OFREASONANDSCIENCE
WHENmanreasoneth，hedoesnothingelsebutconceiveasumtotal，fromadditionofparcels；orconceivearemainder，fromsubtractionofonesumfromanother：which，ifitbedonebywords，isconceivingoftheconsequenceofthenamesofalltheparts，tothenameofthewhole；orfromthenamesofthewholeandonepart，tothenameoftheotherpart。Andthoughinsomethings，asinnumbers，besidesaddingandsubtracting，mennameotheroperations，asmultiplyinganddividing；yettheyarethesame：formultiplicationisbutaddingtogetherofthingsequal；anddivision，butsubtractingofonething，asoftenaswecan。Theseoperationsarenotincidenttonumbersonly，buttoallmannerofthingsthatcanbeaddedtogether，andtakenoneoutofanother。Forasarithmeticiansteachtoaddandsubtractinnumbers，sothegeometriciansteachthesameinlines，figuressolidandsuperficial，angles，proportions，times，degreesofswiftness，force，power，andthelike；thelogiciansteachthesameinconsequencesofwords，addingtogethertwonamestomakeanaffirmation，andtwoaffirmationstomakeasyllogism，andmanysyllogismstomakeademonstration；andfromthesum，orconclusionofasyllogism，theysubtractonepropositiontofindtheother。Writersofpoliticsaddtogetherpactionstofindmen’sduties；
andlawyers，lawsandfactstofindwhatisrightandwrongintheactionsofprivatemen。Insum，inwhatmattersoeverthereisplaceforadditionandsubtraction，therealsoisplaceforreason；andwherethesehavenoplace，therereasonhasnothingatalltodo。
Outofallwhichwemaydefinethatistosaydeterminewhatthatiswhichismeantbythiswordreasonwhenwereckonitamongstthefacultiesofthemind。Forreason，inthissense，isnothingbutreckoningthatis，addingandsubtractingoftheconsequencesofgeneralnamesagreeduponforthemarkingandsignifyingofourthoughts；Isaymarkingthem，whenwereckonbyourselves；andsignifying，whenwedemonstrateorapproveourreckoningstoothermen。
Andasinarithmeticunpractisedmenmust，andprofessorsthemselvesmayoften，err，andcastupfalse；soalsoinanyothersubjectofreasoning，theablest，mostattentive，andmostpractisedmenmaydeceivethemselves，andinferfalseconclusions；notbutthatreasonitselfisalwaysrightreason，aswellasarithmeticisacertainandinfallibleart：butnooneman’sreason，northereasonofanyonenumberofmen，makesthecertainty；nomorethananaccountisthereforewellcastupbecauseagreatmanymenhaveunanimouslyapprovedit。Andtherefore，aswhenthereisacontroversyinanaccount，thepartiesmustbytheirownaccordsetupforrightreasonthereasonofsomearbitrator，orjudge，towhosesentencetheywillbothstand，ortheircontroversymusteithercometoblows，orbeundecided，forwantofarightreasonconstitutedbyNature；soisitalsoinalldebatesofwhatkindsoever：andwhenmenthatthinkthemselveswiserthanallothersclamouranddemandrightreasonforjudge，yetseeknomorebutthatthingsshouldbedeterminedbynoothermen’sreasonbuttheirown，itisasintolerableinthesocietyofmen，asitisinplayaftertrumpisturnedtousefortrumponeveryoccasionthatsuitwhereoftheyhavemostintheirhand。Fortheydonothingelse，thatwillhaveeveryoftheirpassions，asitcomestobearswayinthem，tobetakenforrightreason，andthatintheirowncontroversies：bewrayingtheirwantofrightreasonbytheclaimtheylaytoit。
Theuseandendofreasonisnotthefindingofthesumandtruthofone，orafewconsequences，remotefromthefirstdefinitionsandsettledsignificationsofnames；buttobeginatthese，andproceedfromoneconsequencetoanother。Fortherecanbenocertaintyofthelastconclusionwithoutacertaintyofallthoseaffirmationsandnegationsonwhichitwasgroundedandinferred。Aswhenamasterofafamily，intakinganaccount，castethupthesumsofallthebillsofexpenseintoonesum；andnotregardinghoweachbillissummedup，bythosethatgivetheminaccount，norwhatitishepaysfor，headvantageshimselfnomorethanifheallowedtheaccountingross，trustingtoeveryoftheaccountant’sskillandhonesty：
soalsoinreasoningofallotherthings，hethattakesupconclusionsonthetrustofauthors，anddothnotfetchthemfromthefirstitemsineveryreckoningwhicharethesignificationsofnamessettledbydefinitions，loseshislabour，anddoesnotknowanything，butonlybelieveth。
Whenamanreckonswithouttheuseofwords，whichmaybedoneinparticularthings，aswhenuponthesightofanyonething，weconjecturewhatwaslikelytohavepreceded，orislikelytofollowuponit；ifthatwhichhethoughtlikelytofollowfollowsnot，orthatwhichhethoughtlikelytohaveprecededithathnotprecededit，thisiscallederror；towhicheventhemostprudentmenaresubject。Butwhenwereasoninwordsofgeneralsignification，andfalluponageneralinferencewhichisfalse；thoughitbecommonlycallederror，itisindeedanabsurdity，orsenselessspeech。Forerrorisbutadeception，inpresumingthatsomewhatispast，ortocome；ofwhich，thoughitwerenotpast，ornottocome，yettherewasnoimpossibilitydiscoverable。Butwhenwemakeageneralassertion，unlessitbeatrueone，thepossibilityofitisinconceivable。Andwordswherebyweconceivenothingbutthesoundarethosewecallabsurd，insignificant，andnonsense。Andthereforeifamanshouldtalktomeofaroundquadrangle；oraccidentsofbreadincheese；
orimmaterialsubstances；orofafreesubject；afreewill；oranyfreebutfreefrombeinghinderedbyopposition；Ishouldnotsayhewereinanerror，butthathiswordswerewithoutmeaning；thatistosay，absurd。
Ihavesaidbefore，inthesecondchapter，thatamandidexcelallotheranimalsinthisfaculty，thatwhenheconceivedanythingwhatsoever，hewasapttoenquiretheconsequencesofit，andwhateffectshecoulddowithit。AndnowIaddthisotherdegreeofthesameexcellence，thathecanbywordsreducetheconsequenceshefindstogeneralrules，calledtheorems，oraphorisms；thatis，hecanreason，orreckon，notonlyinnumber，butinallotherthingswhereofonemaybeaddeduntoorsubtractedfromanother。
Butthisprivilegeisallayedbyanother；andthatisbytheprivilegeofabsurdity，towhichnolivingcreatureissubject，butmenonly。Andofmen，thoseareofallmostsubjecttoitthatprofessphilosophy。ForitismosttruethatCicerosaithofthemsomewhere；
thattherecanbenothingsoabsurdbutmaybefoundinthebooksofphilosophers。Andthereasonismanifest。Forthereisnotoneofthemthatbeginshisratiocinationfromthedefinitionsorexplicationsofthenamestheyaretouse；whichisamethodthathathbeenusedonlyingeometry，whoseconclusionshavetherebybeenmadeindisputable。
1。ThefirstcauseofabsurdconclusionsIascribetothewantofmethod；inthattheybeginnottheirratiocinationfromdefinitions；
thatis，fromsettledsignificationsoftheirwords：asiftheycouldcastaccountwithoutknowingthevalueofthenumeralwords，one，two，andthree。
Andwhereasallbodiesenterintoaccountupondiverseconsiderations，whichIhavementionedintheprecedentchapter，theseconsiderationsbeingdiverselynamed，diverseabsurditiesproceedfromtheconfusionandunfitconnexionoftheirnamesintoassertions。
Andtherefore，2。Thesecondcauseofabsurdassertions，Iascribetothegivingofnamesofbodiestoaccidents；orofaccidentstobodies；astheydothatsay，faithisinfused，orinspired；whennothingcanbepoured，orbreathedintoanything，butbody；andthatextensionisbody；
thatphantasmsarespirits，etc。
3。ThethirdIascribetothegivingofthenamesoftheaccidentsofbodieswithoutustotheaccidentsofourownbodies；astheydothatsay，thecolourisinthebody；thesoundisintheair，etc。
4。Thefourth，tothegivingofthenamesofbodiestonames，orspeeches；astheydothatsaythattherebethingsuniversal；thatalivingcreatureisgenus，orageneralthing，etc。
5。Thefifth，tothegivingofthenamesofaccidentstonamesandspeeches；astheydothatsay，thenatureofathingisitsdefinition；aman’scommandishiswill；andthelike。
6。Thesixth，totheuseofmetaphors，tropes，andotherrhetoricalfigures，insteadofwordsproper。Forthoughitbelawfultosay，forexample，incommonspeech，thewaygoeth，orleadethhither，orthither；theproverbsaysthisorthatwhereaswayscannotgo，norproverbsspeak；yetinreckoning，andseekingoftruth，suchspeechesarenottobeadmitted。
7。Theseventh，tonamesthatsignifynothing，butaretakenupandlearnedbyrotefromtheSchools，ashypostatical，transubstantiate，consubstantiate，eternal-now，andthelikecantingofSchoolmen。
Tohimthatcanavoidthesethings，itisnoteasytofallintoanyabsurdity，unlessitbebythelengthofanaccount；whereinhemayperhapsforgetwhatwentbefore。Forallmenbynaturereasonalike，andwell，whentheyhavegoodprinciples。Forwhoissostupidasbothtomistakeingeometry，andalsotopersistinit，whenanotherdetectshiserrortohim？
Bythisitappearsthatreasonisnot，assenseandmemory，bornwithus；norgottenbyexperienceonly，asprudenceis；butattainedbyindustry：firstinaptimposingofnames；andsecondlybygettingagoodandorderlymethodinproceedingfromtheelements，whicharenames，toassertionsmadebyconnexionofoneofthemtoanother；
andsotosyllogisms，whicharetheconnexionsofoneassertiontoanother，tillwecometoaknowledgeofalltheconsequencesofnamesappertainingtothesubjectinhand；andthatisit，mencallscience。Andwhereassenseandmemoryarebutknowledgeoffact，whichisathingpastandirrevocable，scienceistheknowledgeofconsequences，anddependenceofonefactuponanother；bywhich，outofthatwecanpresentlydo，weknowhowtodosomethingelsewhenwewill，orthelike，anothertime：becausewhenweseehowanythingcomesabout，uponwhatcauses，andbywhatmanner；whenthelikecausescomeintoourpower，weseehowtomakeitproducethelikeeffects。
Childrenthereforearenotenduedwithreasonatall，tilltheyhaveattainedtheuseofspeech，butarecalledreasonablecreaturesforthepossibilityapparentofhavingtheuseofreasonintimetocome。Andthemostpartofmen，thoughtheyhavetheuseofreasoningalittleway，asinnumberingtosomedegree；yetitservesthemtolittleuseincommonlife，inwhichtheygovernthemselves，somebetter，someworse，accordingtotheirdifferencesofexperience，quicknessofmemory，andinclinationstoseveralends；butspeciallyaccordingtogoodorevilfortune，andtheerrorsofoneanother。Forasforscience，orcertainrulesoftheiractions，theyaresofarfromitthattheyknownotwhatitis。Geometrytheyhavethoughtconjuring：butforothersciences，theywhohavenotbeentaughtthebeginnings，andsomeprogressinthem，thattheymayseehowtheybeacquiredandgenerated，areinthispointlikechildrenthat，havingnothoughtofgeneration，aremadebelievebythewomenthattheirbrothersandsistersarenotborn，butfoundinthegarden。
Butyettheythathavenoscienceareinbetterandnoblerconditionwiththeirnaturalprudencethanmenthat，bymisreasoning，orbytrustingthemthatreasonwrong，falluponfalseandabsurdgeneralrules。Forignoranceofcauses，andofrules，doesnotsetmensofaroutoftheirwayasrelyingonfalserules，andtakingforcausesofwhattheyaspireto，thosethatarenotso，butrathercausesofthecontrary。
Toconclude，thelightofhumanemindsisperspicuouswords，butbyexactdefinitionsfirstsnuffed，andpurgedfromambiguity；
reasonisthepace；increaseofscience，theway；andthebenefitofmankind，theend。And，onthecontrary，metaphors，andsenselessandambiguouswordsarelikeignesfatui；andreasoninguponthemiswanderingamongstinnumerableabsurdities；andtheirend，contentionandsedition，orcontempt。
Asmuchexperienceisprudence，soismuchsciencesapience。Forthoughweusuallyhaveonenameofwisdomforthemboth；yettheLatinsdidalwaysdistinguishbetweenprudentiaandsapientia；
ascribingtheformertoexperience，thelattertoscience。Buttomaketheirdifferenceappearmoreclearly，letussupposeonemanenduedwithanexcellentnaturaluseanddexterityinhandlinghisarms；