andtoconsiderhowtheevilsmightbecorrectedwhilefreeplaymightbeallowedtothebeneficialtendencies。Itenlightenedhim，hesays，moreespeciallyonthegreatquestionofcentralisation，andfreedhimfromthe’unreasoningprejudices’
whichledsomeoftheradicalstoopposeevensuchmeasuresasthenewPoorLaw。5*SomuchmayindicateMill’sgeneralattitude；and，ifhisconclusionswerequestionable，themainpurposewassofareminentlyphilosophical。
MillbeginshisLibertybyinsistinguponthedangertowhichhisattentionhadbeenrousedbythecourseofevents。Theconflictbetweenlibertyandauthorityledtothedemandthatrulersshouldbecome。responsibletotheirsubjects；andwhenthisresultwassecured，anewevilappeared。Thetyrannyofthemajoritymightsupplantthetyrannyofrulers；and，iflessformidablepolitically，mightbeevenworsespiritually。’Socialtyranny’maybemorepenetrativethanpolitical，andenslavethesoulitself。6*InEnglandthe’yokeoflaw’maybelighter，butthe’yokeofopinion’isperhapsheavierthanelsewhereinEurope。Whenthemasseshavelearnedtheirpower，theywillprobablybeastyrannicalinlegislationasinpublicopinion。7*Thepurposeofhisessayistoassert’oneverysimpleprinciple’bywhichthistendencymayberestrained。Thatprincipleisbrieflythatthesoleendwhichwarrantsinterferencewithindividualactionis’self-protection。’Hewillarguenotfrom’abstractrights，’butfrom’utility’understoodinitslargestsense，andcorresponding’totheinterestsofamanasaprogressivebeing。’
II。INTELLECTUALLIBERTY
Theprinciplethusformulatedisapplicablebothinthesphereofspeculationandinthesphereofconduct。Millfirstconsiders’libertyofthoughtanddiscussion。’Hehasheretheadvantageofstartingfromagenerallyadmittedprinciple。Everyonenowadmits，inwordsatleast，thedoctrineoftoleration。
Millmighthaveadducedacatenaofauthoritiesbeginningwiththeseventeenthcenturywriterswho，havingthemselvessufferedpersecution，wereslowlyperceivingthatpersecutionevenoferrorwasobjectionable。Itisaproofofhisabilitythathecouldgivefreshinteresttosooldatopic。Inthepreviousgenerationindeedithadstillbeenapracticalquestion。TheearlyUtilitarianshadtoattackthedisqualificationsimposedupondissenters，andhadremonstratedagainstthepersecutionofCarlisle。ThatincidenthadstartedMill’sliterarycareer。
Moreover，ashepointsout，theprosecutionsofPooley，Truelove，andMrHolyoakeshowedthattheoldspiritwasnotextinctin1857。8*Still，thesewerebut’ragsandremnantsofpersecution。’IndenouncingthemMillwasgoingwiththetide。
Thegrounduponwhichheplantshisargumentismoresignificant。
Theolderwritershadchieflyinsisteduponthequestionofright。Itcannotbejusttopunishamanforactingrightly，anditmustsurelyberightformetospeakwhatIconscientiouslybelievetobetrue。OneofJamesMill’sarticlesintheWestminstertookthisground。SamuelBaileyhadarguedthatamancannotberesponsibletomenforhisbeliefs，inasmuchastheyarebeyondhisowncontrol。Hemaybefoolish，buthecannotbeimmoral——athesiswhichJamesMilldefendedagainstcertaintheologicalopponents。9*J。S。Mill，takingthegroundof’utility，’isledtowiderconsiderations。Hearguesinsubstancethatthesuppressionofopinionsoroftheirfreeutteranceisalwaysopposedtothemostvitalinterestsofsociety。Hencethequestionastolibertyofthoughtconnectsitselfwiththewholequestionastolibertyofconduct。Itcomesunderhisgeneralprincipleastotherightfulprovincesofcollectiveandindividualaction。Hisgeneralconclusionuponfreedomofdismissionissummedupinfourpropositions。10*Theopinionssuppressedmay，inthefirstplace，betrue。Todenythatpossibilityistoassumeinfallibility。Secondly，ifnotwholly，theymaybepartly，true；andtosuppressthemistopreventnecessarycorrectionsoftheacceptedbeliefs。Thirdly，evenatrueopinionwhichrefusestobetestedbycontroversywillbeimperfectlyunderstood。Andfourthly，anopinionsoheldwillbecomeadeadformula，andonly’cumbertheground，’preventingthegrowthofrealandheartfeltconvictions。
Thegeneralvalidityoftheargumentsisunimpeachable，andthevigourofstatementdeservesallcommendation。Millputsvictoriouslythecasefortheentirefreedomofthoughtanddiscussion。Therealgenerosityofsentiment，andtheobvioussinceritywhichcomesfrompreachingwhathehadpractised，givesnewforcetowell-worntopics。Theinterestoftheracenotonlyrequiresthefullestpossiblelibertytoformandtocommunicateourownopinions，butrathermakesthepracticeaduty。ThoughMillgivestheessentialreasons，hispresentationofthecasehassignificantpeculiarities。Evenifanopinionbetrue，hesays，itoughttobeopentodiscussion。Heproceedstourgethemoredoubtfulpoint，thatcontradiction，evenwhenthetruthiscontradicted，isdesirableinitself。Freediscussionnotonlydestroyserror，butinvigoratestruth。Itpreservesawholesomeintellectualatmosphere，whichkillstheweedsandstimulatesthehealthygrowths。Inmathematicalreasoning，indeed，theevidenceisallononeside。Therearenoobjections，andnoanswerstoobjections。Butassoonaswereachanyquestionofthetruthsevenofphysical，andstillmoreofthemoral，sciences，truthmustbeattainedbybalancing’twosetsofconflictingreasons。’11*Thedoctrine，trueorfalse，whichisnotcontradicted，comestobeheldasa’deadbelief。’Anobjectorissupposedtoobservethatonthisshowing，theexistenceoferrorisnecessarytothevitalityoftruth，andthatabeliefmustperishjustbecauseitisunanimouslyaccepted。Mill’affirmsnosuchthing。’Headmits’thatthestockofacceptedtruthsmustincrease。’Butthegrowthofunanimity，though’inevitableandindispensable，’hasitsdrawbacks。Itwouldbedesirabletoencouragecontradictionevenbyartificialcontrivances。TheSocraticdialecticsandtheschooldisputationsmoreorlesssuppliedawantwhichwehavenownomeansofsatisfying。12*Bysystematicdiscussionoffirstprinciples，menareforcedtounderstandthefullbearingandthetruegroundsoftheirprofessedbeliefs。Thisdoctrineisillustrated，andnodoubtwasderivedinpartfromtheearlydiscussionsinwhichMillhadtrainedhislogicalpowers。Itsuggestsavaluablemodeofmentaldiscipline；butasastatementoftheconditionsofbelief，itseemstoconfusetheaccidentwiththeessence。Thebarefactofsincerecontradictionsurelytendstoweakenbelief；andresistancetocontradiction，thoughitmeasuresthestrengthofbelief，isnotthecauseofitsstrength。Nodoubtatruthmaybestrengthenedinpassingthroughtheordealofcontradiction，sofaraswearethusforcedtorealiseitsmeaning。Thesameresultmaybeproducedbyothermeans，and，aboveall，byapplyingbelieftopractice。Webelieveinarithmeticaltruths，partlybecausetheoftenerwehavetocountthemorewerealisethetruththattwoandtwomakefour。Whatevertheoriginalsourceofourbeliefs，thewaytomakethemvividistoactuponthem。Millhimselfincidentallyobservesthatmenhavealivingbeliefinreligiousdoctrines，’justuptothepointtowhichitisusualtoactuponthem。’13*That，Itakeit，hitsthepoint。Thedoctrine，forexample，thatweshouldturnthesecondcheekispracticallysuperseded，notbecauseitisnevercontradicted，butbecauseitdoesnotcorrespondtoourgenuinepassionsoractions。Beliefs，trueorerroneous，preservetheirvitalitysolongastheyareputintopractice，andnotthelessbecausetheyareheldunanimously。Whatistrueisthattheyarethenratherinstinctsthanopinions。Beliefsdonotdiewhenunchallenged，butarethemorelikelytobe’dormant’orheldimplicitlywithoutconsciousformulation。
Thisleadstoafurtherresult。AsMillinsistsintheLogic，’verification’isanessentialpartofproof。Toactuponabeliefisonewayofverifying。Thefactthatweapplyatheorysuccessfullyisalsoavalidproofthatitistrueinthegreatmassofeverydayknowledge。Butareligiousbeliefisnotverifiedinthesamesense。ThefactthatIactuponit，andamsatisfiedwithmyaction，provesthatitisinharmonywithmyemotions，notthatitisatruestatementaboutfacts。Thepersuasiveforceoftenremains，thoughthelogichasbecomeunsatisfactory。Thissuggeststhequestionastothenatureofasatisfactory’verification。’Weclearlyholdinnumerablebeliefswhichwehavenotfullytestedforourselves。Millsupposeshisopponenttourgethatsimplepeoplemusttakemanythingsontrust。14*Wemightrathersaythateventhewisesthastotakenine-tenthsofhisbeliefsontrust。Wemayrightlybelievemanytruthswhichweareincompetenteithertodiscoverortoprovedirectlybecausewecanverifythemindirectly。Wecanacceptwholesystemsoftruth，thoughweareunabletofollowthedirectproofs。Abeliefinastronomicaltheories，forexample，isjustifiedforthevastmajority，notbecausetheycanunderstandtheargumentsofLaplaceorNewton，butbecausetheymayknowhowelaboratelyandminutelytheconclusionsofastronomersaredailyverified。Thequestionisnotwhetherweshouldtakethingsontrust；wecannothelpit；butuponwhatconditionsourtrustbecomesrational。Authoritycannotsimplyjustifyitself；butitisreasonabletotrustanauthoritywhichchallengesconstantexaminationofitscredentialsandthoroughverificationofitsconclusions。
Mill’stendencyisnot，ofcourse，todeny，buttotreatthistooslightly。Heisinclinedtoregard’authority’assomethinglogicallyopposedtoreason，or，inotherwords，toaccepttheoldProtestantversionofthe’rightofprivatejudgment’；ortospeakasifeverymanhadtobuilduphiswholestructureofbelieffromtheveryfoundations。Thereis，hewouldadmit，astructureofknowledgeerectedbytheconvergenceofcompetentinquirers，andtestedbyfreediscussionandcarefulverificationateverypointofitsgrowth。Newtheoriesgiveandreceivestrengthfromtheir’solidarity’withestablishedtheories；and’authority’isderivedfromthereciprocalconsiderationsofvariousresultsofinvestigation。Millisapttospeakasifeachthinkerandeachopinionwereisolated。The’realadvantagewhichtruthhas，consists，’hesays，’inthis，thatthoughatrueopinionmaybeoftensuppressed，itwillbegenerallyrediscovered，andmayberediscoveredatafavourablemoment，whenitwillescapepersecutionandgrowstrongenoughtodefenditself。’15*Persecutionmaysucceedandoftenhassucceeded。
Thedoctrinethatitcannotsucceedisa’pleasantfalsehood’
whichhasbecomecommonplacebyrepetition。Thestatementissurelyincomplete。Errors，liketruths，maybe’rediscovered’orrevived。Thereare’idolsofthetribe’——fallaciesdependentuponpermanentweaknessesoftheintellectitself，whichappearatallagesandmaygainstrengthunderfavourablecircumstances。
Truthbecomesdefinitivelyestablishedwhenitiscapableoffittinginwithanucleusofverifiedandundeniabletruth。Millseemstohaveinmindsuchatruthasthediscoveryofaparticularfact。IftheexistenceofAmericahadbeenforgotten，itwouldberediscoveredbythenextColumbus。IfthedreamofanAtlantishadoncevanished，weneedneverdreamitagain。Butthestatementisinadequatewhenthetruthdiscoveredissomenewlawwhichnotmerelyaddstoourknowledge，buthelpstosystematiseandtoaffectourwholemethodofreasoning。
ThispositionaffectsMill’sviewoftheefficacyofpersecution。Heargues，ratheroddly，fromthesuppressionofLollards，Hussites，andProtestants。Millcertainlydidnotholdthatthesuppressedopinionsweretrue；andhedoesnotattempttoprovethattheywouldnothavediedoutofthemselves。IfProtestantismwassuppressedinSpain，thereasonmayhavebeenthatitwassolittlecongenialtotheSpanishpeople，thatthepersecutionswereonthesideofthereallydominanttendenciesofthemajority。Thatatreewithoutrootsmayfallthequickerwhenthewindblowsneedsnoproof；butisnotconclusiveastotheeffectuponalivingtree。Thetrueview，Iventuretothink，isdifferent。16*Opinionsarenotasetofseparatedogmaswhichcanbecaughtandstampedoutbythemselves。Solongasthoughtisactiveitworksbymethodstoosubtletobemetbysuchcoarseweapons。Itallowsthedogmatopersist，butevacuatesitofmeaning。Thewholestructurebecomeshoneycombedandrotten，aswheninFrancescepticshadlearnedtosayeverythingwithoutovertlysayinganything。Persecutiondirectedagainstthisorthatseparatetheoryonlyembittersandpoisonsaprocesswhichisinevitableifpeoplearetothinkatall；andpersecutioncanonlysucceed，eitherwhereitissuperfluous，orwhereitissosystematicandvigorousastosuppressallintellectualactivity。Ineithercasetheresultismostlamentable，andtheadmissiononlystrengthensthecaseagainstpersecuting。Persecutioncanonlysucceedbyparalysingthewholeintellectualmovement。