Democracy，aboveaswellasbelow，isshort—sighted；itseizeswhateverfooditcomesacross，likeananimal，withopenjawsandheaddown；itrefusestoanticipateandtocalculate；itburdensthefutureandwasteseveryfortuneitundertakestomanage，notalonethatofthecentralstate，but，again，thoseofalllocalsocieties。Uptotheadventofuniversalsuffrage，theadministratorsappointedaboveorelectedbelow，inthedepartmentorinthecommune，kepttightholdofthepurse—strings；since1848，especiallysince1870，andstilllater，sincethepassageofthelawsof1882，which，insuppressingtheobligatoryconsentoftheheaviesttaxed，letslipthelastofthesestrings，thispurse，wideopen，isemptiedinthestreet。—In1851，[39]thedepartments，alltogether，expended97millions；in1869，192millions；in1881，314millions。In1836，thecommunes，alltogether，saveParis，expended117millions，in1862，450millions，in1877，676millions。Ifweexaminethereceiptscoveringthisexpenditure，wefindthattheadditionalcentimeswhichsuppliedthelocalbudgets，in1820，with80millions，and，in1850，with131
millions，suppliedthem，in1870，with249millions，in1880，with318
millions，and，in1887，with364millions。Theannualincrease，therefore，ofthesesuperaddedcentimestotheprincipalofthedirecttaxesisenormous，andfinallyendsinanoverflow。In1874，[40]therewerealready24departmentsinwhichthesumofadditionalcentimesreachedorsurpassedthesumoftheprincipal。\"Inaveryfewyears，\"
saysaneminenteconomist，[41]\"itisprobablethat，fornearlyallofthedepartments，\"theoverchargewillbesimilar。Already，foralongtime，inthetotalofpersonaltaxation，[42]thelocalbudgetsraisedmorethanthestate，and，in1888，theprincipalofthetaxrealproperty，183millions，islessthanthetotalofcentimesjoinedwithit，196millions。Cominggenerationsareburdenedoverandbeyondthepresentgeneration，whilethesumofloansconstantlyincreases，likethatoftaxation。Theindebtedcommunes，exceptParis，owed，altogether，in1868，524millionsfrancs[43]，in1871，711millions，andin1878，1322millionsfrancs。[44]Paris，in1868，alreadyowed1326millions，March30，1878，itowed1988millions。InthissameParis，theannualcontributionofeachinhabitantforlocalexpenseswas，attheendofthefirstEmpire，in1813，37francsperhead，attheendoftheRestoration，[45]francs，aftertheJulymonarchy，in1848，43francs，and，attheendofthesecondEmpire，in1869，94
francs。In1887，45itis110francsperhead。[46]
VIII。Finalresultinatendencytobankruptcy。
Such，inbrief，isthehistoryoflocalsocietyfrom1789downto1889。AfterthephilosophicdemolitionoftheRevolutionandthepracticalconstructionsoftheConsulate，itcouldnolongerbeasmallpatrimony，somethingtotakepridein，anobjectofaffectionanddevotiontoitsinhabitants。Thedepartmentsandcommuneshavebecomemoreorlessvastlodging—houses，allbuiltonthesameplanandmanagedaccordingtothesameregulationsoneaspassableastheother，withapartmentsinthemwhich，moreorlessgood，aremoreorlessdear，butatrateswhich，higherorlower，arefixedatauniformtariffovertheentireterritory，sothatthe36，000communalbuildingsandthe86departmenthotelsareaboutequal，itmakingbutlittledifferencewhetheronelodgesinthelatterratherthanintheformer。Thepermanenttaxpayersofbothsexeswhohavemadethesepremisestheirhome，havenotobtainedrecognitionforwhattheyare，invinciblyandbynature，asyndicateofneighbors，aninvoluntary，obligatoryandprivateassociation，inwhichphysicalsolidarityengendersmoralsolidarity，anatural，limitedsocietywhosemembersownthebuildingincommon，andeachpossessesapropertyrightmoreorlessgreat，accordingtothegreaterorlessercontributionhemakestotheexpensesoftheestablishment。Uptothistimenoroomhasyetbeenfound，eitherinthelaworinminds，forthisveryplaintruth；itsplaceistakenandoccupiedinadvancebythetwoerrorswhich，inturnorbothatonce，haveledthelegislatorandopinionastray。
Takingthingsasawhole，itisadmittedupto1830thatthelegitimateproprietorofthelocalbuildingisthecentralstate，thatitmayinstallitsdelegatetherein，theprefect，withfullpowers；
that，forbettergovernment，heconsentstobeinstructedbytheleadinginterestedandmostcapablepartiesonthespot；thatheshouldfixthepettyrightsheconcedestothemwithinthenarrowestlimits；thatheshouldappointthem；that，ifhecallsthemtogetherforconsultation，itisfromtimetotimeandgenerallyforform’ssake，toaddtheauthorityoftheirassenttotheauthorityofhisomnipotence，ontheimpliedconditionthatheshallnotgiveheedtotheirobjectionsifhedoesnotlikethem，andnotfollowtheiradviceifhedoesnotchoosetoacceptit。—Takingthingsasawhole，itisadmittedthat，since1848，thelegitimateproprietorsofthebuildingareitsadultmaleinhabitants，countedbyheads，allequalandallwithanequalpartinthecommonproperty，comprisingthosewhocontributenothingornearlynothingtothecommonexpenditureofthehouse，thenumerousbodyofsemi—poorwholodgeinitathalfprice，andthenotlessnumerousbodytowhomadministrativecharityfurnisheshousecomforts，shelter，light，andfrequentlyprovisions，gratuitously。—Betweenboththesecontradictoryandfalseconceptions，betweentheprefectoftheyearVIII，andthedemocracyof1792，acompromisehasbeeneffected；undoubtedly，theprefect，sentfromParis，isandremainsthetitulardirector，theactiveandresponsiblemanagerofthedepartmentalorcommunalbuilding；but，inhismanagementofitheisboundtokeepinviewthecomingelections，andinsuchawayaswillmaintaintheparliamentarymajorityintheseatstheyoccupyinparliament；consequently，hemustconciliatethelocalleadersofuniversalsuffrage，rulewiththeirhelp，putupwiththeintrusionoftheirbiasandcupidity，taketheiradvicedaily，followitoften，eveninsmallmatters，eveninpaymentsdaybydayofsumsalreadyvoted，inappointinganoffice—clerk，intheappointmentofanunpaidunderling，whomaysomedayorothertakethisclerk’splace。[47]—Hencethespectaclebeforeoureyes:abadlykeptestablishmentinwhichprofusionandwasterendereachotherworseandworse，wheresinecuresmultiplyandwherecorruptionentersin；astaffofofficialsbecomingmoreandmorenumerousandlessandlessserviceable，harassedbetweentwodifferentauthorities，obligedtopossessortosimulatepoliticalzealandtoneutralizeanimpartiallawbypartiality，and，besidesperformingtheirregularduties，tododirtywork；inthisstaff，therearetwosortsofemployees，thenew—
comerswhoaregreedyandwho，throughfavor，getthebestplaces，andtheoldoneswhoarepatientandpretendnomore，butwhosufferandgrowdisheartened；inthebuildingitself，thereisgreatdemolitionandreconstruction，architecturalfrontsinmonumentalstyleforparadeandtoexciteattention，entirelynewdecorativeandextremelytiresomestructuresatextravagantcost；consequently，loansanddebts，heavierbillsattheendofeachyearforeachoccupant，lowrents，butstillhigh，forfavoritesinthesmallroomsandgarrets，andextravagantrentsforthelargerandmoresumptuousapartments；insum，forcedreceiptswhichdonotoffsettheexpenses；liabilitieswhichexceedassets；abudgetwhichshowsonlyastablebalanceonpaper，—inshort，anestablishmentwithwhichthepublicisnotcontent，andwhichisontheroadtobankruptcy。
_
Notes:
[1]LawsofMarch21，1831，andJuly18，1837，June22，1833，andMay10，1838。Themunicipalelectorsnumberabout2，250，000andformthesuperiorthirdoftheadultmasculinepopulation；inthechoiceofitsnotablesandsemi—notables，thelawtakesintoaccountnotonlywealthanddirecttaxationbutlikewiseeducationandservicesrenderedtothepublic。—Thedepartmentelectorsnumberabout200，000，aboutasmanyasthepoliticalelectors。Thereporterobservesthat\"analmostcompleteanalogyexistsbetweenthechoiceofadeputyandthechoiceofadepartmentcouncilor，andthatitisnaturaltoconfidetheelectiontothesameelectoralbodyotherwisedivided，sincetheobjectistoaffordrepresentationtoanotherorderofinterests。\"
[2]LawsofJuly3，1848。
[3]LawsofAug。12，1876，March28，1882，andApril5，1884；lawofAug。10，1871。
[4]Theprefect，whoisdirectedandpostedbytheministeroftheInteriorinParis。
[5]\"TheRevolution，\"vol。I。，bookVIII。（Laff。I。pp。467—559。）
[6]Andin1880itcertainlyexcludedthefemalesideofhumannature。（SR。）
[7]Itmusthavebeenevidentthatnaturegivestoeachworker，hunter，farmerorfishermaninaccordancewiththeircompetenceandindustry。（SR。）
[8]Constructionofroads，canals，sewers，highwaysetcandprotectionagainstcalamities。
[9]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"Traitédelasciencedesfinances，\"4thedition，I。，p。303:\"Thepersonaltax，leviedonlyasprincipal，oscillatesbetweentheminimumof1fr。50andthemaximumof4fr。50
perannum，accordingtothecommunes。—Ibid。，304:\"In1806thepersonaltaxproducedinFranceaboutsixteenmillionsoffrancs，alittlelessthanofr。50perheadoftheinhabitants。\"
[10]Ibid。，I。，367（onthetaxondoorsandwindows）。Accordingtothepopulationofthecommune，thisisfrom0fr。30to1fr。foreachopening，from0fr。45to1fr。50fortwoopenings，from0fr。90to4fr。50forthreeopenings，from1fr。60to6fr。40forfouropenings，andfrom2fr。50to8fr。50forfiveopenings。Thefirstoftheseratesisappliedtoallcommunesoflessthan5000souls。Weseethatthepoorman，especiallythepoorpeasant，isconsidered；thetaxonhimisprogressiveinaninversesense。
[11]DeFoville，\"LaFranceEconomique\"（1887），p。59:\"Our14，500
charitybureauxgaveassistancein1883to1，405，500persons；……
as，inreality，thepopulationofthecommunesaided（bythem）isonly22，000，000，theproportionoftheregisteredpooramountstooversixpercent。\"
[12]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"Essaisurlarépartitiondesrichesses，\"
p。174，etseq。—In1851，thenumberofland—ownersinFrancewasestimatedat7，800，000。Outofthese，threemillionswererelievedofthelandtax，asindigent，andtheirquotaswereconsideredasirrecoverable。
[13]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"Traitédelasciencedesfinances，\"p。721。
[14]DeFoville，p。419。（In1889。）
[15]Cfante，onthecharacteristicsofindirecttaxation。
[16]Hereitistheestimatedrent，whichstandstotherealrentasfourtofive；anestimatedrentof400francsindicatesarealrentof500francs。
[17]DeFoville，p。57。
[18]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"Essaisurlarépartitionderichesses，\"p。
174。
[19]Ibid。，p。209:In1878，inParis，74，000houseswith1，022，539
rentals，337，587beingfortradeandcommerce，and684，952fordwellingpurposes。Amongthelatter，468，641havealocativevalueinferiorto300francsayear；74，360arebetween500and750francs；
21，147arebetween750and1000francs。Alltheselodgingsaremoreorlessexemptfromthepersonaltax:thosebetween1000and400
francspayitwithamoreorlessgreatreduction:thoseunder400
francspaynothing。Above1000francs，wefind17，202apartmentsfrombetween1000and1250francs；6198frombetween1250and1500
francs；21，453from1500to3000francs。Theseapartmentsareoccupiedbymoreorlesswell—to—dopeople。—14，858apartmentsabove3000francsareoccupiedbythericherorthewealthyclass。Amongthelatter9985arefrom3000to6000；3040arefrom6000to10，000；
1443arefrom10，000to20，000；421areabove20，000francs。Thesetwolattercategoriesareoccupiedbythereallyopulentclass。—
Accordingtothelateststatistics，insteadof684，952dwellingrentalsthereare806，187，ofwhich727，419arewhollyorpartlyfreeofthepersonaltax。（\"Situationau1èreJanvier，1888，\"reportbyM。
Lamouroux，conseiller—municipal。）
[20]Thefollowingappropriationsfor1889areprintedonmytax—bill:
\"TotheState，51%。；totheDepartment，21%；tothecommune，25%。\"
Onbusinesspermits:\"TotheState，64%。；totheDepartment，12%。；
tothecommune，20%。Thesurplusoftaxesisappropriatedtothebenevolentfundandforremissionoftaxes。\"
[21]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"Traitédelasciencedesfinances，\"I。，pp。
367—368:\"Incommunesunder5000inhabitantstheprincipalofthetaxondoorsandwindowsis，forhouseswithoneopening，0fr。30perannum；forthosewithfouropenings，1fr。60。\"Now，\"ahousewithfiveopeningspaysnearlyninetimesasmuchasahousewithoneopening。\"Thesmalltaxpayersareaccordinglylargelyrelievedattheexpenseofthosewhopayheavyandaveragetaxes，themagnitudeofthisreliefbeingappreciablebythefollowingfigures:In1885，outof8，975，166houses，248，352hadoneopening，1，827，104twoopenings，1，624，516threeopenings，and1，165，902fouropenings。Morethanone—
halfofthehouses，allofthosebelongingtothepoororstraitened，arethusrelieved，whiletheotherhalf，sincethetaxisanimpost，notaquota，butanapportionment，isoverchargedasmuch。
[22]Oneresultofthisprincipleis，thatthepoorwhoareexemptfromtaxationorwhoareonthepoorlisthavenovote，whichisthecaseinEnglandandinPrussia。—Throughanotherresultofthesameprinciple，thelawofMay15，1818，inFrance，summonedtheheaviesttaxpayers，inequalnumberwiththemembersofthemunicipalcouncil，todeliberatewithiteverytimethat\"areallyurgentexpenditure\"
obligedthecommunetoraiseextraadditionalcentimesbeyondtheusual0fr。05。\"Thus，\"saysHenriondePancey（\"Dupouvoirmunicipal，\"p。109），\"themembersofthemunicipalcouncilsbelongtotheclassofsmallland—owners，atleastinalargenumberofcommunes，votedthechargeswithoutexaminationwhichonlyaffectedtheminsensibly。\"—ThislastrefugeofdistributivejusticewasabolishedbythelawofApril5，1882。
[23]MaxLeclerc，\"LeViemunicipaleenPrusse。\"（Extraitdes\"Annalesdel’Ecolelibredessciencespolitique，\"1889，astudyonthetownofBonn。）AtBonn，whichhasapopulationof35，810inhabitants，thefirstgroupiscomposedof167electors:thesecond，of471；thethird，of2607，eachgroupelects8municipalcouncilorsoutof24。
[24]DeFoville，\"LaFranceéconomique，\"p。16（censusof1881）。—
Numberofcommunes，36，097；numberbelow1000inhabitants，27，503；
numberbelow500inhabitants，16，870。—Whatisstatedappliespartlytothetwofollowingcategories:1st，communesfrom1000to1500
inhabitants，2982；2nd，communesfrom1500to2000inhabitants，1917。
—Allthecommunesbelow2000inhabitantsarecountedasruralinthestatisticsofpopulation，andtheynumber33，402。
[25]SeePaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"L’étatmoderneetsesfonctions，\"p。
169。\"Thevariousgroupsofinhabitants，especiallyinthecountry，donotknowhowtoundertakeoragreeuponanythingofthemselves。Ihaveseenvillagesoftwoorthreehundredpeoplebelongingtoalargescatteredcommunewaitpatientlyforyearsandhumblypetitionforaidinconstructinganindispensablefountain，whichrequiredonlyacontributionof200or300francs，5francsperhead，toputup。I
haveseenotherspossessingonlyoneroadonwhichtosendofftheirproduceandunabletoactinconcert，when，withanoutlayof2000
francs，and200or300francsayeartokeepitinorder，itwouldeasilysufficeforalltheirrequirements。Ispeakofregionsrelativelyrich，muchbetteroffthanthemajorityofcommunesinFrance。\"
[26]InFrenchvillages，ononeofthewallsofapublicbuildingonthesquarearenoticesofallkinds，ofinteresttotheinhabitants，andamongthese，inaframebehindawirenetting，thelatestcopyofthegovernmentofficialnewspaper，givingauthenticpoliticalitems，thosewhichitthinksbestforthepeopletoread。（Tr。）
[27]OnthecommunalsysteminFrance，andonthereformswhich，followingtheexampleofothernations，mightbeintroducedintoit，cf。JosephFerrand（formerlyaprefect），\"LesInstitutionsadministrativesenFranceetàl’étranger\"；RudolphGneist，\"LesRéformesadministrativesenPrusseaccompliesparlalegislationde1872，\"（especiallytheinstitutionofAmtsvorsteher，fortheunionofcommunesorcircumscriptionsofabout1500souls）；theDucdeBroglie，\"VuessurlegouvernementdelaFrance\"（especiallyonthereformsthatshouldbemadeintheadministrationofthecommuneandcanton），p。21。—\"Deprivecommunalmagistratesoftheirqualityasgovernmentagents；separatethetwoordersoffunctions；havethepublicfunctionarywhosedutyitistoseethatthelawsareexecutedinthecommunes，theexecutionofgenerallawsandthedecisionsofthesuperiorauthoritycarriedout，placedatthecountytown。\"
[28]DeFoville，ibid。，p。16。—Theremarksheremadeapplytotownsoftheforegoingcategory（from5000to10，000souls），numbering312。
Alastcategorycomprisestownsfrom2000to5000souls，numbering2160，andformingthelastclassofurbanpopulations；these，throughtheirmixedcharacter，assimilatetothe1817communescontainingfrom1500to2000inhabitants，formingthefirstcategoryoftheruralpopulations。
[29]MaxLeclerc，\"LaViemunicipaleenPrusse，\"p17。—InPrussia，thisdirectingmindiscalled\"themagistrate，\"asinournorthernandnortheasterncommunes。IneasternPrussia，the\"magistrate\"isacollectivebody；forexample，atBerlin，itcomprises34persons，ofwhich17arespecialists，paidandengagedfortwelveyears，and17
withoutpay。InwesternPrussia，themunicipalmanagementconsistsgenerallyofanindividual，theburgomaster，salariedandengagedfortwelveyears。
[30]MaxLeclerc，ibid。，p。20。—\"ThepresentburgomasterinBonnwasburgomasteratMünchens—Gladbach，beforebeingcalledtoBonn。ThepresentburgomasterofCrefeldcamefromSilesia……Alawyer，wellknownforhisworksonpubliclaw，occupyingagovernmentpositionatMagdeburg，\"wasrecentlycalled\"tothelucrativepositionofburgomaster\"inthetownofMünster。AtBonn，atownof30，000
inhabitants，\"everythingrestsonhisshouldersheexercisesagreatmanyofthefunctionswhich，withus，belongtotheprefect。\"
[31]MaxLeclerc，ibid。，p。25。—Alongsideofthepaidtownofficersandthemunicipalcouncilors，therearespecialcommitteescomposedofbenevolentmembersandelectors\"eithertoadministerorsuperintendsomebranchofcommunalbusiness，ortostudysomeparticularquestion。\"\"Thesecommittees，subject，moreover，inallrespectstotheburgomaster，areelectedbythemunicipalcouncil。\"—TherearetwelveoftheseinBonnandoverahundredinBerlin。Thisinstitutionservesadmirablyforrenderingthosewhoarewelldisposeduseful，aswellasforthedevelopmentoflocalpatriotism，apracticalsenseandpublicspirit。
[32]Aucoc，p。283。
[33]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"L’administrateurlocaleenFranceetenAngleterre，\"pp。26，28，92。（DecreesofMarch25，1852，andApril13，1861。）
[349J。Ferrand，ibid。，p。169，170（Paris，1879）:\"Inmanycases，generaltutelageandlocaltutelageareparalyzed……Since1870—
1876themayors，tolessenthedifficultiesoftheirtask，arefrequentlyforcedtoabandonanyrightfulauthority；theprefectsareinducedtotolerate，toapproveoftheseinfractionsofthelaw……
Formanyyearsonecannotreadtheminutesofasessionofthecouncilgeneralorofthemunicipalcouncilwithoutfindingnumerousexamplesoftheillegalitywereport……Inanotherorderoffacts，forexampleinthatwhichrelatestotheofficialstaff，dowenotseeeverydayagentsofthestate，evenconscientious，yieldtothewillofall—powerfulpoliticalnotabilitiesandentirelyabandontheinterestsoftheservice？\"—Theseabuseshavelargelyincreasedwithinthepasttenyears。
[35]See\"LaRépubliqueetlesconservateurs，\"intheRevuedesDeuxMondesofMarch1，189，p。108。—\"Ispeakofthisdevisu[fromexperience，（SR。）]:Itakemyownarrondissement。Itisinoneoftheeasterndepartments，latelyrepresentedbyradicals。Thistimeitwascarriedbyaconservative。Anattemptwasfirstmadetoannultheelection，whichhadtobegivenupasthevotesindisputeweretoomany。Revengewastakenontheelectors。Gendarmes，inthecommunes，investigatedtheconductofthecurés，forest—guard，andstorekeeper。
Thehospitaldoctor，aconservative，wasreplacedbyanopportunist。
Thetax—comptroller，amanofthedistrict，andofsuspiciouszeal，wassentfarintothewest。Everyfunctionarywho，ontheevenoftheelection，didnothaveacontritelook，wasthreatenedwithdismissal。
Aroad—surveyorwasregardedashavingbeenlukewarm，andaccordinglyputontheretiredlist。Thereisnopettyvexationthatwasnotresortedto，noinsignificantperson，whomtheydisdainedtostrike。
Stonebreakersweredenouncedforsayingthattheyoughtnottohavetheirwagesreduced。Sistersofcharity，inacertaincommune，dispensedmedicinetothepoor；theywereforbiddentodothis，toannoythemayorlivinginParis。Thecustodiansofmortgageshadanerrand—boywhowasguiltyofdistributing，notvoting—tickets，butfamilynotices（ofamarriage）onthepartofthenewdeputy；afewdaysafterthis，aletterfromtheprefecturegavethecustodiannoticethatthecriminalmustbereplacedintwenty—fourhours。A
notary，inapublicmeeting，daredtointerrupttheradicalcandidate；
hewasprosecutedinthecourtforaviolationofprofessionalduties，andthejudgesofjudiciaryreformscondemnedhimtothreemonths’suspension。’Thistookplace，\"notinLanguedoc，orinProvence，inthesouthamongexcitedbrainswhereeverythingisallowable，butunderthedullskiesofChampagne。AndwhenIinterrogatetheconservativesoftheWestandtheCenter，theyreply:\"Wehaveseenmanybesidethese，butislongsincewehaveceasedtobeastonished！\"
[36]Ibid。，p。105:\"Eachcantonalchieftownhasitsofficeofinformers。TheMinisterofPublicWorshiphashimselftoldthatonthefirstofJanuary，1890，therewere300curésdeprivedoftheirsalary，aboutthreeorfourtimesasmanyasonthefirstofJanuary，1889。\"
[37]Thesefiguresaretakenfromthelateststatisticalreports。Someofthemarefurnishedbythechiefordirectorsofspecialservices。
[38]Tainecouldhardlyhaveimaginedhowcostlythemoderndemocracywould，100yearslater，become。Howcouldhehaveimagedthatthe\"HumanRights\"shouldbecometherighttolivecomfortablyandwellattheexpenseofanevermoreproductivesociety。
[39]DeFoville，pp。412，416，425，455；PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"Traitédelasciencedesfinances，\"I。，p。717。
[40]\"Statistiquesfinancièresdescommunesen1889\":—3539communespaylessthan15commoncentimes；2597payfrom0fr。15to0fr。30；
9652payfrom0fr。31to0fr。50；11，095from0fr。51to1franc，and4248over1franc。—Herethisrelatesonlytothecommoncentimes；tohavethesumtotaloftheadditiona1localcentimesofeachcommunewouldrequiretheadditionofthedepartmentcentimes，whichthestatisticsdonotfurnish。
[41]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，ibid。，I。，pp。690，717。
[42]Ibid。:\"Ifthepersonaltaxweredeductedfromtheamountofpersonalandhousetaxcombinedwewouldfindthattheassessmentofthestateintheproductofthehousetax，thatistosaytheproductofthetaxonrentals，amountsto41or42millions，andthattheshareoflocalitiesintheproductofthistaxsurpassesthatofthestateby8or9millions（Year1877。）
[43]Between1805and1900theFrenchfrancwastiedtothegoldstandard。A20francscointhusweighed7，21grams。Itspriceistodayin19981933。—francs。Taine’sfigureshavetobemultipliedbyapp。
teninordertocomparewithtoday’sprices。Norealcomparisoncan，however，bemadesinceproductionpercapitahasmultipliedbyalargefactorandsohavetaxes。
[44]\"Situationfinancièredesdepartmentetdescommunes，\"publishedin1889bytheMinisteroftheInterior。Loansandindebtednessofthedepartmentsattheendofthefiscalyearin1886，630，066，102
francs。LoansandindebtednessofthecommunesDec。30，1886，3，020，450，528francs。
[45]DeFoville，p。148；PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"L’étatmoderneetsesfonctions，\"p。21。
[46]Duringthe110yearssinceTainewrotehissomberprevisionstheFrenchhavehadtopaythesamepenaltyasotherillmanagedDemocracies；Bankruptciesdirectorindirectwithgallopinginflationandenormousdevaluationswithasaconsequenceimpoverishmentofnaivedepositorsandcredulouspensionfundparticipants，warsforwhichFrancewasbadlypreparedwithmillionsofdeadandprisonersandwithoccupationofFranceasaresult。Theculprits，theelectedpoliticians，haveeitherdiedoranyhowlivedouttheirlivescomfortablyontheindexedretirementswhichtheoligarchygenerallyreservesforthemselves。（SR。）
[47]PaulLeroy—Beaulieu，\"L’AdministrationlocaleenFranceetenAngleterre，\"p。28。（DecreesofMarch25，1852，andApril13，1861。）
Listofofficesdirectlyappointedbytheprefectandontherecommendationoftheheadsoftheservice，amongothersthesupernumerariesoftelegraphlinesandofthetaxoffices。
EndofTheModernRegime，Volume1[Napoleon]
TheModernRegime，Volume2
TheOriginsofContemporaryFrance，Volume6
byHippolyteA。TaineBOOKFIFTH。TheChurch。
CHAPTERI。MORALINSTITUTIONS
CHAPTERII。
CHAPTERIII
BOOKSIXTH。Publicinstruction。
CHAPTERI。
CHAPTERII。
CHAPTERIII。Evolutionbetween1814and1890。
AfterTaine’sdeathinMarch1893，hisnephewAndréChevrillonarrangedhislastmanuscriptsontheChurchandEducationforpublicationandwrotethefollowingintroductionwhichalsotellsusmuchaboutTaineandhisworksPREFACEByAndréChevrillon。
\"TotreatoftheChurch，theSchool，andtheFamily，describethemodernmilieuandnotethefacilitiesandobstacleswhichasocietylikeourownencountersinthismilieu，suchwastheprogramofthelast[1]sectionofthe\"OriginsofContemporaryFrance。\"Theprecedingvolumeisacontinuationofthefirstpartofthisprogram；afterthecommuneandthedepartment，afterlocalsocieties，theauthorwastostudymoralandintellectualbodiesinFranceasorganizedbyNapoleon。Thisstudycompleted，thislaststeptaken，hewasabouttoreachthesummit。HewasabouttoviewFranceasawhole，tocomprehenditnolongerthroughadetailofitsorgans，inastateofformation，butitsactualexistence；nolongerisolated，butplunged，alongwithotheroccidentalnations，intothemodernmilieu，experiencingwiththemtheeffectsofonegeneralcausewhichchangedthephysicalandintellectualconditionofmen；whichdissolvedsentimentsformerlygroupingthemtogether，moreorlesscapableatlengthofadaptingthemselvestonewcircumstancesandoforganizingaccordingtoanewtypesuitedtothecomingagethatnowopensbeforeus。
Onlyapartofthislastvolumewaswritten，thatwhichrelatestotheChurchandtopublicinstruction。Deathintervenedandsuddenlyarrestedthepen。M。Taine，atthismoment，wasaboutcompletinghisanalysisofsubordinatesocietiesinFrance。—ForthosewhohavefollowedhimthusfaritisalreadyclearthatthegreatdefectoftheFrenchcommunityisthefragmentationoftheindividuals，whoisolated，dwindling，andprostrateatthefeetoftheall—powerfulState，who，duetoremotehistoricalcauses，andyetmoresobymodernlegislation，havebeenmadeincapableof\"spontaneouslygroupingaroundacommoninterest。\"Veryprobably—andofthiswemayjudgebytwosketchesofaplan，undoubtedlyprovisional，buttheideasofwhichwerelongsettledinhismind—M。Tainewouldhavefirstdescribedthislegislationanddefineditsprinciplesandgeneralcharacteristics。Hemeanttoshowitmoreandmoresystematic，deliberatelyhostiletocollectiveenterprise，consideringsecondarybodiesnotas\"distinct，specialorgans，\"endowedwithalifeoftheirown，\"maintainedandstimulatedbyprivateinitiation，\"butasagentsoftheState\"whichfashionsthemafteracommonpattern，imposesonthemtheirformandprescribestheirwork。\"—Thisdone，thisdefectpointedout，theauthorwastoenumeratetheconsequencesflowingfromit，thesocialbodyentirelychanged，\"notonlyinitsproportionsbutinitsinnermosttexture，\"everytendencyweakenedbywhichindividualsformgroupsthataretolastlongerthanthemselves，eachmanreducedtohisownself，theegoisticinstinctenhancedwhilethesocialinstinctwastesawayforwantofnourishment，hisdailyimaginationsolelyconcernedwithlife—longaims，incapacitatedforpoliticsasheis\"lackingspheresofactioninwhichhemaytrainhimselfaccordingtohisexperiencesandfaculties\"，hismindweakeninginidlenessandboredomorinathirstforpleasureandpersonalsuccess，—inshort，anorganicimpoverishmentofallfacultiesofcohesion，leadingtothedestructionofthenaturalcentersofgroupingand，consequently，topoliticalinstability。[2]
Oneassociationofspecialimportremains，themostspontaneous，thedeepestrooted，sooldthatallothersderivefromit，soessentialthatinanyattackuponitweseeeventhesubstanceofthesocialbodydecayinganddiminishing。OnthenatureoftheFamily；onitsprofoundphysiologicalorigins；onitsnecessaryroleintheprolongationand\"perpetuationoftheindividual\"byaffordinghim\"thesoleremedyfordeath\"；onitsprimitiveconstitutionamongmenofourownrace；onitshistoricorganizationanddevelopment\"aroundthefamilyhome\"；onthenecessityofitssubsistenceandcontinuanceinordertoinsurethedurationofthishome；onitsotherneeds，M。
Taine，withhisknowledgeofmanandofhishistory，hadgivenagooddealofthoughttofundamentalideasanalogoustothosewhichhehasconsecratedtotheclassicspirit，totheoriginofhonorandconscience，totheessenceoflocalsociety，somanystones，asitwere，shapedbyhimfromtimetotimeanddeeplyimplantedasthefoundationsofhiscriticismofinstitutions。HavingsetforththepropercharacterandpermanentwantsoftheFamilyhewasabletostudythelegislationaffectingit，and，first，\"theJacobinlawsonmarriage，divorce，paternalauthorityandonthecompulsorypubliceducationofchildren；next，theNapoleoniclaws，thosewhichstillgovernus，theCivilCode\"withthatportionofitinwhichtheequalityandlevelingspiritispreserved，alongwith\"itstendencytoregardpropertyasameansofenjoyment\"insteadofthestarting—pointandsupportof\"anenduringinstitution。\"—Havingexposedthesystem，M。Tainemeanttoconsideritseffects，thoseofsurroundinginstitutions，andtodescribetheFrenchfamilyasitnowexists。Hehadfirststudiedthe\"tendencytomarriage\"；hehadconsideredthemotiveswhich，ingeneral，weakenorfortifyit，andappreciatedthosenowabsentandnowactiveinFrance。Accordingtohim，\"thehealthyidealofeveryyoungmanistofoundafamily，ahouseofinfiniteduration，tocreateandtorule。\"WhyinmodernFrancedoeshegivehisthoughtsto\"pleasureandofexcellinginhiscareer\"？Whydoesheregardmarriage\"withoutenthusiasm，asalastmeasure，asa’settling—down，’andnotasabeginning，thecommencementofaveritablecareer，subordinatingallotherstoitandregardingthese，pecuniaryandprofessional，asauxiliaryandasmeans？\"—Afterthetendencytomarriage，\"thetendencytopaternity。\"Howdoestheshrunkenfamilycometoliveonlyforitself？Inwhatway，indefaultofotherinterests，—homestead，domain，workshop，lastinglocalundertakings，—howdoestheheart，nowdeprivedofitsfoodbythelackofinvisibleposterity，fallbackonaffectionforvisibleprogeny？[3]Inacountrywheretherearefewopenings，wherecareersareovercrowded，whataretheeffectsofthispaididolatry[4]，and，tosumupinonephrase，inwhatwaydoestheFrenchsystemofto—daytendtodevelopthemostfatalofresults，thedeclineinthebirthrate？
Herethestudyofinstitutionsonagrandscaleterminated。Formerly，M。TainehadcontemplatedacompletionofhislaborsbyadescriptionofcontemporaryFrance，theproductoforiginsscrutinizedbyhimandofwhichhehadtracedtheformation。Havingdisengagedhisfactorshemeanttocombinethem，toshowthemunitedandactinginconcert，allcenteringonthegreatactualfactswhichdominatetherestandwhichdeterminetheorderandstructureofmodernsociety。AshehadgivenapictureofoldFranceheaimedtoportrayFranceasitnowis，withitsvariousgroups，—village，smalltownandlargecity，—withitscategoriesofmen，peasants，workmen，bourgeois，functionariesandcapitalists；withtheforcesthatimpeleachclassalong，theirpassions，theirideas，theirdesires。Besidesthenumericalstatisticsofpersonhemeanttohavesetforththemoralstatisticsofsouls。
Accordingtohim，psychologicalconditionsexistwhichrenderthesocialactivityofmenpossibleorimpossible。And，especially，\"inagivensociety，thereisalwaysapsychologicalstatewhichprovokesthestateofthatsociety。\"Itwashisaimtoseekoutinthenovel，inpoetry，intheartssince1820，thatistosayinallworksthatthrowlightonthevariousandsuccessivekindsofthereigningideal—inphilosophy，inreligion，inindustry，inallbranchesofFrenchactionandthought—thesignsofthepsychologicaltendenciesofmodernFrenchmaninthisorthatsocialcondition。Whatwouldthisbookhavebeen？M。Tainehadsketcheditoutsofarback，hehadabandoneditforsolongatimeandneveralludedtoit，thatnothingremainsbywhichwecanformanyideaofit。But，inthisundertakingdemandingsomuchscience，somuchintuition，somuchexperienceofaccurateobservation，ofgeneralviewsandprecisegeneralization—inthisvaststudyrequiringsuchprofoundknowledge，notaloneofFrancebutofsocietiesofferingpointsofcomparisonwithher，wemaybecertainthattheauthorofNotessurParis，Notessurl’Angleterre，oftheAncienRégime，thecriticaccustomedtointerpretcivilizations，literatureandworksofart，thethinker，infine，who，topreparehimselfforthegreatesttasksheundertook，traveledfivetimesoverFrance，studyingitslifewiththeeyesofanartist，inthelightofhistoryandofpsychology，everprecedinghisphilosophicstudywithvisualinvestigation，wouldhavebeenequaltothetask。[5]
Alreadyforseveralyears，M。Taine，awarethathistimewasshort，hadnarrowedthelimitsoftheworkhewasengagedupon。Butwhathisworklostinbreadthandinrichnessofdetailitwouldhavegainedindepthandinpower。Allhismasterideaswouldhavebeenfoundinit，foreshortenedandconcentrated。Alwaysseekinginthisorthatgroupofthemwhathecalledhisgenerators，intellectualandmoralaswellaspolitical，hewouldhavedescribedallthosewhichexplaintheFrenchgroup。Unfortunately，hereagaintheelementsarewantingwhichallowonetoforeshadowwhatthisfinalanalysisandlastconstructionmighthavebeen。M。Tainedidnotwriteinanticipation。Longbeforetakingthepeninhandhehadderivedhismostsignificantfactsandformedhisplan。Hecarriedtheminhisbrainwheretheyfellintoorderofthemselves。Tenlinesofnotes，afewmemorandaofconversations—faintreflections，tousaroundhim，ofthegreatinwardlight—areallthatenableonetoattemptanindicationofthefewleadingconceptionsweretocomplete\"LesOriginesdelaFranceContemporaine。\"
\"LeMilieuModerne\"，wastohavebeenthetitleofthelastbook。ThequestionhereishowtodiscoverthegreatcharacteristicsoftheperiodintowhichEuropeansocietiesenteredandaboutweretolive。
RisingtoahigherpointofviewthanthattowhichhehadconfinedhimselfinstudyingFrance，M。TaineregardeditsmetamorphosisasacaseoftransformationasgeneralasthepassageoftheCitéantiqueovertotheRomanEmpireovertothefeudalState。Now，asformerly，thistransformationistheeffectofa\"changeintheintellectualandphysicalconditionofmen\"；thatistosay，inotherwords，intheenvironmentthatsurroundsthem。Suchistheadventofanewgeologicalperiod，ofaglacialperiod，forexample，or，moreprecisely，\"theveryslowandthenacceleratedupheavalofacontinent，forcingthesubmarinespecieswhichbreathebygillstotransformthemselvesintospecieswhichbreathebylungs。\"Itisimpossibletodivineinwhatsensethisadaptationtakesplaceifwedonotcomprehendtheevent，thatistosayifwedonotperceiveitsstarting—pointandtheinnateforcewhichproducesit。AccordingtoTaine，thisforce，inthepresentcase，istheprogresstheincreasingauthorityofpositive，verifiablescience。Whatadefinitionhewouldhavegivenofscienceanditsessence！Whatatableauofitsprogress，themanwhosethoughtwasmaturedatthemomentwhenthescientificspiritenteredintohistoryandliterature；whobreatheditinhisyouthwiththefervidandsacredenthusiasmofapoetseeingtheworldgrowbrighterandintelligibletohim，andwho，attheageoftwenty—
five，demandedofitamethodandintroducedthisintocriticismandpsychologyinordertogivethesenewlife—themechanicalequivalentofheat，naturalselection，spectroscopicanalysis，thetheoryofthemicrobes，recentdiscoveriesinphysicsandtheconstitutionofmatter，researchintohistoricorigins，psychologicalexplanationoftexts，extensionoforientalresearches，discoveriesofprehistoricconditions，comparativestudyofbarbariccommunities—everygrandideaofthecenturytowhichhehashimselfcontributed，allthosebywhichscienceembracesalargerandlargerportionoftheuniverse，hesawthemcontainingthesameessence；allcombiningtochangetheconceptionoftheworldandsubstituteanother，coherentandlogicalinthebestminds，butthenconfusedanddisfiguredasitslowlydescendstothelevelofthecrowd。—Hewouldhavedescribedthisdecent，thegradualdiffusion，thegrowingpowerofthenewIdea，theactivefermentwhichitcontainsafterthemannerofadogma，beneficentorperniciousaccordingtothemindsinwhichitlodges，capableofarmingmenandofdrivingthemontopuredestructionwhennotfullycomprehended，andcapableofreorganizingthemiftheycangraspitsveritablemeaning。
Itsfirsteffectsaresimplydestructive，for，throughDarwinism，throughexperimentalpsychology，throughthephysiologyofthebrain，throughbiblicalexegesis，throughthecomparativestudyofsavagecommunitiesandtheirmoralsystems，thenewconceptsatfirstshocksthereligiousideawhichittendstoreplace；even，withthehalf—
cultivatedandinthemindsofnovices，ittendstopurenegation，tohostilityagainstexistingreligions。Toeverysocialgatheringaroundthereligiousideathatexplainsandsustainsit，whatadisturbanceinthesecularsystemformedbytheco—ordinationandmutualadaptationoflaws，customs，morality，andinstitutions！Whataruptureoftheinwardequilibriumwhichmaintainsmanpassiveandtranquil！Theconsequentmentalagitationwillleadtoagitation，impulsion，ambitions，lassitude，despondency，anddisorderinallthesentimentswhichhadthusfarmaintainedeveryspeciesofsociety，thefamily，thecommune，theChurch，freeassociationandtheState！—
Now，alongwiththeimmediateeffectsofscienceontheintellectualhabitsofmenconsidertheeffectsofitsapplicationtotheirmaterialcondition；atfirst，theirincreasedwell—being，theirpowerincreased，thentheruptureofthetiesthatbindthemtotheirbirthplace，theconcentrationofmassesofworkmeninthetownstowhichtheyareattractedbygreatandrapidindustrialdevelopment，theinfluxofnewideas，ofeveryspeciesofinformation，thegradualdeclineoftheoldhereditaryprejudicesofcasteandparishwhichactautomaticallyasinstincts，andareusefulasinstinctstothesmallgroupsinwhichtheindividualisbornandinwhichhelives。Howcouldsuchaprofoundchangeintheconditionofhumanityfailtoundermineeverywheretheorderofthingswhichgroupmentogether？Whyshouldnotthenewmilieuatonceattackallancientformsofsociety？
For，atthemomentofitsestablishment，thereexistsinEuropeageneralformofsocietymanifestthroughfeaturesincommon；amonarchy—hereditaryroyalty，dynasticbutfrequentlylimited，atleastinfact，—aprivilegednobilityperformingmilitaryserviceasaspecialfunction，aclergyorganizedasaChurch，proprietaryandmoreorlessprivileged，localorspecialbodiesalsoproprietary—
provinces，communes，universities，brotherhoods，corporations—lawsandcustomswhichbasethefamilyonpaternalauthority，perpetuatingitonthenatalsoilandbysocialrank；inbrief，institutionswhichmodernideasdisturbineverydirection，thefirsteffectofwhichis，whiledevelopingthespiritofdoubtandinvestigation，tobreakdownsubordinationtotheking，tothegentleman，tothenoble，and，ingeneral，todissolvesocietyfoundedonheredity。Suchphenomenaarealreadyobservableeverywhere，theruinoffeeblecorporationsbythestate，itsconstanttendencytointerference，totheabsorptionofeveryspecialserviceandthedescentofpowerintothehandsofanumericalmajority。—Whatplan，then，governsthesesocietiesinthewayofreorganization，and，sincetheyallbelongtoacommontype，whatarethecommonresourcesanddifficultiesofadaptation？Onwhatlinesmustthemetamorphosisbeeffectedinordertoarriveataviablecreations？And，abandoningthegeneralprobleminordertoreturntocontemporaryFrance，grownupandorganizedunderourowneyes，howdoesthegreatmoderneventaffectit？Howdoes\"thiscommonfactorcombinewithspecialfactors，permanentandtemporary，\"belongtooursystem？WiththeFrench，whosehereditaryspiritandcharacterareeasilydefined，inthissocietyfoundedonNapoleonicinstitutionsmovedbyour\"administrativemechanism，\"whatarethepeculiartendenciesofalevelingdemocracywhichseeksimmediateestablishment？Amongthemaladieswhicharespecialwithus—feeblebirth—rate，politicalinstability，absenceoflocallife，slowindustrialandcommercialdevelopment，despondencyandpessimism—cananaptitudefortransformationwhichwedonotpossessbedistinguishedinthesensedemandedbythenewmilieu？Theknowledgewehaveofourorigins，ofourpsychology，ofourpresentconstitution，ofourcircumstances，whathopesarewarranted？
M。Tainecouldnothaverepliedtoallthesequestions。If，twentyyearsago，onthemorrowafterourdisasters，justasweoncemoresetaboutaneworganization，puttingasideliterature，art，andphilosophy，noblecontemplationandpurespeculation，abandoningworksalreadyprojected，hegavehimselfuptothetechnicalstudyoflaw，politicaleconomyandadministrativehistory；if，fortwentyyears，hesecludedhimselfanddevotedhimselftohistask—atwhatacostofprolongedeffort，withwhatastrainhismentalfaculties，withwhatwearinessandoftenwithwhatdissatisfaction！—ifheshortenedhislife，itwastodischargewhathedeemedadutytothatsufferingFrancewhichhelovedwithtenderandsilentpassion，thedutyofaidinginhercurebyestablishingthegeneraldiagnosiswhichaphilosopher—historianwaswarrantedinpresentingafteraprofoundstudyofitsvitalconstitution。Theexaminationfinished，hefeltthathehadarighttoofferthediagnosis。Notthathismodestypermittedhimtoforetellthefutureortodictatereforms。Whenhisopinionwasaskedinrelationtoanyreformhegenerallydeclinedgivingit。\"Iammerelyaconsultingphysician，\"hewouldreply；\"Idonotpossesssufficientdetailsonthatparticularquestion—Iamnotsufficientlyfamiliarwithcircumstanceswhichvaryfromdaytoday。\"
Ineffect，accordingtohim，thereisnogeneralprinciplefromwhichonecandeduceaseriesofreforms。Onthecontrary，hisfirstrecommendationwouldhavebeennottotrytofindsimplesolutionsinpoliticalandsocialmatters，buttoproceedbyexperiments，accordingtotemperaments，andacceptingtheirregularandtheincomplete。—Onebecomesresignedtothiscoursebyastudyofhistoryandbyacquiring\"thesenseofsurroundingfactsanddevelopments。\"Heredowefindthegeneralremedyforthedestructiveeffectsproducedbythebrusqueprogressofscience，andsheherselffurnishesthisremedy，when，fromthehastyandthetheoretical，shebecomesexperimentalandbuildsontheobservationoffactsandtheirrelations。\"Throughpsychologicalnarration，throughtheanalysisofpsychologicalconditionswhichhaveproduced，maintained，ormodifiedthisorthatinstitution，wemayfindapartialsolutiontoeachquestionofreform，\"graduallydiscoveringlawsandestablishingthegeneralconditionsthatrenderpossibleorimpossibleanygivenproject。Whenconstitutedandthendeveloped，reorganized，respectedandappliedtohumanaffairs，thesciencesofhumanitymaybecomeanewinstrumentofpowerandcivilization，and，justasthenaturalscienceshavetaughtustoderiveprofitfromphysicalforces，theymayteachustobenefitbymoralforces。M。TainebelievedthattheFrenchwereverywellqualifiedforthisorderofstudy:ifanyotherpeoplepossesssuperiormentalfacultiesinrespectofmemoryorabetterknowledgeofphilology，hethoughtwehadinourfavorasuperiorityofthepsychologicalsense。
Exceptforsuchbeneficialgeneralitieswhichmayprovidegeneralhygienicguidelines，couldM。Tainehavesuggestedimmediateremedies？
Itisscarcelyprobable。Inanyeven，hewasnotapartisanforhastydecentralization。When，undertheinfluenceofabadsystem，anorganizationhascontractedavicethatreachesitsvitalorgans，thefollowingtreatmentnearlybecomesmandatory；[6]inanyevent，nosuddenmodificationofitmustbethoughtof；allthatcanbedoneistolessenitsperniciouseffectbyresortingtomake—shiftorshorttermmeasures。Takingadvantageofunforeseencircumstances，usinggreatcircumspection，notingfavorablesymptomsthathadimpressedhim—forexampleacertainnewbirthofthespiritofassociationundertheThirdRepublic—leavingtopoliticalauthoritiesthecare\"ofadjustingmeans\"tothediversityandmobilityofthings，wemaybelievethatM。Tainewouldhaveconfinedhimselftoindicatinginwhatsensewecould，withprudence，layourcourse。Todothis，itsufficedforhimtosumuphisdiagnosisandlaydowntheconditionsofdurationandprogress。Inamatterofsuchvitalimportnobodycanspeakforhim。Accordingly，iftheconclusionisnotwritten，whoeverknowshowtoreadhisthoughtmaydivineit。Thework，suchasitis，isfinished；italreadycontainshisideasinfull；theintelligenteyehasonlytofollowthemandtonotetheirconsequencesandcombination。
AndréChevrillonMenthon，St—Bernard，October，1893。
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BOOKFIFTH。TheChurch。
CHAPTERI。MORALINSTITUTIONS
I。Napoleon’sObjectives。
Centralizationandmoralinstitutions—ObjectoftheStateinabsorbingChurches。—Theirinfluenceoncivilsociety。
AfterthecentralizingandinvadingStatehastakenholdoflocalsocietiesthereisnothingleftforitbuttocastitsnetovermoralsocieties[7]，andthissecondhaulismoreimportantthanthefirstone；for，iflocalsocietiesarebasedontheproximityofphysicalbodiesandhabitations，thelatterareformedoutoftheaccordwhichexistsbetweenmindsandsouls；inpossessingthese，theholdisnolongerontheoutsidebutontheinsideofman，histhought，hiswill；
theincentivewithinislaidholdof，andthisdirectly；thenonlycanhebefullymastered，anddisposedofatdiscretion。Tothisend，themainpurposeoftheconqueringStateisthepossessionoftheChurches；alongsideaswellasoutsideofitself，thesearethegreatpowersofthenation；notonlydoestheirdomaindifferfromitsownbut，againitisvasterandliesdeeper。Beyondthetemporalpatrimonyandthesmallfragmentofhumanhistorywhichtheeyesofthefleshperceive，theyembraceandpresenttomentalvisionthewholeworldanditsfirstcause，thetotalordinanceofthings，theinfiniteperspectiveofapasteternityandthatofaneternitytocome。
Underneaththecorporealandintermittentactionswhichcivilpowerprescribesandregulates，theygoverntheimagination，theconscienceandtheaffections，thewholeinwardbeing，thatmute，persistenteffortofwhichourvisibleactsaresimplytheincompleteexpressionsandrareoutbursts。Indeed，evenwhentheysetlimitstothese，voluntarily，conscientiously，thereisnolimit；invaindotheyproclaim，ifChristian，thattheirkingdomisnotofthisworld；
nevertheless，itis，sincetheybelongtoit；mastersofdogmaandofmorals，theyteachandcommandinit。Intheirall—embracingconceptionofdivineandhumanthings，theState，likeachapterinabook，hasitsplaceandtheirteachingsinthischapterareforitofcapitalimportance。For，heredotheywriteoutitsrightsandduties，therightsanddutiesofitssubjects，amoreorlessperfectplanofcivilorder。Thisplan，avowedordissimulated，towardswhichtheyinclinethepreferencesofthefaithful，issuesatlength，spontaneouslyandinvinciblefromtheirdoctrine，likeaplantfromitsseed，tovegetateintemporalsociety，flowerandfructifythereinandsenditsrootsdeeperdownforthepurposeofshatteringorofconsolidatingcivilandpoliticalinstitutions。TheinfluenceofaChurchonthefamilyandoneducation，ontheuseofwealthorofauthority，onthespiritofobedienceorofrevolt，onhabitsofinitiationorofinertia，ofenjoymentorofabstention，ofcharityorofegoism，ontheentirecurrenttrainofdailypracticeandofdominantimpulses，ineverybranchofprivateorpubliclife，isimmense，andconstitutesadistinctandpermanentsocialforceofthehighestorder。Everypoliticalcalculationisunsoundifitisomittedortreatedassomethingofnoconsequence，andtheheadofaStateisboundtocomprehendthenatureofitifhewouldestimateitsgrandeur。
II。Napoleon’sopinionsandmethods。
Napoleon’sopinionsonreligionandreligiousbelief。—Hismotivesinpreferringestablishedandpositivereligions。—Difficultyindefiningthelimitbetweenspiritualandtemporalauthority。—ExceptinCatholiccountries，bothunitedinonehand。—ImpossibletoeffectthisunioninFrancearbitrarily。—Napoleon’swayofattainingthisendbyanotherprocess。—Hisintentionofovercomingspiritualauthoritythroughtemporalinterests。
ThisiswhatNapoleondoes。Asusualwithhim，inordertoseedeeperintoothers，hebeginsbyexamininghimself:
\"TosayfromwhenceIcame，whatIam，orwhereIamgoing，isabovemycomprehension。Iamthewatchthatruns，butunconsciousofitself。\"
Thesequestions，whichweareunabletoanswer，\"driveusonwardtoreligion；werushforwardtowelcomeher，forthatisournaturaltendency。Butknowledgecomesandwestopshort。
Instructionandhistory，yousee，arethegreatenemiesofreligion，disfiguredbytheimperfectionsofhumanity……Ioncehadfaith。
ButwhenIcametoknowsomething，assoonasIbegantoreason，whichhappenedearly，attheageofthirteen，myfaithstaggeredandbecameuncertain。\"[8]
Thisdoublepersonalconvictionisintheback—groundofhisthinking，whenhedraftedtheConcordat:
\"ItwillbesaidthatIamapapist。[9]Iamnothing。InEgyptIwasaMoslem；hereIshallbeaCatholic，forthegoodofthepeople。Idonotbelieveinreligions。TheideaofaGod！\"（Andthen，pointingupward:）\"Whomadeallthat？\"
Imaginationhasalreadydecoratedthisgreatnamewithitslegends。
Letuscontentourselveswiththosealreadyexisting；\"therestlessnessofman\"issuchthathecannotdowithoutthem；indefaultofthosealreadymadehewouldfashionothers，haphazard，andstillmorestrange。Thepositivereligionskeepmanfromgoingastray；
itisthesewhichrenderthesupernaturaldefiniteandprecise；[10]
\"hehadbettercatchittherethanpickitupatMademoiselleLenormand’s，orwithsomefortune—tellerorapassingcharlatan。\"Anestablishedreligion\"isakindofvaccinationwhich，insatisfyingourloveofthemarvelous，protectsusagainstquacksandsorcerers；[11]thepriestsarefarbetterthantheCagliostros，Kants，andtherestoftheGermanmystics。\"
Insumilluminismandmetaphysics，[12]speculativeinventionsofthebrainorofacontagiousoverexcitementofthenervoussystem，alltheseillusionsofgulliblemen，arebasicallyunhealthy，and，ingeneral，anti—social。Nevertheless，sincetheyarepartofhumannature，letusacceptthemlikesomanystreamstumblingdownaslope，butonconditionthattheyremainintheirownbedsandthattheyhavemanybutnonewonesandneveronebedaloneforitself。
\"Idonotwantadominantreligion，northeestablishmentofnewones。TheCatholic，Reformed，andLutheransystems，establishedbytheConcordat，aresufficient。\"[13]
Theirdirectionandforceareintelligible，andtheirirruptionscanbeguardedagainst。Moreover，thepresentinclinationsandconfigurationsofthehumansoilfavorthem；thechildfollowstheroadmarkedoutbytheparent，andthemanfollowstheroadmarkedoutwhenachild。
\"Listen，[14]lastSunday，hereatMalmaison，whilestrollingaloneinthesolitudeenjoyingthereposeofnature，myearsuddenlycaughtthesoundofthechurch—bellatRueil。Iwasmoved，sostrongistheforceofearlyhabitsandeducation！Isaidtomyself，Whatanimpressionthismustmakeonsimple，credulouspeople！\"
Letusgratifythem；letusgivebackthesebellsandtheresttotheCatholics。Afterall，thegeneraleffectofChristianityisbeneficial。
\"AsfarasIamconcerned，[15]Idonotseeinitthemysteryoftheincarnation，butthemysteryofsocialorder，theassociationofreligionwithparadise，anideaofequalitywhichkeepstherichfrombeingmassacredbythepoor。\"
\"Society[16]couldnotexistwithoutaninequalityoffortunes，andaninequalityoffortuneswithoutreligion。[17]AmandyingofstarvationalongsideofonewhohasabundancewouldnotyieldtothisdifferenceunlesshehadsomeauthoritywhichassuredhimthatGodsoordersitthattheremustbebothpoorandrichintheworld，butthatinthefuture，andthroughouteternity，theportionofeachwillbechanged。[18]\"
AlongsideoftherepressivepoliceexercisedbytheStatethereisapreventivepoliceexercisedbytheChurch。Theclergy，initscassock，isanadditionalspiritualgendarmerie，muchmoreefficientthanthetemporalgendarmerieinitsstoutboots，whiletheessentialthingistomakebothkeepsteptogetherinconcert。
Betweenthetwodomains，betweenthatwhichbelongstocivilauthorityandthatwhichbelongstoreligiousauthority，isthereanylineofseparation？
\"Ilookinvain[19]wheretoplaceit；itsexistenceispurelychimerical。Iseeonlyclouds，obscurities，difficulties。Thecivilgovernmentcondemnsacriminaltodeath；thepriestgiveshimabsolutionandoffershimparadise。\"
Inrelationtothisact，bothpowersoperatepubliclyinaninversesenseonthesameindividual，onewiththeguillotineandtheotherwithapardon。Astheseauthoritiesmayclashwitheachother，letuspreventconflictsandleavenoundefinedfrontier；letustracethisoutbeforehand；letusindicatewhatourpartisandnotallowtheChurchtoencroachontheState。—TheChurchrallywantsall；itistheaccessorywhichsheconcedestous，whilesheappropriatestheprincipaltoherself。
\"Marktheinsolenceofthepriests[20]who，insharingauthoritywithwhattheycallthetemporalpower，reservetothemselvesallactiononthemind，thenoblestpartofman，andtakeitonthemselvestoreducemypartmerelytophysicalaction。Theyretainthesoulandflingmethecorpse！\"
Inantiquity，thingsweremuchbetterdone，andarestillbetterdonenowinMoslemcountries。
\"IntheRomanrepublic，[21]thesenatewastheinterpreterofheaven，andthiswastheincentiveoftheforceandstrengthofthatgovernment。InTurkey，andthroughouttheOrient，theKoranservesasbothacivilandreligiousbible。OnlyinChristianitydowefindthepontificatedistinctfromthecivilgovernment。\"
AndeventhishasoccurredonlyinonebranchofChristianity。
Everywhere，exceptinCatholiccountries，\"inEngland，[22]inRussia，inthenorthernmonarchies，inonepartofGermany，thelegalunionofthetwopowers，thereligiouscontrolinthehandsofthesovereign，’isanaccomplishedfact。’Onecannotgovernwithoutit；otherwise，therepose，dignity，andindependenceofanationaredisturbedateverymoment。\"
Itisapitythat\"thedifficulty[23]cannotbeovercomeaswithHenryVIII。inEngland。TheheadoftheFrenchgovernmentwouldthen，bylegislativestatute，bethesupremeheadoftheFrenchChurch。\"
Unfortunately，thisisrepugnanttoFrance。Napoleonoftentriestobringitabout，butissatisfiedthatinthismatter\"hewouldneverobtainnationalcooperation\"；onceembarked，\"fullyengagedintheenterprise，\"thenationwouldhaveabandonedhim。\"Unabletotakethisroad，hetakesanother，whichleadstothesameresult。Ashehimselfafterwardsstates，thisresult\"was，foralongtimeandalways，theobjectofhiswishesandmediations……Itisnothisaim[24]tochangethefaithofhispeople；herespectsspiritualobjectsandwantstorulethemwithoutmeddlingwiththem；hisaimistomakethesesquarewithhisviews，withhispolicy，butonlythroughtheinfluenceoftemporalconcerns。\"Thatspiritualauthorityshouldremainintact；thatitshouldoperateonitsownspeculativedomain，thatittosay，ondogmas，andonitspracticaldomain，namely，onthesacramentsandonworship；thatisshouldbesovereignonthislimitedterritory，Napoleonadmits，forsuchisthefact。Wehaveonlytoopenoureyestoseeit；rightorwrong，spiritualauthorityonthisdistinctdomainisrecognizedsovereign，obeyed，effectivethroughthepersistent，verifiedloyaltyofbelievers。Itcannotbedoneawaywithbysupposingitnon—existent；onthecontrary，acompetentstatesmanwillmaintainitinordertomakeuseofitandapplyittocivilpurposes。Likeanengineerwhocomesacrossaprolificspringnearhisfactory，hewillnottrytodryitup，norletthewaterbedispersedandlost；hehasnoideaoflettingitremaininactive；onthecontrary，hecollectsit，digschannelsforit，directsandeconomizestheflow，andrendersthewaterserviceableinhisworkshops。IntheCatholicChurch，theauthoritytobewonandutilizedisthatoftheclergyoverbelieversandthatofthesovereignpontiffovertheclergy。
\"Youwillsee，\"exclaimedBonaparte，whilenegotiatingtheConcordat，\"howIwillturntheprieststoaccount，and，firstofall，thePope！\"[25]
III。DealingwiththePope。
ServiceswhichheobligesthePopetorender。—Resignationordismissaloftheoldbishops。—EndoftheconstitutionalChurch。—
RightofappointingbishopsandofsanctioningcurésgiventotheFirstConsul。
\"HadnoPopeexisted，\"hesaysagain，[26]\"itwouldhavebeennecessarytocreatehimfortheoccasion，inthesamewaythattheRomanconsulsappointedadictatorfordifficultcircumstances。\"Onlysuchadictatorcouldeffectthecoupd’étatwhichtheFirstConsulneeded，inordertoconstitutetheheadofthenewgovernmentapatronoftheCatholicChurch，tobringindependentorrefractorypriestsundersubjection，toseverthecanonicalcordwhichboundtheFrenchclergytoitsexiledsuperiorsandtotheoldorderofthings，\"tobreakthelastthreadbywhichtheBourbonsstillcommunicatedwiththecountry。\"\"Fiftyémigré[27]bishopsinthepayofEnglandnowleadtheFrenchclergy。Theirinfluencemustbegotridof，andtodothistheauthorityofthePopeisessential；hecandismissormakethemresign。\"Shouldanyofthemproveobstinateandunwillingtodescendfromtheirthrones，theirrefusalbringsthemintodiscredit，andtheyare\"designated[28]asrebelswhopreferthethingsofthisworld，theirterrestrialintereststotheinterestsofheavenandthecauseofGod。\"Thegreatbodyoftheclergyalongwiththeirflockswillabandonthem；theywillsoonbeforgotten，likeoldsproutstransplantedwhoserootshavebeencutoff；theywilldieabroad，onebyone，whilethesuccessor，whoisnowinoffice，willfindnodifficultyinrallyingtheobedientaroundhim，for，beingCatholic，hisparishionersaresomanysheep，docile，takenwithexternals，impressionable，andreadytofollowthepastoralcroisier，provideditbearstheancienttrademark，consistsofthesamematerial，isofthesameform，conferredfromonhighandsentfromRome。ThebishopshavingoncebeenconsecratedbythePope，nobodysaveaGregoryorsomeantiquariancanonistwilldisputetheirjurisdiction。
TheecclesiasticalgroundisthusclearedthroughtheinterpositionofthePope。Thethreegroupsofauthoritiesthereonwhichcontendwitheachotherforthepossessionofconsciences[29]—therefugeebishopsinEngland，theapostolicvicars，andtheconstitutionalclergy—
disappear，andnowtheclearedgroundcanbebuilton。\"TheCatholicreligionbeingdeclared[30]thatofthemajorityoftheFrenchpeople，itsservicesmustnowberegulated。TheFirstConsulnominatesfiftybishopswhomthePopeconsecrates。Theseappointthecurés，andthestatepaystheirsalaries。Thelattermaybesworn，whilethepriestswhodonotsubmitaresentoutofthecountry。Thosewhopreachagainstthegovernmentarehandedovertotheirsuperiorsforpunishment。ThePopeconfirmsthesaleofclericalpossessions；heconsecratestheRepublic。\"Thefaithfulnolongerregarditaskance。
Theyfeelthattheyarenotonlytolerated，butprotectedbyit，andtheyaregrateful。[31]Thepeoplerecovertheirchurches，theircurés，theformsofworshiptowhichtheyarealmostinstinctivelyaccustomed，theceremonialwhich，totheirimagination，belongstoeveryimportantactoftheirlives，thesolemnritesofmarriage，baptism，burial，andothersacramentaloffices。—HenceforthmassissaideverySundayineachvillage，andthepeasantsenjoytheirprocessionsonCorpus—Christiday，whentheircropsareblessed。A
greatpublicwantissatisfied。Discontentsubsides，ill—willdiesout，thegovernmenthasfewerenemies；itsenemies，again，losetheirbestweapon，and，atthesametime，itacquiresanadmirableone，therightofappointingbishopsandofsanctioningthecurés。ByvirtueoftheConcordatandbyorderofthePope，notonly，in1801，doallformerspiritualauthoritiesceasetoexist，butagain，after1801，allnewtitularies，withthePope’sassent，chosen，accepted，managed，disciplined，[32]andpaidbytheFirstConsul，are，infact，hiscreatures，andbecomehisfunctionaries。—
IV。ThePope，Napoleon’semployee。
OtherservicesexpectedofthePope。—CoronationofNapoleonatNotre—Dame。—NapoleonictheoryoftheEmpireandtheHolySee。—ThePopeafeudatoryandsubjectoftheEmperor。—ThepopeinstalledasafunctionaryatParis，andarch—chancelloronspiritualmatters。—
EffectofthisforItaly。
Overandabovethispositiveandrealserviceobtainedfromthesovereignpontiff，heawaitsothersyetmoreimportantandundefined，andprincipallyhisfuturecoronationinNotreDame。Already，duringthenegotiationsfortheConcordat，LaFayettehadobservedtohimwithasmile:[33]\"Youwanttheholyoildroppedonyourhead\"；towhichhemadenocontradictoryanswer。Onthecontrary，hereplied，andprobablytoowithasmile:\"Weshallsee！Weshallsee！\"Thusdoeshethinkahead，andhisideasextendbeyondthatwhichamanbelongingtotheancientrégimecouldimagineordivine，eventothereconstructionoftheempireofthewestasthisexistedintheyear800。\"IamnotLouisXIV。’ssuccessor，\"hesoondeclares，[34]\"butofCharlemagne……IamCharlemagne，because，likeCharlemagne，I
unitetheFrenchcrowntothatoftheLombards，andmyempirebordersontheOrient。\"Inthisconception，whicharemotehistoryfurnishestohisboundlessambition，theterribleantiquitarianfindsthegiganticandsuitableframework，thepotent，speciousterms，andalltheverbalreasonsherequires。UnderNapoleon，thesuccessorofCharlemagne，thePopecanbeonlyavassal:\"YourHolinessisthesovereignofRome，butIamitsemperor，\"thelegitimatesuzerain。
\"Providedwith\"fiefsandcounties\"bythissuzerain，thePopeoweshimpoliticalfealtyandmilitaryaid；failinginthis，theendowment，whichisconditional，lapsesandhisconfiscatedestatesreturntotheimperialdomaintowhichtheyhaveneverceasedtobelong。[35]Throughthisreasoningandthisthreat，throughtherudestandmostadroitmoralandphysicalpressure，themostinsidiousandmostpersevering，throughspoliation，begun，continuedandcompletedbytheabduction，captivityandsequestrationoftheHolyFatherhimself，heundertakesthesubjectionofthespiritualpower:notonlymustthePopebelikeanyotherindividualintheempire，[36]subjectbyhisresidencetoterritoriallaws，andhencetothegovernmentandthegendarmerie，butagainhemustcomewithintheadministrativelines；hewillnolongerenjoytherightofrefusingcanonicalinvestituretobishopsappointedbytheemperor，[37]\"hewill，onhiscoronation，swearnottotakeanymeasuresagainstthefourpropositionsoftheGallicanChurch，\"[38]hewillbecomeagrandfunctionary，asortofarch—chancellorlikeCambacérèsandLebrun，thearchchancelloroftheCatholiccult。—
Undoubtedly，heresistsandisobstinate，butheisnotimmortal，andifhedoesnotyield，hissuccessorwill:itsufficestochooseonethatismanageable，andtothisendthingsworkinthenextconclave。
\"WithmyinfluenceandourforcesinItaly，\"Napoleonsaysafterwards，[39]\"Ididnotdespair，soonerorlater，byonemeansoranother，ofobtainingformyselfthecontrolofthePope，and，thenceforward，whataninfluence，whataleverontheopinionoftherestoftheworld！\"
\"HadIreturnedvictoriousfromMoscow，IintendedtoexaltthePopebeyondmeasure，tosurroundhimwithpompanddeference。Iwouldhavebroughthimtonolongerregrettinghistemporality；Iwouldhavemadehimanidol。Hewouldhavelivedalongsideofme。PariswouldhavebecomethecapitalofChristendom，andIwouldhavegovernedthereligiousworldthesameasthepoliticalworld……Iwouldhavehadmyreligiousaswellaslegislativesessions；mycouncilswouldhaverepresentedChristianity；thePopeswouldhavebeenmerelytheirpresidents。Iwouldhaveopenedandclosedtheseassemblies，sanctionedandpublishedtheirdecrees，aswasdonebyConstantineandCharlemagne。\"In1809，therestorationofthegreatCarlovingianandRomanedificehadbegun；itsphysicalfoundationswerelaid。Byvirtueofadecree，[40]\"theexpensesoftheSacredCollegeandofthePropagandaweredeclaredimperial。\"ThePope，likethenewdukesandmarshals，wasendowedwithalandedincomeon\"propertyindifferentpartsoftheempire，twomillionsofruralrevenuefreeofalltaxation。\"Necessarily\"thePopemusthavetwopalaces，oneatParisandtheotheratRome。HeisalreadynearlyfullyinstalledinParis，hispersonbeingallthatwaslacking。OnarrivingfromFontainebleau，twohoursoff，hewouldfindeverythingbelongingtohisoffice；\"thepapers[41]ofthemissionsandthearchivesofRomewerealreadythere。\"\"TheH？telDieuwasentirelygivenuptothedepartmentsofthecourtofRome。ThedistrictaroundNotreDameandtheIleSaint—LouiswastobetheheadquartersofChristendom！\"Rome，thesecondcenterofChristendom，andthesecondresidenceofthePope，isdeclared[42]\"animperialandfreecity，thesecondcityoftheempire\"；aprinceoftheempire，orothergranddignitary，istoresidethereand\"holdthecourtoftheemperor。\"\"AftertheircoronationinthecathedralofNotreDameatParis，theemperors\"willgotoItalybeforethetenthyearoftheirreign，andbe\"crownedinthechurchofSt。PeteratRome。\"Theheirtotheimperialthrone\"willbearthetitleandreceivethehonorsoftheKingofRome。\"
Observethesubstantialfeaturesofthischimericalconstruction。