThecoalofthegreatcoalfieldofSouthWaleshadbeenworkedasfarbackasNormantimes；butitwasinthenineteenthcenturythatthecoalandironindustriesofSouthWales，andthecoalandslateindustriesofNorthWalesbecameimportant。Cardiff，Swansea，andNewportbecameimportantports；andplacesthatfewhadeverheardofbefore——likeYstradyfodwgorBlaenauFfestiniog——becamethecentresofimportantindustries。But，in1832，Waleswasstillmainlypastoralandagricultural；andtheAct，thoughitdidmuchforthetowns，lefttherepresentationofthecountiesinthehandsofthesameclass。Still，itwasthetownsthatshoweddisappointment，aswasseenintheChartismofthewooldistrictofLlanidloesandofthecoaldistrictofNewport。
ThesecondReformAct，of1867，gaveMerthyrTydviltworepresentativesinsteadofone，otherwiseitleftthedistributionofseatsasithadbeenbefore。Butthenewextensionofthefranchise—
—totheboroughhouseholder，theborough10poundslodger，andespeciallythe12poundstenantfarmer——gavenewclassespoliticalpower。Itwasfollowedbyafiercestrugglebetweentheoldlandedgentryandtheirtenants，astrugglewhichwasmoderatedtoacertainextentbytheBallotActof1870，andbythegreatmigrationofthecountrypopulationtotheslateandcoaldistricts。
TherapidriseoftheimportanceoftheindustrialdistrictsisseeninthethirdReformActof1885。ThecountrydistrictsrepresentedbythesmallboroughsoftheagriculturalcountiesofBrecon，Cardigan，Pembroke，andAnglesey，werewhollyorpartlydisfranchised。ButtheslatecountyofCarnarvonshirehadanadditionalmember；andinthecoalandironcountry，SwanseaandCarmarthenshireandMonmouthshirehadoneadditionalmembereach，andGlamorganthree。
ThethirdReformActenfranchisedtheagriculturallabourerandthecountryartisan。InEnglandmanydoubtswereexpressedabouttheintelligenceorthecolourofthepoliticsofthenewvoter；but，inWales，mostwouldadmitthathewasasintelligentasanyvoterenfranchisedbeforehim；allknewtherecouldbenodoubtabouthispolitics。
ThecharacteroftherepresentationofWaleshasentirelychanged。
Thesquiregaveplacetothecapitalist，andthecapitalisttopopularleaders。Wales，whosepeopleblindlyfollowedthegentryintheGreatCivilWar，isnowthemostdemocraticpartofBritain。