possible，butthethoughtisnotrelativeto’thatofwhichitis
thethought’；forweshouldthenhavesaidthesamethingtwice。
Similarlysightisthesightofsomething，not’ofthatofwhichitis
thesight’thoughofcourseitistruetosaythis；infactitis
relativetocolourortosomethingelseofthesort。Butaccording
totheotherwayofspeakingthesamethingwouldbesaid
twice，-’thesightisofthatofwhichitis。’
Thingsthatarebytheirownnaturecalledrelativearecalled
sosometimesinthesesenses，sometimesiftheclassesthatinclude
themareofthissort；e。g。medicineisarelativetermbecauseits
genus，science，isthoughttobearelativeterm。Further，thereare
thepropertiesinvirtueofwhichthethingsthathavethemarecalled
relative，e。g。equalityisrelativebecausetheequalis，andlikeness
becausethelikeis。Otherthingsarerelativebyaccident；e。g。aman
isrelativebecausehehappenstobedoubleofsomethinganddoubleis
arelativeterm；orthewhiteisrelative，ifthesamethinghappens
tobedoubleandwhite。
Whatiscalled’complete’is1thatoutsidewhichitisnot
possibletofindany，evenone，ofitsparts；e。g。thecompletetime
ofeachthingisthatoutsidewhichitisnotpossibletofindany
timewhichisapartpropertoit-2Thatwhichinrespectof
excellenceandgoodnesscannotbeexcelledinitskind；e。g。wehavea
completedoctororacompleteflute-player，whentheylacknothing
inrespectoftheformoftheirproperexcellence。Andthus，
transferringthewordtobadthings，wespeakofacomplete
scandal-mongerandacompletethief；indeedweevencallthemgood，
i。e。agoodthiefandagoodscandal-monger。Andexcellenceisa
completion；foreachthingiscompleteandeverysubstanceis
complete，wheninrespectoftheformofitsproperexcellenceit
lacksnopartofitsnaturalmagnitude-3Thethingswhichhave
attainedtheirend，thisbeinggood，arecalledcomplete；forthings
arecompleteinvirtueofhavingattainedtheirend。Therefore，
sincetheendissomethingultimate，wetransferthewordtobad
thingsandsayathinghasbeencompletelyspoilt，andcompletely
destroyed，whenitinnowisefallsshortofdestructionand
badness，butisatitslastpoint。Thisiswhydeath，too，isbya
figureofspeechcalledtheend，becausebotharelastthings。Butthe
ultimatepurposeisalsoanend-Things，then，thatarecalled
completeinvirtueoftheirownnaturearesocalledinallthese
senses，somebecauseinrespectofgoodnesstheylacknothingand
cannotbeexcelledandnopartpropertothemcanbefoundoutside
them，othersingeneralbecausetheycannotbeexceededintheir
severalclassesandnopartpropertothemisoutsidethem；theothers
presupposethesefirsttwokinds，andarecalledcompletebecausethey
eithermakeorhavesomethingofthesortorareadaptedtoitorin
somewayorotherinvolveareferencetothethingsthatarecalled
completeintheprimarysense。
’Limit’means1thelastpointofeachthing，i。e。thefirst
pointbeyondwhichitisnotpossibletofindanypart，andthe
firstpointwithinwhicheverypartis；2theform，whateverit
maybe，ofaspatialmagnitudeorofathingthathasmagnitude；3
theendofeachthingandofthisnatureisthattowardswhichthe
movementandtheactionare，notthatfromwhichtheyare-though
sometimesitisboth，thatfromwhichandthattowhichthemovement
is，i。e。thefinalcause；4thesubstanceofeachthing，andthe
essenceofeach；forthisisthelimitofknowledge；andifof
knowledge，oftheobjectalso。Evidently，therefore，’limit’hasas
manysensesas’beginning’，andyetmore；forthebeginningisa
limit，butnoteverylimitisabeginning。
’Thatinvirtueofwhich’hasseveralmeanings:-1theformor
substanceofeachthing，e。g。thatinvirtueofwhichamanisgoodis
thegooditself，2theproximatesubjectinwhichitisthenature
ofanattributetobefound，e。g。colourinasurface。’Thatinvirtue
ofwhich’，then，intheprimarysenseistheform，andina
secondarysensethematterofeachthingandtheproximate
substratumofeach-Ingeneral’thatinvirtueofwhich’willfoundin
thesamenumberofsensesas’cause’；forwesayindifferently3
invirtueofwhathashecome？’or’forwhatendhashecome？’；and
4invirtueofwhathasheinferredwrongly，orinferred？’or
’whatisthecauseoftheinference，orofthewrong
inference？’-Further5Kath’disusedinreferencetoposition，e。g。
’atwhichhestands’or’alongwhichhewalks；forallsuchphrases
indicateplaceandposition。
Therefore’invirtueofitself’mustlikewisehaveseveral
meanings。Thefollowingbelongtoathinginvirtueofitself:-1the
essenceofeachthing，e。g。CalliasisinvirtueofhimselfCallias
andwhatitwastobeCallias；-2whateverispresentinthe
’what’，e。g。Calliasisinvirtueofhimselfananimal。For’animal’
ispresentinhisdefinition；Calliasisaparticularanimal-3
Whateverattributeathingreceivesinitselfdirectlyorinoneof
itsparts；e。g。asurfaceiswhiteinvirtueofitself，andamanis
aliveinvirtueofhimself；forthesoul，inwhichlifedirectly
resides，isapartoftheman-4Thatwhichhasnocauseother
thanitself；manhasmorethanonecause——animal，two-footed——but
yetmanismaninvirtueofhimself-5Whateverattributesbelongto
athingalone，andinsofarastheybelongtoitmerelybyvirtue
ofitselfconsideredapartbyitself。
’Disposition’meansthearrangementofthatwhichhasparts，in
respecteitherofplaceorofpotencyorofkind；fortheremustbe
acertainposition，aseventheword’disposition’shows。
’Having’means1akindofactivityofthehaverandofwhat
hehas-somethinglikeanactionormovement。Forwhenonething
makesandoneismade，betweenthemthereisamaking；sotoo
betweenhimwhohasagarmentandthegarmentwhichhehasthereis
ahaving。Thissortofhaving，then，evidentlywecannothave；forthe
processwillgoontoinfinity，ifitistobepossibletohavethe
havingofwhatwehave-2’Having’or’habit’meansadisposition
accordingtowhichthatwhichisdisposediseitherwellorill
disposed，andeitherinitselforwithreferencetosomethingelse；
e。g。healthisa’habit’；foritissuchadisposition-3Wespeak
ofa’habit’ifthereisaportionofsuchadisposition；andso
eventheexcellenceofthepartsisa’habit’ofthewholething。
’Affection’means1aqualityinrespectofwhichathingcanbe
altered，e。g。whiteandblack，sweetandbitter，heavinessand
lightness，andallothersofthekind-2Theactualizationof
these-thealreadyaccomplishedalterations-3Especially，
injuriousalterationsandmovements，and，aboveallpainful
injuries-4Misfortunesandpainfulexperienceswhenonalarge
scalearecalledaffections。
Wespeakof’privation’1ifsomethinghasnotoneofthe
attributeswhichathingmightnaturallyhave，evenifthisthing
itselfwouldnotnaturallyhaveit；e。g。aplantissaidtobe
’deprived’ofeyes-2If，thougheitherthethingitselforits
genuswouldnaturallyhaveanattribute，ithasitnot；e。g。ablind
manandamoleareindifferentsenses’deprived’ofsight；thelatter
incontrastwithitsgenus，theformerincontrastwithhisownnormal
nature-3If，thoughitwouldnaturallyhavetheattribute，andwhen
itwouldnaturallyhaveit，ithasitnot；forblindnessisa
privation，butoneisnot’blind’atanyandeveryage，butonlyif
onehasnotsightattheageatwhichonewouldnaturallyhaveit。
Similarlyathingiscalledblindifithasnotsightinthemediumin
which，andinrespectoftheorganinrespectofwhich，andwith
referencetotheobjectwithreferencetowhich，andinthe
circumstancesinwhich，itwouldnaturallyhaveit-4Theviolent
takingawayofanythingiscalledprivation。
Indeedtherearejustasmanykindsofprivationsasthereare
ofwordswithnegativeprefixes；forathingiscalledunequalbecause
ithasnotequalitythoughitwouldnaturallyhaveit，andinvisible
eitherbecauseithasnocolouratallorbecauseithasapoor
colour，andapodouseitherbecauseithasnofeetatallorbecauseit
hasimperfectfeet。Again，aprivativetermmaybeusedbecausethe
thinghaslittleoftheattributeandthismeanshavingitinasense
imperfectly，e。g。’kernel-less’；orbecauseithasitnoteasilyor
notwelle。g。wecallathinguncuttablenotonlyifitcannotbecut
butalsoifitcannotbecuteasilyorwell；orbecauseithasnot
theattributeatall；foritisnottheone-eyedmanbuthewhois
sightlessinbotheyesthatiscalledblind。Thisiswhynoteveryman
is’good’or’bad’，’just’or’unjust’，butthereisalsoan
intermediatestate。
To’have’or’hold’meansmanythings:-1totreatathing
accordingtoone’sownnatureoraccordingtoone’sownimpulse；so
thatfeverissaidtohaveaman，andtyrantstohavetheircities，
andpeopletohavetheclothestheywear-2Thatinwhichathingis
presentasinsomethingreceptiveofitissaidtohavethething；
e。g。thebronzehastheformofthestatue，andthebodyhasthe
disease-3Asthatwhichcontainsholdsthethingscontained；for
athingissaidtobeheldbythatinwhichitisasinacontainer；
e。g。wesaythatthevesselholdstheliquidandthecityholdsmen
andtheshipsailors；andsotoothatthewholeholdstheparts-4
Thatwhichhindersathingfrommovingoractingaccordingtoits
ownimpulseissaidtoholdit，aspillarsholdtheincumbentweights，
andasthepoetsmakeAtlasholdtheheavens，implyingthat
otherwisetheywouldcollapseontheearth，assomeofthenatural
philosophersalsosay。Inthiswayalsothatwhichholdsthings
togetherissaidtoholdthethingsitholdstogether，sincethey
wouldotherwiseseparate，eachaccordingtoitsownimpulse。
’Beinginsomething’hassimilarandcorrespondingmeaningsto
’holding’or’having’。
’Tocomefromsomething’means1tocomefromsomethingas
frommatter，andthisintwosenses，eitherinrespectofthe
highestgenusorinrespectofthelowestspecies；e。g。inasenseall
thingsthatcanbemeltedcomefromwater，butinasensethestatue
comesfrombronze-2Asfromthefirstmovingprinciple；e。g。
’whatdidthefightcomefrom？’Fromabusivelanguage，becausethis
wastheoriginofthefight-3Fromthecompoundofmatterand
shape，asthepartscomefromthewhole，andtheversefromtheIliad，
andthestonesfromthehouse；ineverysuchcasethewholeisa
compoundofmatterandshape，fortheshapeistheend，andonlythat
whichattainsanendiscomplete-4Astheformfromitspart，
e。g。manfrom’two-footed’andsyllablefrom’letter’；forthisisa
differentsensefromthatinwhichthestatuecomesfrombronze；for
thecompositesubstancecomesfromthesensiblematter，buttheform
alsocomesfromthematteroftheform-Somethings，then，aresaidto
comefromsomethingelseinthesesenses；but5othersareso
describedifoneofthesesensesisapplicabletoapartofthatother
thing；e。g。thechildcomesfromitsfatherandmother，andplants
comefromtheearth，becausetheycomefromapartofthose
things-6Itmeanscomingafterathingintime，e。g。nightcomes
fromdayandstormfromfineweather，becausetheonecomesafter
theother。Ofthesethingssomearesodescribedbecausetheyadmitof
changeintooneanother，asinthecasesnowmentioned；somemerely
becausetheyaresuccessiveintime，e。g。thevoyagetookplace’from’
theequinox，becauseittookplaceaftertheequinox，andthefestival
oftheThargeliacomes’from’theDionysia，becauseafterthe
Dionysia。