Inanaristocracy,whenanyoftheassemblydieth,theelectionofanotherintohisroombelongedtotheassembly,asthesovereign,towhombelongedthechoosingofallcounsellorsandofficers。Forthatwhichtherepresentativedoth,asactor,everyoneofthesubjectsdoth,asauthor。Andthoughthesovereignassemblymaygivepowertootherstoelectnewmen,forsupplyoftheircourt,yetitisstillbytheirauthoritythattheelectionismade;andbythesameitmay,whenthepublicshallrequireit,berecalled。
Thegreatestdifficultyabouttherightofsuccessionisinmonarchy:andthedifficultyarisethfromthis,thatatfirstsight,itisnotmanifestwhoistoappointthesuccessor;normanytimeswhoitiswhomhehathappointed。Forinboththesecases,thereisrequiredamoreexactratiocinationthaneverymanisaccustomedtouse。Astothequestionwhoshallappointthesuccessorofamonarchthathaththesovereignauthority;thatistosay,whoshalldetermineoftherightofinheritanceforelectivekingsandprinceshavenotthesovereignpowerinpropriety,butinuseonly,wearetoconsiderthateitherhethatisinpossessionhasrighttodisposeofthesuccession,orelsethatrightisagaininthedissolvedmultitude。
Forthedeathofhimthathaththesovereignpowerinpropertyleavesthemultitudewithoutanysovereignatall;thatis,withoutanyrepresentativeinwhomtheyshouldbeunited,andbecapableofdoinganyoneactionatall:andthereforetheyareincapableofelectionofanynewmonarch,everymanhavingequalrighttosubmithimselftosuchashethinksbestabletoprotecthim;or,ifhecan,protecthimselfbyhisownsword;whichisareturntoconfusionandtotheconditionofawarofeverymanagainsteveryman,contrarytotheendforwhichmonarchyhaditsfirstinstitution。
Thereforeitismanifestthatbytheinstitutionofmonarchy,thedisposingofthesuccessorisalwayslefttothejudgementandwillofthepresentpossessor。
Andforthequestionwhichmayarisesometimes,whoitisthatthemonarchinpossessionhathdesignedtothesuccessionandinheritanceofhispower,itisdeterminedbyhisexpresswordsandtestament;orbyothertacitsignssufficient。
Byexpresswords,ortestament,whenitisdeclaredbyhiminhislifetime,vivavoce,orbywriting;asthefirstemperorsofRomedeclaredwhoshouldbetheirheirs。Forthewordheirdoesnotofitselfimplythechildrenornearestkindredofaman;butwhomsoeveramanshallanywaydeclarehewouldhavetosucceedhiminhisestate。Ifthereforeamonarchdeclareexpresslythatsuchamanshallbehisheir,eitherbywordorwriting,thenisthatmanimmediatelyafterthedeceaseofhispredecessorinvestedintherightofbeingmonarch。
Butwheretestamentandexpresswordsarewanting,othernaturalsignsofthewillaretobefollowed:whereoftheoneiscustom。Andthereforewherethecustomisthatthenextofkindredabsolutelysucceedeth,therealsothenextofkindredhathrighttothesuccession;forthat,ifthewillofhimthatwasinpossessionhadbeenotherwise,hemighteasilyhavedeclaredthesameinhislifetime。Andlikewisewherethecustomisthatthenextofthemalekindredsucceedeth,therealsotherightofsuccessionisinthenextofthekindredmale,forthesamereason。Andsoitisifthecustomweretoadvancethefemale。Forwhatsoevercustomamanmaybyawordcontrol,anddoesnot,itisanaturalsignhewouldhavethatcustomstand。
Butwhereneithercustomnortestamenthathpreceded,thereitistoheunderstood;first,thatamonarch’swillisthatthegovernmentremainmonarchical,becausehehathapprovedthatgovernmentinhimself。Secondly,thatachildofhisown,maleorfemale,bepreferredbeforeanyother,becausemenarepresumedtobemoreinclinedbynaturetoadvancetheirownchildrenthanthechildrenofothermen;andoftheirown,ratheramalethanafemale,becausemenarenaturallyfitterthanwomenforactionsoflabouranddanger。Thirdly,wherehisownissuefaileth,ratherabrotherthanastranger,andsostillthenearerinbloodratherthanthemoreremote,becauseitisalwayspresumedthatthenearerofkinisthenearerinaffection;anditisevidentthatamanreceivesalways,byreflection,themosthonourfromthegreatnessofhisnearestkindred。
Butifitbelawfulforamonarchtodisposeofthesuccessionbywordsofcontract,ortestament,menmayperhapsobjectagreatinconvenience:forhemaysellorgivehisrightofgoverningtoastranger;which,becausestrangersthatis,mennotusedtoliveunderthesamegovernment,norspeakingthesamelanguagedocommonlyundervalueoneanother,mayturntotheoppressionofhissubjects,whichisindeedagreatinconvenience:butitproceedethnotnecessarilyfromthesubjectiontoastranger’sgovernment,butfromtheunskillfulnessofthegovernors,ignorantofthetruerulesofpolitics。AndthereforetheRomans,whentheyhadsubduedmanynations,tomaketheirgovernmentdigestiblewerewonttotakeawaythatgrievanceasmuchastheythoughtnecessarybygivingsometimestowholenations,andsometimestoprincipalmenofeverynationtheyconquered,notonlytheprivileges,butalsothenameofRomans;andtookmanyofthemintotheSenate,andofficesofcharge,evenintheRomancity。Andthiswasitourmostwiseking,KingJames,aimedatinendeavouringtheunionofhistworealmsofEnglandandScotland。Which,ifhecouldhaveobtained,hadinalllikelihoodpreventedthecivilwarswhichboththosekingdoms,atthispresent,miserable。Itisnotthereforeanyinjurytothepeopleforamonarchtodisposeofthesuccessionbywill;thoughbythefaultofmanyprinces,ithathbeensometimesfoundinconvenient。Ofthelawfulnessofit,thisalsoisanargument;thatwhatsoeverinconveniencecanarrivebygivingakingdomtoastranger,mayarrivealsobysomarryingwithstrangers,astherightofsuccessionmaydescenduponthem:yetthisbyallmenisaccountedlawful。
OFDOMINIONPATERNALANDDESPOTICAL
ACOMMONWEALTHbyacquisitionisthatwherethesovereignpowerisacquiredbyforce;anditisacquiredbyforcewhenmensingly,ormanytogetherbypluralityofvoices,forfearofdeath,orbonds,doauthorisealltheactionsofthatman,orassembly,thathaththeirlivesandlibertyinhispower。
Andthiskindofdominion,orsovereignty,differethfromsovereigntybyinstitutiononlyinthis,thatmenwhochoosetheirsovereigndoitforfearofoneanother,andnotofhimwhomtheyinstitute:butinthiscase,theysubjectthemselvestohimtheyareafraidof。Inbothcasestheydoitforfear:whichistobenotedbythemthatholdallsuchcovenants,asproceedfromfearofdeathorviolence,void:which,ifitweretrue,nomaninanykindofCommonwealthcouldbeobligedtoobedience。ItistruethatinaCommonwealthonceinstituted,oracquired,promisesproceedingfromfearofdeathorviolencearenocovenants,norobliging,whenthethingpromisediscontrarytothelaws;butthereasonisnotbecauseitwasmadeuponfear,butbecausehethatpromisethhathnorightinthethingpromised。Also,whenhemaylawfullyperform,anddothnot,itisnottheinvalidityofthecovenantthatabsolvethhim,butthesentenceofthesovereign。Otherwise,whensoeveramanlawfullypromiseth,heunlawfullybreaketh:butwhenthesovereign,whoistheactor,acquittethhim,thenheisacquittedbyhimthatextortedthepromise,asbytheauthorofsuchabsolution。
Buttherightsandconsequencesofsovereigntyarethesameinboth。
Hispowercannot,withouthisconsent,betransferredtoanother:hecannotforfeitit:hecannotbeaccusedbyanyofhissubjectsofinjury:hecannotbepunishedbythem:heisjudgeofwhatisnecessaryforpeace,andjudgeofdoctrines:heissolelegislator,andsupremejudgeofcontroversies,andofthetimesandoccasionsofwarandpeace:tohimitbelongedtochoosemagistrates,counsellors,commanders,andallotherofficersandministers;andtodetermineofrewardsandpunishments,honourandorder。Thereasonswhereofarethesamewhichareallegedintheprecedentchapterforthesamerightsandconsequencesofsovereigntybyinstitution。
Dominionisacquiredtwoways:bygenerationandbyconquest。Therightofdominionbygenerationisthatwhichtheparenthathoverhischildren,andiscalledpaternal。Andisnotsoderivedfromthegeneration,asifthereforetheparenthaddominionoverhischildbecausehebegathim,butfromthechild’sconsent,eitherexpressorbyothersufficientargumentsdeclared。Forastothegeneration,Godhathordainedtomanahelper,andtherebealwaystwothatareequallyparents:thedominionthereforeoverthechildshouldbelongequallytoboth,andhebeequallysubjecttoboth,whichisimpossible;fornomancanobeytwomasters。Andwhereassomehaveattributedthedominiontothemanonly,asbeingofthemoreexcellentsex,theymisreckoninit。Forthereisnotalwaysthatdifferenceofstrengthorprudencebetweenthemanandthewomanasthattherightcanbedeterminedwithoutwar。InCommonwealthsthiscontroversyisdecidedbythecivillaw:andforthemostpart,butnotalways,thesentenceisinfavourofthefather,becauseforthemostpartCommonwealthshavebeenerectedbythefathers,notbythemothersoffamilies。Butthequestionliethnowinthestateofmerenaturewheretherearesupposednolawsofmatrimony,nolawsfortheeducationofchildren,butthelawofnatureandthenaturalinclinationofthesexes,onetoanother,andtotheirchildren。Inthisconditionofmerenature,eithertheparentsbetweenthemselvesdisposeofthedominionoverthechildbycontract,ordonotdisposethereofatall。Iftheydisposethereof,therightpassethaccordingtothecontract。WefindinhistorythattheAmazonscontractedwiththemenoftheneighbouringcountries,towhomtheyhadrecourseforissue,thattheissuemaleshouldbesentback,butthefemaleremainwiththemselves:sothatthedominionofthefemaleswasinthemother。
Iftherebenocontract,thedominionisinthemother。Forintheconditionofmerenature,wheretherearenomatrimoniallaws,itcannotbeknownwhoisthefatherunlessitbedeclaredbythemother;
andthereforetherightofdominionoverthechilddependethonherwill,andisconsequentlyhers。Again,seeingtheinfantisfirstinthepowerofthemother,soasshemayeithernourishorexposeit;ifshenourishit,itowethitslifetothemother,andisthereforeobligedtoobeyherratherthananyother;andbyconsequencethedominionoveritishers。Butifsheexposeit,andanotherfindandnourishit,dominionisinhimthatnourishethit。Foritoughttoobeyhimbywhomitispreserved,becausepreservationoflifebeingtheendforwhichonemanbecomessubjecttoanother,everymanissupposedtopromiseobediencetohiminwhosepoweritistosaveordestroyhim。
Ifthemotherbethefather’ssubject,thechildisinthefather’spower;andifthefatherbethemother’ssubjectaswhenasovereignqueenmarriethoneofhersubjects,thechildissubjecttothemother,becausethefatheralsoishersubject。
Ifamanandawoman,monarchsoftwoseveralkingdoms,haveachild,andcontractconcerningwhoshallhavethedominionofhim,therightofthedominionpassethbythecontract。Iftheycontractnot,thedominionfolloweththedominionoftheplaceofhisresidence。Forthesovereignofeachcountryhathdominionoverallthatresidetherein。
Hethathaththedominionoverthechildhathdominionalsooverthechildrenofthechild,andovertheirchildren’schildren。Forhethathathdominionoverthepersonofamanhathdominionoverallthatishis,withoutwhichdominionwerebutatitlewithouttheeffect。
Therightofsuccessiontopaternaldominionproceedethinthesamemannerasdoththerightofsuccessiontomonarchy,ofwhichI