SectionIII
OfRudeNationsundertheImpressionsofPropertyandInterestItwasaproverbialimprecationinuseamongthehuntingnationsontheconfinesofSiberia，ThattheirenemymightbeobligedtolivelikeaTartar，andbeseizedwiththefollyofbreedingandattendinghiscattle。24*Nature，itseems，intheirapprehension，bystoringthewoodsandthedesertwithgame，renderedthetaskoftheherdsmanunnecessary，andlefttomanonlythetroubleofselectingandofseizinghisprey。
Theindolenceofmankind，orrathertheiraversiontoanyapplicationinwhichtheyarenotengagedbyimmediateinstinctandpassion，retardstheirprogressinextendingthenotionofproperty。Ithasbeenfound，however，evenwhilethemeansofsubsistenceareleftincommon，andthestockofthepublicisyetundivided，thatthisnotionisalreadyappliedtodifferentsubjects；asthefurandthebowpertaintotheindividual，thecottage，withitsfurniture，areappropriatedtothefamily。
Whentheparentbeginstodesireabetterprovisionforhischildrenthanisfoundunderthepromiscuousmanagementofmanycopartners，whenhehasappliedhislabourandhisskillapart，heaimsatanexclusivepossession，andseeksthepropertyofthesoil，aswellastheuseofitsfruits。
Whentheindividualnolongerfindsamonghisassociatesthesameinclinationtocommiteverysubjecttopublicuse，heisseizedwithconcernforhispersonalfortune。andisalarmedbythecareswhicheverypersonentertainsforhimself。Heisurgedasmuchbyemulationandjealousy，asbythesenseofnecessity。
Hesuffersconsiderationsofinteresttorestonhismind，andwheneverypresentappetiteissufficientlygratified，hecanactwithaviewtofuturity，orratherfindsanobjectofvanityinhavingamassedwhatisbecomeasubjectofcompetition，andamatterofuniversalesteem。Uponthismotive，whereviolenceisrestrained，hecanapplyhishandtolucrativearts，confinehimselftoatedioustask，andwaitwithpatienceforthedistantreturnsofhislabour。
Thusmankindacquireindustrybymanyandbyslowdegrees。
Theyaretaughttoregardtheirinterest；theyaretaughttoabstainfromunlawfulprofits；theyaresecuredinthepossessionofwhattheyfairlyobtain；andbythesemethodsthehabitsofthelabourer，themechanic，andthetrader，aregraduallyformed。
Ahoard，collectedfromthesimpleproductionsofnature，oraherdofcattle，are，ineveryrudenation，thefirstspeciesofwealth。Thecircumstancesofthesoil，andtheclimate，determinewhethertheinhabitantshallapplyhimselfchieflytoagricultureorpasture；whetherheshallfixhisresidence，orbemovingcontinuallyaboutwithallhispossessions。
InthewestofEurope；inAmerica，fromsouthtonorth，withafewexceptions；inthetorridzone，andeverywherewithinthewarmerclimates；mankindhavegenerallyappliedthemselvestosomespeciesofagriculture，andhavebeendisposedtosettlement。IntheeastandthenorthofAsia，theydependedentirelyontheirherds，andwereperpetuallyshiftingtheirgroundinsearchofnewpasture。Theartswhichpertaintosettlementhavebeenpractised，andvariouslycultivated，bytheinhabitantsofEurope。Thosewhichareconsistentwithperpetualmigration，have，fromtheearliestaccountsofhistory，remainednearlythesamewiththeScythianorTartar。Thetentpitchedonamoveablecarriage，thehorseappliedtoeverypurposeoflabour，andofwar，ofthedairy，andofthebutcher’sstall，fromtheearliesttothelatestaccounts，havemadeuptherichesandequipageofthiswanderingpeople。
Butinwhateverwayrudenationssubsist，therearecertainpointsinwhich，underthefirstimpressionsofproperty，theynearlyagree。Homereitherlivedwithapeopleinthisstageoftheirprogress，orfoundhimselfengagedtoexhibittheircharacter。Tacitushasmadethemthesubjectofaparticulartreatise；andifthisbeanaspectunderwhichmankinddeservetobeviewed，itmustbeconfessed，thatwehavesingularadvantagesincollectingtheirfeatures。Theportraithasalreadybeendrawnbytheablesthands，andgives，atoneview，inthewritingsofthesecelebratedauthors，whateverhasbeenscatteredintherelationsofhistorians，orwhateverwehaveopportunitiestoobserveintheactualmannersofmen，whostillremaininasimilarstate。
Inpassingfromtheconditionwehavedescribed，tothiswehaveatpresentinview，mankindstillretainmanypartsoftheirearliestcharacter。Theyarestillaversetolabour，addictedtowar，admirersoffortitude，and，inthelanguageofTacitus，morelavishoftheirbloodthanoftheirsweat。25*Theyarefondoffantasticornamentsintheirdress，andendeavourtofillupthelistlessintervalsofalifeaddictedtoviolence，withhazardoussports，andwithgamesofchance。Everyservileoccupationtheycommittowomenorslaves。Butwemayapprehend，thattheindividualhavingnowfoundaseparateinterest，thebandsofsocietymustbecomelessfirm，anddomesticdisordersmorefrequent。Themembersofanycommunity，beingdistinguishedamongthemselvesbyunequalsharesinthedistributionofproperty，thegroundofapermanentandpalpablesubordinationislaid。
Theseparticularsaccordinglytakeplaceamongmankind，inpassingfromthesavagetowhatmaybecalledthebarbarousstate。Membersofthesamecommunityenterintoquarrelsofcompetitionorrevenge。Theyuniteinfollowingleaders，whoaredistinguishedbytheirfortunes，andbythelustreoftheirbirth。Theyjointhedesireofspoilwiththeloveofglory；andfromanopinion，thatwhatisacquiredbyforce，justlypertainstothevictor，theybecomehuntersofmen，andbringeverycontesttothedecisionofthesword。
Everynationisabandofrobbers，whopreywithoutrestraint，orremorse，ontheirneighbours。Cattle，SaysAchilles，maybeseizedineveryfield；andthecoastsoftheAegeanseawereaccordinglypillagedbytheheroesofHomer，fornootherreason，thanbecausethoseheroeschosetopossessthemselvesofthebrassandiron，thecattle，theslaves，andthewomen，whichwerefoundamongthenationsaroundthem。
ATartarmountedonhishorse，isananimalofprey，whoonlyinquireswherecattlearetobefound，andhowfarhemustgotopossessthem。Themonk，whohadfallenunderthedispleasureofManguChan，madehispeace，bypromising，thatthePope，andtheChristianprinces，shouldmakeasurrenderofalltheirherds。26*
Asimilarspiritreigned，withoutexception，inallthebarbarousnationsofEurope，Asia，andAfrica。TheantiquitiesofGreeceandItaly，andthefablesofeveryancientpoet，containexamplesofitsforce。ItwasthisspiritthatbroughtourancestorsfirstintotheprovincesoftheRomanempire；andthatafterward，moreperhapsthantheirreverenceforthecross，ledthemtotheEast，tosharewiththeTartarsinthespoilsoftheSaracenempire。
Fromthedescriptionscontainedinthelastsection，wemayinclinetobelieve，thatmankind，intheirsimpleststate，areontheeveoferectingrepublics。Theirloveofequality，theirhabitofassemblinginpubliccouncils，andtheirzealforthetribetowhichtheybelong，arequalificationsthatfitthemtoactunderthatspeciesofgovernment；andtheyseemtohavebutafewstepstomake，inordertoreachitsestablishment。Theyhaveonlytodefinethenumbersofwhichtheircouncilsshallconsist，andtosettletheformsoftheirmeeting:Theyhaveonlytobestowapermanentauthorityforrepressingdisorders，andtoenactafewrulesinfavourofthatjusticetheyhavealreadyacknowledged，andfrominclinationsostrictlyobserve。
Butthesestepsarefarfrombeingsoeasilymade，astheyappearonaslightoratransientview。Theresolutionofchusing，fromamongtheirequals，themagistratetowhomtheygivefromthenceforwardarighttocontroultheirownactions，isfarfromthethoughtsofsimplemen；andnoeloquence，perhaps，couldmakethemadoptthismeasure，orgivethemanysenseofitsuse。
Evenafternationshavechosenamilitaryleader，theydonotintrusthimwithanyspeciesofcivilauthority。Thecaptain，amongtheCaribbees，didnotpretendtodecideindomesticdisputes；thetermsjurisdictionandgovernmentwereunknownintheirtongue。27*
Beforethisimportantchangeisadmitted，menmustbeaccustomedtothedistinctionofranks；andbeforetheyaresensiblethatsubordinationismatterofchoice，mustarriveatunequalconditionsbychance。Indesiringproperty，theyonlymeantosecuretheirsubsistence:butthebravewholeadinwar，havelikewisethelargestshareinitsspoils。Theeminentarefondofdevisinghereditaryhonours；andthemultitude，whoadmiretheparent，arereadytoextendtheiresteemtohisoffspring。
Possessionsdescend，andthelustreoffamilygrowsbrighterwithage。Hercules，whoperhapswasaneminentwarrior，becameagodwithposterity，andhisracewassetapartforroyaltyandsovereignpower。Whenthedistinctionsoffortuneandthoseofbirthareconjoined，thechieftainenjoysapre-eminence，aswellatthefeastasinthefield。Hisfollowerstaketheirplaceinsubordinatestations；andinsteadofconsideringthemselvesaspartsofacommunity，theyrankasthefollowersofachieftain，andtaketheirdesignationfromthenameoftheirleader。Theyfindanewobjectofpublicaffection，indefendinghisperson，andinsupportinghisstation；theylendoftheirsubstancetoformhisestate；theyareguidedbyhissmilesandhisfrowns；
andcourt，asthehighestdistinction，ashareinthefeastwhichtheirowncontributionshavefurnished。
Astheformerstateofmankindseemedtopointatdemocracy，thisseemstoexhibittherudimentsofmonarchicalgovernment。
Butitisyetfarshortofthatestablishmentwhichisknowninafteragesbythenameofmonarchy。Thedistinctionbetweentheleaderandthefollower，theprinceandthesubject，isstillbutimperfectlymarked:theirpursuitsandoccupationsarenotdifferent；theirmindsarenotunequallycultivated；theyfeedfromthesamedish；theysleeptogetherontheground；thechildrenoftheking，aswellasthoseofthesubject，areemployedintendingtheflock；andthekeeperoftheswinewasaprimecounselloratthecourtofUlysses。
Thechieftain，sufficientlydistinguishedfromhistribe，toexcitetheiradmiration，andtoflattertheirvanitybyasupposedaffinitytohisnobledescent，istheobjectoftheirveneration，notoftheirenvy:heisconsideredasthecommonbondofconnection，notastheircommonmaster；isforemostindanger，andhasaprincipalshareintheirtroubles:hisgloryisplacedinthenumberofhisattendants，inhissuperiormagnanimityandvalour；thatofhisfollowers，inbeingreadytoshedtheirbloodinhisservice。28*
Thefrequentpracticeofwartendstostrengthenthebandsofsociety，andthepracticeofdepredationitselfengagesmenintrialsofmutualattachmentandcourage。Whatthreatenedtoruinandoverseteverygooddispositioninthehumanbreast，whatseemedtobanishjusticefromthesocietiesofmen，tendstounitethespeciesinclansandfraternities；formidable，indeed，andhostiletooneanother，butinthedomesticsocietyofeach，faithfuldisinterested，andgenerous。Frequentdangers，andtheexperienceoffidelityandvalour，awakentheloveofthosevirtues，renderthemasubjectofadmiration，andendeartheirpossessors。
Actuatedbygreatpassions，theloveofglory，andthedesireofvictory。rousedbythemenacesofanenemy，orstungwithrevenge；insuspensebetweentheprospectsofruinorconquest，thebarbarianspendseverymomentofrelaxationintheindulgenceofsloth。Hecannotdescendtothepursuitsofindustryormechanicallabour:thebeastofpreyisasluggard；thehunterandthewarriorsleeps，whilewomenorslavesaremadetotoilforhisbread。Butshewhimaquarryatadistance，heisbold，impetuous，artful，andrapacious:nobarcanwithstandhisviolence，andnofatiguecanallayhisactivity。
Evenunderthisdescriptionmankindaregenerousandhospitabletostrangers，aswellaskind，affectionate，andgentle，intheirdomesticsociety。29*Friendshipandenmityaretothemtermsofthegreatestimportance:theyminglenottheirfunctionstogether；theyhavesingledouttheirenemy，andtheyhavechosentheirfriend。Evenindepredation，theprincipalobjectisglory；andspoilisconsideredasabadgeofvictory。
Nationsandtribesaretheirprey:thesolitarytraveller，bywhomtheycanacquireonlythereputationofgenerosity，issufferedtopassunhurt，oristreatedwithsplendidmunificence。
Thoughdistinguishedintosmallcantonsundertheirseveralchieftains，andforthemostpartseparatedbyjealousyandanimosity；yetwhenpressedbywarsandformidableenemies，theysometimesuniteingreaterbodies。LiketheGreeksintheirexpeditiontoTroy，theyfollowsomeremarkableleader，andcomposeakingdomofmanyseparatetribes。Butsuchcoalitionsaremerelyoccasional；andevenduringtheircontinuance，moreresemblerepublicthanmonarchy。Theinferiorchieftainsreservetheirimportance，andintrude，withanairofequality，intothecouncilsoftheirleader，asthepeopleoftheirseveralclanscommonlyintrudeuponthem。30*Uponwhatmotiveindeedcouldwesuppose，thatmenwholivetogetherinthegreatestfamiliarity，andamongstwhomthedistinctionsofrankaresoobscurelymarked，wouldresigntheirpersonalsentimentsandinclinations，orpayanimplicitsubmissiontoaleaderwhocanneitheroverawenorcorrupt？
Militaryforcemustbeemployedtoextort，orthehireofthevenaltobuy，thatengagementwhichtheTartarcomesundertohisprince，whenhepromises，’Thathewillgowhereheshallbecommanded；thathewillcomewhenheshallbecalled；thathewillkillwhoeverispointedouttohim；and，forthefuture，thathewillconsiderthevoiceoftheKingasasword。’31*
Thesearethetermstowhicheventhestubbornheartofthebarbarianhasbeenreduced，inconsequenceofadespotismhehimselfhadestablished；andmenhave，inthatlowstateofthecommercialarts，inEurope，aswellasinAsia，tastedofpoliticalslavery。Wheninterestprevailsineverybreast，thesovereignandhispartycannotescapetheinfection:heemploystheforcewithwhichheisintrusted，toturnhispeopleintoaproperty，andtoCommandtheirpossessionsforhisprofitorhispleasure。Ifrichesarebyanypeoplemadethestandardofgoodandofevil，letthembewareofthepowerstheyintrusttotheirprince。’WiththeSuiones，’saysTacitus，’richesareinhighesteem；andthispeopleareaccordinglydisarmed，andreducedtoslavery。’32*
Itisinthiswofulconditionthatmankind，beingslavish，interested，insidious，deceitful，andbloody，bearmarks，ifnotoftheleastcurable，surelyofthemostlamentable，sortofcorruption。33*Amongthem，waristhemerepracticeofrapine，toenrichtheindividual；commerceisturnedintoasystemofsnaresandimpositions；andgovernmentbyturnsoppressiveorweak。
Itwerehappyforthehumanrace，whenguidedbyinterest，andnotgovernedbylaws，thatbeingsplitintonationsofamoderateextent，theyfoundineverycantonsomenaturalbartoitsfurtherenlargement，andmetwithoccupationenoughinmaintainingtheirindependence，withoutbeingabletoextendtheirdominion。
Thereisnotdisparityofrank，amongmeninrudeages，sufficienttogivetheircommunitiestheformoflegalmonarchy；
andinaterritoryofconsiderableextent，whenunitedunderonehead，thewarlikeandturbulentspiritofitsinhabitantsseemstorequirethebridleofdespotismandmilitaryforce。Whereanydegreeoffreedomremains，thepowersoftheprinceare，astheywereinmostoftherudemonarchiesofEurope，extremelyprecarious，anddependchieflyonhispersonalcharacter:where，onthecontrary，thepowersoftheprinceareabovethecontrolofhispeople，theyarelikewiseabovetherestrictionsoflaw。
Rapacityandterrorbecomethepredominantmotivesofconduct，andformthecharacteroftheonlypartiesintowhichmankindaredivided，thatoftheoppressor，andthatoftheoppressed。
ThiscalamitythreatenedEuropeforages，undertheconquestandsettlementofitsnewinhabitants。34*IthasactuallytakenplaceinAsia，wheresimilarconquestshavebeenmade；andevenwithouttheordinaryopiatesofeffeminacy，oraservileweakness，foundedonluxury，ithassurprisedtheTartaronhiswain，intherearofhisherds。Amongthispeople，intheheartofagreatcontinent，boldandenterprisingwarriorsarose:theysubdued，bysurprise，orsuperiorabilities，thecontiguoushords；theygained，intheirprogress，accessionsofnumbersandofstrength；and，likeatorrentincreasingasitdescends，becametoostrongforanybarthatcouldbeopposedtotheirpassage。Theconqueringtribe，duringasuccessionofages，furnishedtheprincewithhisguards；andwhiletheythemselveswereallowedtoshareinitsspoils，werethevoluntarytoolsofoppression，Inthismannerhasdespotismandcorruptionmadetheirwayintoregionssomuchrenownedforthewildfreedomofnature:apowerwhichwastheterrorofeveryeffeminateprovinceisdisarmed，andthenurseryofnationsisitselfgonetodecay。35*
Whererudenationsescapethiscalamity，theyrequiretheexerciseofforeignwarstomaintaindomesticpeace:whennoenemyappearsfromabroad，theyhaveleisureforprivatefeuds，andemploythatcourageintheirdissensionsathome，which，intimeofwar，isemployedindefenceoftheircountry。
’AmongtheGauls，’saysCaesar，’therearesubdivisions，notonlyineverynation，andineverydistrictandvillage，butalmostineveryhouse，everyonemustflytosomepatronforprotection。’36*Inthisdistributionofparties，notonlythefeudsofclans，butthequarrelsoffamilies，eventhedifferencesandcompetitionsofindividuals，aredecidedbyforce。Thesovereign，whenunassistedbysuperstition，endeavoursinvaintoemployhisjurisdiction，ortoprocureasubmissiontothedecisionsoflaw。Byapeoplewhoareaccustomedtoowetheirpossessionstoviolence，andwhodespisefortuneitselfwithoutthereputationofcourage，noumpireisadmittedbutthesword。
ScipioofferedhisarbitrationtoterminatethecompetitionoftwoSpaniardsinadisputedsuccession:’That，’saidthey，’wehavealreadyrefusedtoourrelations:wedonotsubmitourdifferencetothejudgementofmen；andevenamongthegods，weappealtoMarsalone。’37*
ItiswellknownthatthenationsofEuropecarriedthismodeofproceedingtoadegreeofformalityunheardofinotherpartsoftheworld:thecivilandcriminaljudgecould，inmostcases，donomorethanappointthelists，andleavethepartiestodecidetheircausebythecombat:theyapprehendedthatthevictorhadaverdictofthegodsinhisfavour:andwhentheydroppedinanyinstancethisextraordinaryformofprocess，theysubstitutedinitsplacesomeothermorecapriciousappealtochance；inwhichtheylikewisethoughtthatthejudgementofthegodswasdeclared。
ThefiercenationsofEuropewereevenfondofthecombatasanexerciseandasport。Intheabsenceofrealquarrels，companionschallengedeachothertoatrialofskill，inwhichoneofthemfrequentlyperished。WhenScipiocelebratedthefuneralofhisfatherandhisuncle，theSpaniardscameinpairstofight，and，byapublicexhibitionoftheirduels，toincreasethesolemnity。38*
Inthiswildandlawlessstate，wheretheeffectsoftruereligionwouldhavebeensodesireable，andsosalutary，superstitionfrequentlydisputestheascendantevenwiththeadmirationofvalour；andanorderofmen，liketheDruidsamongtheancientGaulsandBritons，39*orsomepretendertodivination，asattheCapeofGoodHope，finds，inthecreditwhichispaidtohissorcery，awaytothepossessionofpower:
hismagicwandcomesincompetitionwiththesworditself；and，inthemanneroftheDruids，givesthefirstrudimentsofcivilgovernmenttosome，or，likethesupposeddescendentofthesunamongtheNatchez，andtheLamaamongtheTartars，toothers，anearlytasteofdespotismandabsoluteslavery。
Wearegenerallyatalosstoconceivehowmankindcansubsistundercustomsandmannersextremelydifferentfromourown；andweareapttoexaggeratethemiseryofbarbaroustimes，byanimaginationofwhatweourselvesshouldsufferinasituationtowhichwearenotaccustomed。Buteveryagehathitsconsolations，aswellasitssufferings。40*Intheintervalofoccasionaloutrages，thefriendlyintercoursesofmen，evenintheirrudestcondition，isaffectionateand。happy41*inrudeages，thepersonsandpropertiesofindividualsaresecure；
becauseeachhasafriend，aswellasanenemy；andiftheoneisdisposedtomolest，theotherisreadytoprotect；andtheveryadmirationofvalour，whichinsomeinstancestendstosanctifyviolence，inspireslikewisecertainmaximsofgenerosityandhonour，thattendtopreventthecommissionofwrongs。
Menbearwiththedefectsoftheirpolicy，astheydowithhardshipsandinconvenienciesintheirmannerofliving。Thealarmsandthefatiguesofwarbecomeanecessaryrecreationtothosewhoareaccustomedtothem，andwhohavethetoneoftheirpassionsraisedabovelessanimatingortryingoccasions。Oldmen，amongthecourtiersofAttila，wept，whentheyheardofheroicdeeds，whichtheythemselvescouldnolongerperform。42*
AndamongtheCelticnations，whenagerenderedthewarriorunfitforhisformertoils，itwasthecustom，inordertoabridgethelanguorsofalistlessandinactivelife，tosuefordeathatthehandsofhisfriends。43*
Withallthisferocityofspirit，therudenationsoftheWestweresubduedbythepolicyandmoreregularwarfareoftheRomans。Thepointofhonour，whichthebarbariansofEuropeadoptedasindividuals，exposedthemtoapeculiardisadvantage，byrenderingthem，evenintheirnationalwars，aversetoassailingtheirenemybysurprise，ortakingthebenefitofstratagem；andthoughseparatelyboldandintrepid，yet，likeotherrudenations，theywere，whenassembledingreatbodies，addictedtosuperstition，andsubjecttopanics。
Theywere，fromaconsciousnessoftheirpersonalcourageandforce，sanguineontheeveofbattle；theywere，beyondtheboundsofmoderation，elatedonsuccess，anddejectedinadversity。andbeingdisposedtoconsidereveryeventasajudgementofthegods，theywereneverqualifiedbyanuniformapplicationofprudence，tomakethemostoftheirforces，torepairtheirmisfortunes，ortoimprovetheiradvantages。
Resignedtothegovernmentofaffectionandpassion，theyweregenerousandfaithfulwheretheyhadfixedanattachment；
implacable，froward，andcruel，wheretheyhadconceivedadislike:addictedtodebauchery，andtheimmoderateuseofintoxicatingliquors，theydeliberatedontheaffairsofstateintheheatoftheirriot；andinthesamedangerousmoments，conceivedthedesignsofmilitaryenterprise，orterminatedtheirdomesticdissensionsbythedaggerorthesword。
Intheirwarstheypreferreddeathtocaptivity。ThevictoriousarmiesoftheRomans，inenteringatownbyassault，orinforcinganincampment，havefoundthemotherintheactofdestroyingherchildren，thattheymightnotbetaken；andthedaggeroftheparent，redwiththebloodofhisfamily，readytobeplungedatlastintohisownbreast。44*
Inalltheseparticularsweperceivethatvigourofspirit，whichrendersdisorderitselfrespectable，andwhichqualitiesmen，iffortunateintheirsituation，tolaythebasisofdomesticliberty，aswellastomaintainagainstforeignenemiestheirnationalindependenceandfreedom。
NOTES:
1。Hume’sHistory，ch。8，p。278。
2。Ibid。，p。73。
3。HistoryoftheCaribbees。
4。Charlevoix。
5。Lafitau。
6。Ibid。
7。Charlevoix。
8。Wafer’saccountoftheIsthmusofDarien。
9。Colden’sHistoryoftheFiveNations。
10。Lafitau，Charlevoix，Colden，etc。
11。Lafitau。
12。Muneribusgaudent，sednecdataimputant，necacceptisobligantur。
13。Charlevoix。
14。Lafitau。
15。Charlevoix。
16。Charlevoix。
17。Colden。
18。Charlevoix。
19。Ibid。Thiswritersays，thathehasseenaboyandagirl，havingboundtheirnakedarmstogether，placeaburningcoalbetweenthem，totrywhowouldshakeitofffirst。
20。Lafitau。
21。Charlevoix。
22。Tacitus，Lafitau，Charlevoix。
23。Caesarquestus，quodquumultroincontinentemlegatismissispacemasepetissent，bellumsinecausaintulissent。Lib。4。
24。Abulgaze’sGenealogicalHistoryoftheTartars。
25。Pirgumquinimmoetinersvidetur，sudoreacquirereqodpossissanguineparare。
26。Rubruquis。
27。HistoryoftheCaribbees。
28。Tacitus，DemoribusGermanorum。
29。JeanduPlanCarpen。Rubruquis，Caesar，Tacit。
30。Kolbe，DescriptionoftheCapeofGoodHope。
31。SimondeStQuintin。
32。DemoribusGermanorum。
33。Chardin’sTravels。
34。SeeHume’sHistoryoftheTudors——Thereseemedtobenothingwantingtoestablishaperfectdespotisminthathouse，butafewregimentsoftroopsunderthecommandofthecrown。
35。SeetheHistoryoftheHuns。
36。DeBelloGallico，lib。6。
37。Livy。
38。Livy，lib。3。
39。Caesar。
40。Priscus，whenemployedonanembassytoAttila，wasaccostedinGreek，byapersonwhoworethedressofaScythian。Havingexpressedsurprise，andbeingdesiroustoknowthecauseofhisstayinsowildacompany，wastold，thatthisGreekhadbeenacaptive，andforsometimeaslave，tillheobtainedhislibertyinrewardofsomeremarkableaction。’Ilivemorehappilyhere，’
sayshe，’thaneverIdidundertheRomangovernment:fortheywholivewiththeScythians，iftheycanendurethefatiguesofwar，havenothingelsetomolestthem；theyenjoytheirpossessionundisturbed:whereasyouarecontinuallyapreytoforeignenemies，ortobadgovernment；youareforbidtocarryarmsinyourowndefence；yousufferfromtheremissnessandillconductofthosewhoareappointedtoprotectyou；theevilsofpeaceareevenworsethanthoseofwar；nopunishmentiseverinflictedonthepowerfulortherich；nomercyisshowntothepoor；althoughyourinstitutionswerewiselydevised，yetinthemanagementofcorruptedmen，theireffectsareperniciousandcruel。’Excerptadelegationibus。
41。D’Arvieux’HistoryoftheWildArabs。
42。Ibid。
43。Ubitranscenditflorentesviribusannos，Impatiensaevispernitnovissesenectam。
Silius，lib。I，225。
44。Liv。lib。xli。II。Dio。Cass。
PartThirdOftheHistoryofPolicyandArtsSectionI
OftheInfluencesofClimateandSituationWhatwehavehithertoobservedontheconditionandmannersofnations，thoughchieflyderivedfromwhathaspassedinthetemperateclimates，may，insomemeasure，beappliedtotherudestateofmankindineverypartoftheearth:butifweintendtopursuethehistoryofourspeciesinitsfurtherattainments，wemaysoonenteronsubjectswhichwillconfineourobservationtomorenarrowlimits。Thegeniusofpoliticalwisdomandcivilartsappearstohavechosenhisseatsinparticulartractsoftheearth，andtohaveselectedhisfavouritesinparticularracesofmen。
Man，inhisanimalcapacity，isqualifiedtosubsistineveryclimate。Hereignswiththelionandthetygerundertheequatorialbeatsofthesun，orbeassociateswiththebearandtheraindeerbeyondthepolarcircle。Hisversatiledispositionfitshimtoassumethehabitsofeithercondition，orhistalentforartsenableshimtosupplyitsdefects。Theintermediateclimates，however，appearmosttofavourhisnature；andinwhatevermannerweaccountforthefact，itcannotbedoubted，thatthisanimalhasalwaysattainedtotheprincipalhonoursofhisspecieswithinthetemperatezone。Thearts，whichhehasonthisscenerepeatedlyinvented，theextentofhisreason，thefertilityofhisfancy，andtheforceofhisgeniusinliterature，commerce，policy，andwar，sufficientlydeclareeitheradistinguishedadvantageofsituation，oranaturalsuperiorityofmind。
Themostremarkableracesofmen，itistrue，havebeenrudebeforetheywerepolished。Theyhaveinsomecasesreturnedtorudenessagain:anditisnotfromtheactualpossessionofarts，science，orpolicy，thatwearetopronounceoftheirgenius。
Thereisavigour，areachofcapacity，andasensibilityofmind，whichmaycharacteriseaswellthesavageasthecitizen，theslaveaswellasthemaster；andthesamepowersofthemindmaybeturnedtoavarietyofpurposes。AmodernGreek，perhaps，ismischievous，slavish，andcunning，fromthesameanimatedtemperamentthatmadehisancestorardent，ingenious，andbold，inthecamp，orinthecouncilofhisnation。AmodernItalianisdistinguishedbysensibility，quickness，andart，whileheemploysontriflesthecapacityofanancientRoman；andexhibitsnow，inthesceneofamusement，andinthesearchofafrivolousapplause，thatfire，andthosepassions，withwhichGracchusburnedintheforum，andshooktheassembliesofasevererpeople。
Thecommercialandlucrativeartshavebeen，insomeclimates，theprincipalobjectofmankind，andhavebeenretainedthrougheverydisaster；inothers，evenunderallthefluctuationsoffortune，theyhavestillbeenneglected；whileinthetemperateclimatesofEuropeandAsia，theyhavehadtheiragesofadmirationaswellascontempt。
Inonestateofsociety，artsareslighted，fromthatveryardourofmind，andprincipleofactivity，bywhich，inanother；
theyarepractisedwiththegreatestsuccess。Whilemenareingrossedbytheirpassions，heatedandrousedbythestrugglesanddangersoftheircountry；whilethetrumpetsounds，orthealarmofsocialengagementisrung，andtheheartbeatshigh，itwereamarkofdullness，orofanabjectspirit，tofindleisureforthestudyofease，orthepursuitofimprovements，whichhavemereconvenienceoreasefortheirobject。
Thefrequentvicissitudesandreversesoffortune，whichnationshaveexperiencedonthatverygroundwheretheartshaveprospered，areprobablytheeffectsofabusy，inventive，andversatilespirit，bywhichmenhavecarriedeverynationalpursuittoextremes。Theyhaveraisedthefabricofdespoticempiretoitsgreatestheight，wheretheyhadbestunderstoodthefoundationsoffreedom。Theyperishedintheflameswhichtheythemselveshadkindled；andtheyonly，perhaps，werecapableofdisplaying，byturns，thegreatestimprovements，orthelowestcorruptions，towhichthehumanmindcanbebrought。
Onthisscene，mankindhavetwice，withinthecompassofhistory，ascendedfromrudebeginningstoveryhighdegreesofrefinement。Ineveryage，whetherdestinedbyitstemporarydispositiontobuildortodestroy，theyhaveleftthevestigesofanactiveandvehementspirit。ThepavementandtheruinsofRomeareburiedindust，shakenfromthefeetofbarbarians，whotrodwithcontemptontherefinementsofluxury，andspurnedthosearts，theuseofwhichitwasreservedfortheposterityofthesamepeopletodiscoverandtoadmire。ThetentsofthewildArabareevennowpitchedamongtheruinsofmagnificentcities；
andthewastefieldswhichborderOnPalestineandSyria，areperhapsbecomeagainthenurseryofinfantnations。ThechieftainofanArabtribe，likethefounderofRome，mayhavealreadyfixedtherootsofaplantthatistoflourishinsomefutureperiod，orlaidthefoundationsofafabric，thatwillattaintoitsgrandeurinsomedistantage。
GreatpartofAfricahasbeenalwaysunknown；butthesilenceoffame，onthesubjectofitsrevolutions，isanargument，wherenootherproofcanbefound，ofweaknessinthegeniusofitspeople。Thetorridzone，everywhereroundtheglobe，howeverknowntothegeographer，hasfurnishedfewmaterialsforhistory；
andthoughinmanyplacessuppliedwiththeartsoflifeinnocontemptibledegree，hasnowherematuredthemoreimportantprojectsofpoliticalwisdom，norinspiredthevirtueswhichareconnectedwithfreedom，andrequiredintheconductofcivilaffairs。
Itwasindeedinthetorridzonethatmereartsofmechanismandmanufacturewerefound，amongtheinhabitantsofthenewworld，tohavemadethegreatestadvance:itisinIndia，andintheregionsofthishemisphere，whicharevisitedbytheverticalsun，thattheartsofmanufacture，andthepracticeofcommerce，areofthegreatestantiquity，andhavesurvived，withthesmallestdiminution，theruinsoftime，andtherevolutionsofempire。
Thesun，itseems，whichripensthepine-appleandthetamarind，inspiresadegreeofmildnessthancanevenassuagetherigoursofdespoticalgovernment:andsuchistheeffectofagentleandpacificdispositioninthenativesoftheEast，thatnoconquest，noirruptionofbarbarians，terminates，astheydidamongthestubbornnativesofEurope，byatotaldestructionofwhattheloveofeaseandofpleasurehadproduced。
Transferred，withoutanygreatstruggle，fromonemastertoanother，thenativesofIndiaareready，uponeverycharge，topursuetheirindustry，toacquiesceintheenjoymentoflife，andthehopesofanimalpleasure:thewarsofconquestarenotprolongedtoexasperatethepartiesengagedinthem，ortodesolatethelandforwhichthosepartiescontend:eventhebarbarousinvaderleavesuntouchedthecommercialsettlementwhichhasnotprovokedhisrage:thoughmasterofopulentcities，heonlyincampsintheirneighbourhood，andleavestohisheirstheoptionofentering，bydegrees，onthepleasures，thevices，andthepageantrieshisacquisitionsafford:hissuccessors，stillmorethanhimself，aredisposedtofosterthehive，inproportionastheytastemoreofitssweets；andtheysparetheinhabitant，togetherwithhisdwelling，astheysparetheherdorthestall，ofwhichtheyarebecometheproprietors。
ThemoderndescriptionofIndiaisarepetitionoftheancient，andthepresentstateofChinaisderivedfromadistantantiquity，towhichthereisnoparallelinthehistoryofmankind。Thesuccessionofmonarchshasbeenchanged；butnorevolutionshaveaffectedthestate。TheAfricanandtheSamoiedearenotmoreuniformintheirignoranceandbarbarity，thantheChineseandtheIndian，ifwemaycredittheirownstory，havebeeninthepracticeofmanufacture，andintheobservanceofacertainpolice，whichwascalculatedonlytoregulatetheirtraffic，andtoprotectthemintheirapplicationtoservileorlucrativearts。
Ifwepassfromthesegeneralrepresentationsofwhatmankindhavedone，tothemoreminutedescriptionoftheanimalhimself，ashehasoccupieddifferentclimates，andisdiversifiedinhistemper，complexion，andcharacter，weshallfindavarietyofgeniuscorrespondingtotheeffectsofhisconduct，andtheresultofhisstory。
Man，intheperfectionofhisnaturalfaculties，isquickanddelicateinhissensibility；extensiveandvariousinhisimaginationsandreflections；attentive，penetrating，andsubtile，inwhatrelatestohisfellow-creatures；firmandardentinhispurposes；devotedtofriendshiportoenmity；jealousofhisindependenceandhishonour，whichhewillnotrelinquishforsafetyorforprofit:underallhiscorruptionsorimprovements，heretainshisnaturalsensibility，ifnothisforce；andhiscommerceisablessingoracurse，accordingtothedirectionhismindhasreceived。
Butundertheextremesofheatorofcold，theactiverangeofthehumansoulappearstobelimited；andmenareofinferiorimportance，eitherasfriends，orasenemies。Intheoneextreme，theyaredullandslow，moderateintheirdesires，regularandpacificintheirmanneroflife；intheother，theyarefeverishintheirpassions，weakintheirjudgements，andaddictedbytemperamenttoanimalpleasure。Inboththeheartismercenary，andmakesimportantconcessionsforchildishbribes:inboththespiritispreparedforservitude:intheoneitissubduedbyfearofthefuture；intheotheritisnotrousedevenbyitssenseofthepresent。
ThenationsofEuropewhowouldsettleorconqueronthesouthorthenorthoftheirownhappierclimates，findlittleresistance:theyextendtheirdominionatpleasure，andfindnowherealimitbutintheocean，andinthesatietyofconquest。
Withfewofthepangsandthestrugglesthatprecedethereductionofnations，mightyprovinceshavebeensuccessivelyannexedtotheterritoryofRussia；anditssovereign，whoaccountswithinhisdomain，entiretribes，withwhomperhapsnoneofhisemissarieshaveeverconversed，dispatchedafewgeometerstoextendhisempire，andthustoexecuteaproject，inwhichtheRomanswereobligedtoemploytheirconsulsandtheirlegions。1*Thesemodernconquerorscomplainofrebellion，wheretheymeetwithrepugnance；andaresurprisedatbeingtreatedasenemies，wheretheycometoimposetheirtribute。
Itappears，however，thatontheshoresoftheEasternsea，theyhavemetwithnations2*whohavequestionedtheirtitletoreign，andwhohaveconsideredtherequisitionofataxasthedemandofeffectsfornothing。HereperhapsmaybefoundthegeniusofancientEurope，andunderitsnameofferocity，thespiritofnationalindependence；3*thatspiritwhichdisputeditsgroundintheWestwiththevictoriousarmiesofRome，andbaffledtheattemptsofthePersianmonarchstocomprehendthevillagesofGreecewithintheboundsoftheirextensivedominion。
Thegreatandstrikingdiversitieswhichobtainbetwixttheinhabitantsofclimatesfarremovedfromeachother，are，likethevarietiesofotheranimalsindifferentregions，easilyobserved。ThehorseandtheraindeerarejustemblemsoftheArabandtheLaplander:thenativeofArabia，liketheanimalforwhoseracehiscountryisfamed，whetherwildinthewoods，ortutoredbyart，islively，active，andferventintheexerciseonwhichheisbent。Thisraceofmen，intheirrudestate，flytothedesertforfreedom，andinrovingbandsalarmthefrontiersofempire，andstrikeaterrorintheprovincetowhichtheirmovingencampmentsadvance。4*Whenrousedbytheprospectofconquest，ordisposedtoactonaplan，theyspreadtheirdominion，andtheirsystemofimagination，overmightytractsoftheearth:whenpossessedofpropertyandofsettlement，theysettheexampleofalivelyinvention，andsuperioringenuity，inthepracticeofarts，andthestudyofscience，TheLaplander，onthecontrary，liketheassociateofhisclimate，ishardy，indefatigable，andpatientoffamine；dullratherthantame；
serviceableinaparticulartract；andincapableofchange。Wholenationscontinuefromagetoageinthesamecondition，and，withimmoveablephlegm，submittotheappellationsofDane，ofSwede，orofMuscovite，accordingtothelandtheyinhabit；andsuffertheircountrytobeseveredlikeacommon，bythelineonwhichthosenationshavetracedtheirlimitsofempire。
Itisnotintheextremesalonethatthesevarietiesofgeniusmaybeclearlydistinguished。Theircontinualchangekeepspacewiththevariationsofclimatewithwhichwesupposethemconnected:andthoughcertaindegreesofcapacity，penetration，andardour，arenotthelotofentirenations，northevulgarpropertiesofanypeople；yettheirunequalfrequency，andunequalmeasure，indifferentcountries，aresufficientlymanifestfromthemanners，thetoneofconversation，thetalentforbusiness，amusement，andliterarycomposition，whichpredominateineach。
ItistotheSouthernnationsofEurope，bothancientandmodern，thatweowetheinventionandtheembellishmentofthatmythology，andthoseearlytraditions，whichcontinuetofurnishthematerialsoffancy，andthefieldofpoeticallusion。Tothemweowetheromantictalesofchivalry，aswellasthesubsequentmodelsofamorerationalstyle，bywhichtheheartandtheimaginationarekindled，andtheunderstandinginformed。
ThefruitsofindustryhaveaboundedmostintheNorth，andthestudyofsciencehasherereceiveditsmostsolidimprovements:theeffortsofimaginationandsentimentweremostfrequentandmostsuccessfulintheSouth。WhiletheshoresoftheBalticbecamefamedforthestudiesofCopernicus，TychoBrahe，andKepler，thoseoftheMediterraneanwerecelebratedforgivingbirthtomenofgeniusinallitsvariety，andforhavingaboundedwithpoetsandhistorians，aswellaswithmenofscience。
Ononeside，learningtookitsrisefromtheheartandthefancy；ontheother，itisstillconfinedtothejudgementandthememory。Afaithfuldetailofpublictransactions，withlittlediscernmentoftheircomparativeimportance；thetreatiesandtheclaimsofnations，thebirthsandgenealogiesofprinces，are，intheliteratureofNorthernnations，amplypreserved；whilethelightsoftheunderstanding，andthefeelingsoftheheart，aresufferedtoperish。Thehistoryofthehumancharacter；theinterestingmemoir，foundednolessonthecarelessproceedingsofaprivatelife，thanontheformaltransactionsofapublicstation；theingeniouspleasantry，thepiercingridicule，thetender，pathetic，ortheelevatedstrainofelocution，havebeenconfinedinmodernaswellasancienttimes，withafewexceptions，tothesamelatitudeswiththefigandthevine。
Thesediversitiesofnaturalgenius，ifreal，musthavegreatpartoftheirfoundationintheanimalframe:andithasbeenoftenobserved，thatthevineflourishes，where，toquickenthefermentsofthehumanblood，itsaidsaretheleastrequired。
Whilespirituousliquorsare，amongSouthernnations，fromasenseoftheirruinouseffects，prohibited；orfromaloveofdecency，andthepossessionofatemperamentsufficientlywarm，notgreatlydesired；theycarryintheNorthapeculiarcharm，whiletheyawakenthemind，andgiveatasteofthatlivelyfancyandardourofpassion，whichtheclimateisfoundtodeny。
Themeltingdesires，orthefierypassions，whichinoneclimatetakeplacebetweenthesexes，areinanotherchangedintoasoberconsideration，orapatienceofmutualdisgust。ThischangeisremarkedincrossingtheMediterranean，infollowingthecourseoftheMissisippi，inascendingthemountainsofCaucasus，andinpassingfromtheAlpsandthePyreneestotheshoresoftheBaltic。
ThefemalesexdomineersonthefrontierofLouisiana，bythedoubleengineofsuperstition，andofpassion。TheyareslavesamongthenativeinhabitantsofCanada，andchieflyvaluedforthetoilstheyendure，andthedomesticservicetheyyield。5*
Theburningardours，andthetorturingjealousies，oftheseraglioandtheharam，whichhavereignedsolonginAsiaandAfrica，andwhich，intheSouthernpartsofEurope，havescarcelygivenwaytothedifferenceofreligionandcivilestablishments，arefound，however，withanabatementofheatintheclimate，tobemoreeasilychanged，inonelatitude，intoatemporarypassionwhichingrossesthemind，withoutenfeeblingit，andwhichexcitestoromanticatchievements:byafartherprogresstotheNorth，itischangedintoaspiritofgallantry，whichemploysthewitandthefancymorethantheheart；whichprefersintriguetoenjoyment；andsubstitutesaffectationandvanity，wheresentimentanddesirehavefailed。Asitdepartsfromthesun，thesamepassionisfurthercomposedintoahabitofdomesticconnection，orfrozenintoastateofinsensibility，underwhichthesexesatfreedomscarcelychusetounitetheirsociety。
Thesevariationsoftemperamentandcharacter，donotindeedcorrespondwiththenumberofdegreesthataremeasuredfromtheequatortothepole；nordoesthetemperatureoftheairitselfdependonthelatitude。Varietiesofsoilandposition，thedistanceorneighbourhoodofthesea，areknowntoaffecttheatmosphere，andmayhavesignaleffectsincomposingtheanimalframe。
TheclimatesofAmerica，thoughtakenunderthesameparallel，areobservedtodifferfromthoseofEurope。There，extensivemarshes，greatlakes，aged，decayed，andcroudedforests，withtheothercircumstancesthatmarkanuncultivatedcountry，aresupposedtoreplenishtheairwithheavyandnoxiousvapours，thatgiveadoubleasperitytothewinter，and，duringmanymonths，bythefrequencyandcontinuanceoffogs，snow，andfrost，carrytheinconvenienciesofthefrigidzonefarintothetemperate。TheSamoiedeandtheLaplander，however，havetheircounterpart，thoughonalowerlatitude，ontheshoresofAmerica:theCanadianandtheIroquoisbeararesemblancetotheancientinhabitantsofthemiddlingclimatesofEurope:theMexican，liketheAsiaticofIndia，beingaddictedtopleasure，wassunkineffeminacy；andintheneighbourhoodofthewildandthefree，hadsufferedtoberaisedonhisweakness，adomineeringsuperstition，andapermanentfabricofdespoticalgovernment。
GreatpartofTartaryliesunderthesameparallelswithGreece，Italy，andSpain；buttheclimatesarefoundtobedifferent；andwhiletheshores，notonlyoftheMediterranean，buteventhoseoftheAtlantic，arefavouredwithamoderatechangeandvicissitudeofseasons，theeasternpartsofEurope，andthenortherncontinentofAsia，areafflictedwithalltheirextremes。Inoneseason，wearetold，thattheplaguesofanardentsummerreachalmosttothefrozensea；andthattheinhabitantisobligedtoscreenhimselffromnoxiousvermininthesamecloudsofsmokeinwhichhemust，atadifferenttimeoftheyear，takeshelterfromtherigoursofcold。Whenwinterreturns，thetransitionisrapid，andwithanasperityalmostequalineverylatitude，layswastethefaceoftheearth，fromthenorthernconfinesofSiberia，tothedescentsofMountCaucasusandthefrontierofIndia。
Withthisunequaldistributionofclimate，bywhichthelot，aswellasthenationalcharacter，oftheNorthernAsiaticmaybedeemedinferiortothatofEuropeanswholieunderthesameparallels，asimilargradationoftemperamentandspirit，however，hasbeenobserved，infollowingthemeridianoneithertract；andtheSouthernTartarhasovertheTongusesandtheSamoiede，thesamepre-eminencethatcertainnationsofEuropeareknowntopossessovertheirNorthernneighbours，insituationsmoreadvantageoustoboth。
TheSouthernhemispherescarcelyoffersasubjectoflikeobservation。Thetemperatezoneistherestillundiscovered，orisonlyknownintwopromontories，theCapeofGoodHope，andCapeHorn，whichstretchintomoderatelatitudesonthatsideoftheline。ButthesavageofSouthAmerica，notwithstandingtheinterpositionofthenationsofPeruandofMexico，isfoundtoresemblehiscounterpartontheNorth；andtheHottentot，inmanythings，thebarbarianofEurope:heistenaciousoffreedom，hasrudimentsofpolicy，andanationalvigour，whichservetodistinguishhisracefromtheotherAfricantribes，whoareexposedtothemoreverticalraysofthesun。
Whilewehave，intheseobservations，onlythrownoutwhatmustpresentitselfonthemostcursoryviewofthehistoryofmankind，orwhatmaybepresumedfromthemereobscurityofsomenations，whoinhabitgreattractsoftheearth，aswellasfromthelustreofothers，wearestillunabletoexplainthemannerinwhichclimatemayaffectthetemperament，orfosterthegenius，ofitsinhabitant。
Thatthetemperoftheheart，andtheintellectualoperationsofthemind，are，insomemeasure，dependentonthestateoftheanimalorgans，iswellknownfromexperience。Mendifferfromthemselvesinsicknessandinhealth；underachangeofdiet，ofair，andofexercise:butweare，eveninthesefamiliarinstances，atalosshowtoconnectthecausewithitssupposedeffect:andthoughclimate，byincludingavarietyofsuchcauses，may，bysomeregularinfluence，affectthecharactersofmen，wecanneverhopetoexplainthemannerofthoseinfluencestillwehaveunderstoodwhatprobablyweshallneverunderstand，thestructureofthosefinerorganswithwhichtheoperationsofthesoulareconnected。
Whenwepointout，inthesituationofapeople，circumstanceswhich，bydeterminingtheirpursuits，regulatetheirhabits，andtheirmanneroflife；andwhen，insteadofreferringtothesupposedphysicalsourceoftheirdispositions，weassigntheirinducementstoadeterminateconduct；inthiswespeakofeffectsandofcauseswhoseconnectionismorefamiliarlyknown。Wecanunderstand，forinstance，whyaraceofmenliketheSamoiede，confined，duringgreatpartoftheyear，todarkness，orretiredintocaverns，shoulddiffer，intheirmannersandapprehensions，fromthosewhoareatlibertyineveryseason；orwho，insteadofseekingrelieffromtheextremitiesofcold，areemployedinsearchofprecautionsagainsttheoppressionsofaburningsun。Fireandexercisearetheremediesofcold；reposeandshadethesecuritiesfromheat。TheHollanderislaboriousandindustriousinEurope；hebecomesmorelanguidandslothfulinIndia。6*
Greatextremities，eitherofheatorcold，are，perhaps，inamoralview，equallyunfavourabletotheactivegeniusofmankind，andbypresentingalikeunsuperabledifficultiestobeovercome，orstronginducementstoindolenceandsloth，equallypreventthefirstapplicationsofingenuity，orlimittheirprogress。Someintermediatedegreesofinconvenienceinthesituation，atonceexcitethespirit，and，withthehopesofsuccess，encourageitsefforts。’Itisintheleastfavourablesituations，’saysMrRousseau，’thatartshaveflourishedthemost。IcouldshowtheminEgypt，astheyspreadwiththeoverflowingoftheNile；andinAfrica，astheymounteduptotheclouds，fromarockysoilandfrombarrensands；whileonthefertilebanksoftheEurotas，theywerenotabletofastentheirroots。’
Wheremankindfromthefirstsubsistbytoil，andinthemidstofdifficulties，thedefectsoftheirsituationaresuppliedbyindustry。andwhiledry，tempting，andhealthfullandsareleftuncultivated，7*thepestilentmarshisdrainedwithgreatlabour，andtheSeaisfencedoffwithmightybarriers，thematerialsandthecostsofwhich，thesoiltobegainedcanscarcelyafford，orrepay。Harboursareopened，andcroudedwithshipping，wherevesselsofburden，iftheyarenotconstructedwithaviewtothesituation，havenotwatertofloat。Elegantandmagnificentedificesareraisedonfoundationsofslime；andalltheconvenienciesofhumanlifearemadetoabound，wherenaturedoesnotseemtohavepreparedareceptionformen。Itisinvaintoexpect，thattheresidenceofartsandcommerceshouldbedeterminedbythepossessionofnaturaladvantages。Mendomorewhentheyhavecertaindifficultiestosurmount，thanwhentheyhavesupposedblessingstoenjoy:andtheshadeofthebarrenoakandthepinearemorefavourabletothegeniusofmankind，thanthatofthepalmorthetamarind。
Amongtheadvantageswhichenablenationstorunthecareerofpolicy，aswellasofarts，itmaybeexpected，fromtheobservationsalreadymade，thatweshouldreckoneverycircumstancewhichenablesthemtodivideandtomaintainthemselvesindistinctandindependentcommunities。Thesocietyandconcourseofothermen，arenotmorenecessarytoformtheindividual，thantherivalshipandcompetitionofnationsaretoinvigoratetheprinciplesofpoliticallifeinastate。Theirwars，andtheirtreaties，theirmutualjealousies，andtheestablishmentswhichtheydevisewithaviewtoeachother，constitutemorethanhalftheoccupationsofmankind，andfurnishmaterialsfortheirgreatestandmostimprovingexertions。Forthisreason，clustersofislands，acontinentdividedbymanynaturalbarriers，greatrivers，ridgesofmountains，andarmsofthesea，arebestfittedforbecomingthenurseryofindependentandrespectablenations。Thedistinctionofstatesbeingclearlymaintained，aprincipleofpoliticallifeisestablishedineverydivision，andthecapitalofeverydistrict，liketheheartinananimalbody，communicateswitheasethevitalbloodandthenationalspirittoitsmembers。
Themostrespectablenationshavealwaysbeenfoundwhereatleastonepartofthefrontierhasbeenwashedbythesea。Thisbarrier，perhapsthestrongestofallinthetimesofbarbarity，doesnot，however，eventhensupersedethecaresofanationaldefence；andintheadvancedstateofarts，givesthegreatestscopeandfacilitytocommerce。
ThrivingandindependentnationswereaccordinglyscatteredontheshoresofthePacificandtheAtlantic。TheysurroundedtheRedsea，theMediterranean，andtheBaltic；while，afewtribesexcepted，whoretireamongthemountainsborderingonIndiaandPersia，orwhohavefoundsomerudeestablishmentamongthecreeksandtheshoresoftheCaspianandtheEuxine，thereisscarcelyapeopleinthevastcontinentofAsiawhodeservesthenameofanation。Theunboundedplainistraversedatlargebyhordes，whoareinperpetualmotion，orwhoaredisplacedandharassedbytheirmutualhostilities。Althoughtheyareneverperhapsactuallyblendedtogetherinthecourseofhunting，orinthesearchofpasture，theycannotbearonegreatdistinctionofnations，whichistakenfromtheterritory，andwhichisdeeplyimpressedbyanaffectiontothenativeseat。Theymoveintroops，withoutthearrangementortheconcertofnations；theybecomeeasyaccessionstoeverynewempireamongthemselves，ortotheChineseandtheMuscovite，withwhomtheyholdatrafficforthemeansofsubsistence，andthematerialsofpleasure。
Whereahappysystemofnationsisformed，theydonotrelyforthecontinuanceoftheirseparatenames，andforthatoftheirpoliticalindependence，onthebarrierserectedbynature。
Mutualjealousiesleadtothemaintenanceofabalanceofpower；
andthisprinciple，morethantheRhineandtheOcean，thantheAlpsandthePyreneesinmodernEurope；morethanthestraitsofThermopylae，themountainsofThrace，orthebaysofSalamineandCorinthinancientGreece；tendedtoprolongtheseparation，towhichtheinhabitantsofthesehappyclimateshaveowedtheirfelicityasnations，thelustreoftheirfame，andtheircivilaccomplishments。
Ifwemeantopursuethehistoryofcivilsociety，ourattentionmustbechieflydirectedtosuchexamples，andwemustherebidfareweltothoseregionsoftheearth，onwhichourspecies，bytheeffectsofsituationorclimate，appeartoberestrainedintheirnationalpursuits，orinferiorinthepowersofthemind。
SectionII
TheHistoryofSubordinationWehavehithertoobservedmankind，eitherunitedtogetherontermsofequality，ordisposedtoadmitofasubordinationfoundedmerelyonthevoluntaryrespectandattachmentwhichtheypaidtotheirleaders；but，inbothcases，withoutanyconcertedplanofgovernment，orsystemoflaws。
Thesavage，whosefortuneiscomprisedinhiscabin，hisfur，andhisarms，issatisfiedwiththatprovision，andwiththatdegreeofsecurity，hehimselfcanprocure。Heperceives，intreatingwithhisequal，nosubjectofdiscussionthatshouldbereferredtothedecisionofajudge；nordoeshefindinanyhandthebadgesofmagistracy，ortheensignsofaperpetualcommand。
Thebarbarian，thoughinducedbyhisadmirationofpersonalqualities，thelustreofaheroicrace，orasuperiorityoffortune，tofollowthebannersofaleader，andtoactasubordinatepartinhistribe，knowsnot，thatwhatheperformsfromchoice，istobemadeasubjectofobligation。Heactsfromaffectionsunacquaintedwithforms；andwhenprovoked，orwhenengagedindisputes，herecurstothesword，astheultimatemeansofdecision，inallquestionsofright。
Humanaffairs，inthemeantime，continuetheirprogress。
Whatwasinonegenerationapropensitytoherdwiththespecies，becomes，intheageswhichfollow，aprincipleofnationalunion。
Whatwasoriginallyanallianceforcommondefence，becomesaconcertedplanofpoliticalforce；thecareofsubsistencebecomesananxietyforaccumulatingwealth，andthefoundationofcommercialarts。
Mankind，infollowingthepresentsenseoftheirminds，instrivingtoremoveinconveniencies，ortogainapparentandcontiguousadvantages，arriveatendswhicheventheirimaginationcouldnotanticipate，andpasson，likeotheranimals，inthetrackoftheirnature，withoutperceivingitsend。Hewhofirstsaid，’Iwillappropriatethisfield:Iwillleaveittomyheirs；’didnotperceive，thathewaslayingthefoundationofcivillawsandpoliticalestablishments。Hewhofirstrangedhimselfunderaleader，didnotperceive，thathewassettingtheexampleofapermanentsubordination，underthepretenceofwhich，therapaciousweretoseizehispossessions，andthearroganttolayclaimtohisservice。
Men，ingeneral，aresufficientlydisposedtooccupythemselvesinformingprojectsandschemes:buthewhowouldschemeandprojectforothers，willfindanopponentineverypersonwhoisdisposedtoschemeforhimself。Likethewinds，thatcomeweknownotwhence，andblowwhithersoevertheylist，theformsofsocietyarederivedfromanobscureanddistantorigin；theyarise，longbeforethedateofphilosophy，fromtheinstincts，notfromthespeculations，ofmen。Thecroudofmankind，aredirectedintheirestablishmentsandmeasures，bythecircumstancesinwhichtheyareplaced；andseldomareturnedfromtheirway，tofollowtheplanofanysingleprojector。
Everystepandeverymovementofthemultitude，eveninwhataretermedenlightenedages，aremadewithequalblindnesstothefuture；andnationsstumbleuponestablishments，whichareindeedtheresultofhumanaction，butnottheexecutionofanyhumandesign。8*IfCromwellsaid，Thatamannevermountshigher，thanwhenheknowsnotwhitherheisgoing；itmaywithmorereasonbeaffirmedofcommunities，thattheyadmitofthegreatestrevolutionswherenochangeisintended，andthatthemostrefinedpoliticiansdonotalwaysknowwhithertheyareleadingthestatebytheirprojects。
Ifwelistentothetestimonyofmodernhistory，andtothatofthemostauthenticpartsoftheancient；ifweattendtothepracticeofnationsineveryquarteroftheworld，andineverycondition，whetherthatofthebarbarianorthepolished，weshallfindverylittlereasontoretractthisassertion。Noconstitutionisformedbyconcert，nogovernmentiscopiedfromaplan。Themembersofasmallstatecontendforequality；themembersofagreater，findthemselvesclassedinacertainmannerthatlaysafoundationformonarchy。Theyproceedfromoneformofgovernmenttoanother，byeasytransitions，andfrequentlyunderoldnamesadoptanewconstitution。Theseedsofeveryformarelodgedinhumannature；theyspringupandripenwiththeseason。Theprevalenceofaparticularspeciesisoftenderivedfromanimperceptibleingredientmingledinthesoil。
Wearethereforetoreceive，withcaution，thetraditionaryhistoriesofancientlegislators，andfoundersofstates。Theirnameshavelongbeencelebrated；theirsupposedplanshavebeenadmired；andwhatwereprobablytheconsequencesofanearlysituation，is，ineveryinstance，consideredasaneffectofdesign。Anauthorandawork，likecauseandeffect，areperpetuallycoupledtogether。Thisisthesimplestformunderwhichwecanconsidertheestablishmentofnations:andweascribetoapreviousdesign，whatcametobeknownonlybyexperience，whatnohumanwisdomcouldforesee，andwhat，withouttheconcurringhumouranddispositionofhisage，noauthoritycouldenableanindividualtoexecute。
Ifmen，duringagesofextensivereflection，andemployedinthesearchofimprovement，areweddedtotheirinstitutions；and，labouringundermanyacknowledgedinconveniencies，cannotbreakloosefromthetrammelsofcustom；whatshallwesupposetheirhumourtohavebeeninthetimesofRomulusandLycurgus？Theywerenotsurelymoredisposedtoembracetheschemesofinnovators，ortoshakeofftheimpressionsofhabit:theywerenotmorepliantandductile，whentheirknowledgewasless；notmorecapableofrefinement，whentheirmindsweremorecircumscribed。