Theclassofsubstancestowhichparchmentandvellumbelonghasalreadyreceivedsomeconsiderationbutisasubjectwellworthsomefurtherdiscussion。
Allusionsarefoundinsomeoftheclassicalwriterstoinscriptionswrittenontheskinsofgoatsandsheep；ithas，indeed，beenassertedbysomescholarsthattheBooksofMoseswerewrittenonsuchskins。
Dr。Buchananmanyyearsagodiscovered，intherecordchestofsomeHebrewsatMalabar，amanuscriptcopyofthegreaterpartofthePentateuch，writteninHebrewongoat’sskins。Thegoatskinswerethirty-seveninnumber，dyedred，andweresewntogether，soastoformarollforty-eightfeetinlengthbytwenty-twoinchesinwidth。Atwhatdatethiswaswrittencannotbenowdetermined，butitissupposedtobeextremelyancient。
TheHebrewsbegan，earlyaftertheinventionofparchment，towritetheirscripturesonthismaterial，ofwhichtherollsofthelawusedintheirsynagoguesarestillcomposed。
Scriptural，likemanyotherclassesofMSS。originatingprevioustotheeighthcenturyandinkwritteneitheronparchmentorvellum，orboth，areincapitalletterswithoutspacesbetweenwordsandexceedinglyrare。ThemoreimportantandvaluableofthemwhichapplytotheNewTestamentarerespectivelyknownastheSinaitic，theVaticanandtheAlexandrian，manyofwhosevarioustranslationsandreadingsareincorporatedbyTischendorfinhisLeipzigeditionoftheEnglishNewTestament。Thestoriesrelatingtothediscoveryandobtainingoftheserelicsofthefirstcenturiesofoureraarestartlingones。Thereputationandstanding，however，ofthediscoverers，andtheinvestigationssubsequentlymadebyknownscholarsoftheirtime，servestoinvestthemwithacertaindegreeoftruthfulness。
ThemostinterestingisthestoryabouttheSinaiticcodex，theoldestofanyextantandwhichisbesttoldbyMadan：
“ThestoryofthediscoveryofthisfamousmanuscriptoftheBibleinGreek，theoldestexistingofalltheNewTestamentcodexes，andinseveralpointsthemostinteresting，readslikearomance。ConstantineTischendorf，thewell-
knowneditoroftheGreekTestament，startedonhisfirstmissionlitteraireinApril，1844，andinthenextmonthfoundhimselfattheConventofSt。Catherine，atthefootofMountSinai。There，inthemiddleofthehall，ashecrossedit，hesawabasketfullofoldparchmentleavesontheirwaytotheburning，andwastoldthattwobasketshadalreadygone！Lookingattheleavesmoreclosely，heperceivedthattheywerepartsoftheOldTestamentinGreek，writteninanextremelyoldhandwriting。
Hewasallowedtotakeawayforty-threeleaves；buttheinterestofthemonkswasaroused，andtheybothstoppedtheburning，andalsorefusedtopartwithanymoreofthepreciousfragments。
Tischendorfdeparted，depositedtheforty-
threeleavesintheLeipsigLibrary，andeditedthemunderthetitleoftheCodexFriderico-Au-
gustanus，incomplimenttotheKingofSaxony，in1846。Buthewiselykeptthesecretoftheirprovenance，andnoonefollowedinhistrackuntilhehimselfwentonasecondquesttothemonasteryin1853。InthatyearhecouldfindnotraceswhateveroftheremainsoftheMSS。exceptafewfragmentsofGenesis，andreturnedunsuccessfulanddisheartened。
Atlast，heoncemoretookajourneytothemonastery，underthepatronageoftheRussianEmperor，whowaspopularthroughouttheEastastheprotectoroftheOrientalChurches。
Nothingcouldhefind，however；andhehadorderedhisBedouinstogetreadyfordeparture，when，happeningtohavetakenawalkwiththestewardofthehouse，andtobeinvitedintohisroom，inthecourseofconversationthestewardsaid：’I，too，havereadaSeptuagint，’andproducedoutofawrapperofredcloth，’abulkykindofvolume，’whichturnedouttobethewholeoftheNewTestament，withtheGreektextoftheEpistleofBarnabas，muchofwhichwashithertounknown，andthegreaterpartoftheOldTestament，allpartsoftheveryMSS。whichhadsolongbeensought！InacarelesstoneTischendorfaskedifhemighthaveitinhisroomforfurtherinspection，andthatnightFebruary4-5，1859
it’seemedimpietytosleep。’BythenextmorningtheEpistleofBarnabaswascopiedout，andacourseofactionwassettled。MighthecarrythevolumetoCairototranscribe？Yes，ifthePrior’sleavewasobtained；but，unluckilythePriorhadalreadystartedtoCairoonhiswaytoConstantinople。
BytheactivityofTischendorfhewascaughtupatCairo，gavetherequisitepermission，andaBedoninwassenttotheconvent，andreturnedwiththebookinninedays。Onthe24thofFebruary，Tischendorfbegantotranscribeit；
andwhenitwasdone，conceivedthehappyideaofaskingforthevolumeasagifttotheEmperorofRussia。Probablythiswastheonlypossiblepleawhichwouldhavegainedthemainobjectinview，andevenasitwastherewasgreatdelay；butatlast，onthe28thofSeptember，thegiftwasformallymade，andtheMSS。soonafterdepositedinSt。Petersburg，whereitnowlies。ThedateofthisMSS。issupposedtobenotlaterthanA。D。
400，andhasbeenthesubjectofminuteinquiryinconsequenceofthecuriousstatementofSimonidesin1862，thathehadhimselfwrittenitonMountAthosin1839-40。”
ConstantineSimonideswasaGreekwhowasbornin1824andisbelievedtohavebeenthemostversatileforgerofthenineteenthcentury。From1843
until1856hewasinevidencealloverEuropeofferingforsalefraudulentMSS。purportingtobeofancientorigin。
In1861Madansays：
“HeboldlyassertedthathehimselfhadwrittenthewholeoftheCodexSinaiticuswhichTischendorfhadboughtin1856fromthemonasteryofSt。
CatherineonMountSinai。Thestatementwas，ofcourse，receivedwiththeutmostincredulity；butSimionidesasserted，notonlythathehadwrittenit，butthat，inviewoftheprobableskepticismofthescholars，hehadplacedcertainprivatesignsonparticularleavesofthecodex。Whenpressedtospecifythesemarkshegavealistoftheleavesonwhichweretobefoundhisinitialsorothermonogram。
Thetestwasafairone，andtheMSS。，whichwasatSt。Petersburg，wascarefullyinspected。
EveryleafdesignatedbySimonideswasfoundtobeimperfectatthepartwherethemarkwastohavebeenfound。Deliberatemutilationbyanenemy，saidhisfriends。ButmanythoughtthatthewilyGreekhadacquiredthroughprivatefriendsanoteofsomeimperfectleavesintheMSS。，andhadmadeunscrupuloususeoftheinformation。”
Acuriouskindofdocument，whichlinkstheclassicaltimeswiththemiddleages，inrespecttotheweofparchment，isaffordedbythe“palimpsests。”ormanuscriptsfromwhicholdwritinghadbeenerasedinordertomakewayfornew。Awell-preparedleafofparchmentwassocostlyanarticleinthemiddleages，thatthetranscriberswhowereemployedbythemonasticestablishmentsinwritingoftenavailedthemselvesofsomeoldmanuscript，fromwhichtheyscrapedoffthewriting；suchadoubly-usedpieceofparchmentwascalleda“palimpsest。”Thispracticeseemstohavebeenfollowedlongbefore，butnottosogreatanextentasaboutthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，atwhichtimetherewerepersonsregularlyemployedas“parchment-restorers。”Thetranscribershadaregularkindofknife，withwhichtheyscratchedouttheoldwriting，andtheyrubbedthesurfacewithpowderedpumicestone，toprepareitforreceivingthenewink。SocommonwasthispracticethatwhenoneoftheemperorsofGermanyestablishedtheofficeofimperialnotary，itwasoneofthearticlesorconditionsattachedtotheholdingoftheofficethatthenotaryshouldnotuse“scrapedvellum“indrawingdeeds。Sometimestheoriginalwriting，byacarefultreatmentoftheparchment，hasbeensofarrestoredastobevisible，anditisfoundtobeparallel，diagonal，andsometimesatrightanglestothewritingafterwardsintroduced。Inmanycasestheancientwritingrestoredbeneathisfoundtobeinfinitelymorevaluablethanthemonkishlegendswrittenafterwards。
Cicero’sDeRepublicawasdiscoveredbyAngeloMaiintheVaticanlibrarywrittenunderacommentaryofSt。AugustineonthePsalms；andtheInstitutionsofGains，inthelibraryofthechapterofVerona，weredecipheredinlikemannerundertheworksofSt。Jerome。
Papyrus，parchment，andvellumweresometimesusedtogetherintheMSS。books。Thompson，authorof“GreekandLatinPalaeography。”observes：
“Examples，madeupinbookform，sometimeswithafewvellumleavesincorporatedtogivestability，arefoundindifferentlibrariesofEurope。
Theyare：TheHomiliesofSt。Avitus，ofthe6thcentury，atParis；SermonsandEpistlesofSt。Augustine，ofthe6thor7thcentury，atParisandGenoa；worksofHilary，ofthe6thcentury，atVienna；fragmentsoftheDigests，ofthe6thcentury，atPommersfeld；theAntiquitiesofJosephus，ofthe7thcentury，atMilan；anIsidore，ofthe7thcentury，atSt。Gall。AtMunich，also，istheregisteroftheChurchofRavenna，writtenonthismaterialinthe10thcentury。”
TherollsandrecordsconnectedwiththeearlyparliamentaryandlegalproceedingsinEnglandfurnishinterestingexamplesoftheuseofparchmentinwriting。
The“Records。”sooftenalludedtoinsuchmatters，arestatementsordetails，writtenuponrollsofparchment，oftheproceedingsinthosehighercourtsoflawwhicharedistinguishedas“CourtsofRecord。”Ithasbeenstatedthat“ourstoresofpublicrecordsarejustlyreckonedtoexcelinage，beauty，correctness，andauthoritywhateverthechoicestarchivesabroadcanboastofthelikesort。”
Therecordsaregenerallymadeofseveralskinsorsheetsofparchmentorvellum，eachsheetbeingaboutthreefeetlongandoftenninetofourteeninchesinwidth。Theyareeitherallfastenedtogetheratoneend，soastoformakindofbook，orarestitchedendtoend，soastoconstituteanextendedroll。Thesetwomethodsappeareachtohavehaditsparticularadvantages，accordingtothewayinwhich，andthetimeatwhich，themanuscriptwasfilledup。Someoftherecordsoftheformerofthesetwokindscontainsomanyskinsofparchmentthattheyformahugerollequalinsizetoalargebassdrum，andrequiringthestrengthoftwomentoliftthem。Someoftheseonthecontinuousplanarealsosaidtobeofimmensesize；one，ofmoderndate，isninehundredfeetinlengthandemploysamanthreehourstounrollit。Theinvaluableoldrecord，knownbythenameof“DoomsdayBook。”isshapedlikeabook，andismuchmoreconvenienttoopenthanmostoftheothers。Variousotherlegaldocuments，toanimmenseamount，are“filed。”orfastenedtogetherbyastringpassingthroughthem。
Itseemsaverystrangecontradiction，butitispositivelyassertedasafact，thattheparchmentemployedfortheserecordswasofveryfinequalitydowntothetimeofElizabeth，butthatitgraduallydeterioratedafterwards，insomuchthatthelatestaretheworst。
SomeoftheserecordsandrollsarewritteninLatin，someinNormanFrench，andsomeinEnglish。
Themodesofdepositingandcarryingtheancientrecordswerecurious，andthereseemstohavebeennoverydefinitearrangementinthisrespect。Greatnumberswerekeptinpouchesorbagsmadeofleather，canvas，cordovan，orbuckram；theyweretiedlikemodernreticules。Whensuchpoucheshaveescapeddamptheyhavepreservedtheparchmentrecordsforcenturiesperfectlycleananduninjured。Anotherkindofreceptacleforrecordswasasmallturnedbox，calleda“skippet。”andanotherwasthe“hanaper。”orhamper，abasketmadeoftwigsorwicker-work。Chests，coffers，andcasesofvariousshapesandsizesformedotherreceptaclesfortherecords。Themodeoffindingtheparticulardocumentrequiredwasnotbyasystemofpagingandanindex，asinamodernbook，becausethearrangementofthewrittensheetsdidnotadmitofthis，buttherewereletters，signs，andinscriptions，orlabelsforthispurpose；theyconstituteanoddassemblage，comprisingships，scales，balances，castles，plants，animals，etc。；inmostinstancesthesignsorsymbolsbearsomeanalogy，orsupposedanalogy，withthesubjectoftherecord，suchasanoakonarecordrelatingtotheforestlaws，aheadinacowlononerelatingtoamonastery，scalesononerelatingtocoining，etc。
Atatimewhenbookswerepreparedbyhandinsteadofbyprinting，andwheneachcopybecameveryvaluable，booksweretreatedwithadegreeofrespectwhichcanbehardlyunderstoodatthepresentday。Theclergyandthemonkswerealmostexclusivelythereadersofthosedays，andtheyheldtheotherclassesofsocietyinsuchcontempt，inallthatregardedliteratureandlearning，thatBishopdeBurg，whowroteaboutfivecenturiesago，expressesanopinionthat“Laymen，towhomitmattersnotwhethertheylookatabookturnedwrongsideupwardsorspreadbeforetheminnaturalorder，arealtogetherunworthyofanycommunionwithbooks。”
ItisstatedbyMr。Knight，inhis“LifeofCaxton：“
“Wehaveabundantevidence，whateverbethescarcityofbooksascomparedwiththegrowthofscholarship，thattheecclesiasticslabouredmostdiligentlytomultiplybooksfortheirownestablishments。
IneverygreatabbeytherewasaroomcalledtheScriptorium，whereboysandnoviceswereconstantlyemployedinmultiplyingtheservice-
booksofthechoir，andthelessvaluablebooksforthelibrary；whilstthemonksthemselveslabouredintheircellsuponbiblesandmissals。Equalpainsweretakeninprovidingbooksforthosewhoreceivedaliberaleducationincollegiateestablishments。”
Wartonsays：
“AtthefoundationofWinchesterCollege，oneormoretranscriberswerehiredandemployedbythefoundertomakebooksforthelibrary。Theytranscribedandtooktheirfoodwithinthecollege，asappearsbycomputationofexpensesontheiraccountnowremaining。Buttherearemanyindicationsthatevenkingsandnobleshadnottheadvantageofscholarsbyprofession，and，possessingfewbooksoftheirown，hadsometimestoborrowoftheirmorefavouredsubjects。”
Welearnfromanothersourcethatthegreatnotonlyprocuredbooksbypurchase，butemployedtranscriberstomakethemfortheirlibraries。ThemanuscriptexpenseaccountofSirJohnHoward，afterwardsDukeofNorfolk，showsin1467，ThomasLympnor，thatisThomastheLimnerofBury，waspaidthesumoffiftyshillingsandtwopenceforabookwhichhehadtranscribedandornamented，includingthevellumandbinding。Thelimner’sbillismadeupofanumberofitems，“forwholevignettes，andhalf-vignettes，andcapitalletters，andflourishingandplainwriting。”
Thesetranscribersandlimnersworkedprincipallyuponparchmentandvellum，fortheuseofpaperwasbynomeansextensiveuntiltheinventionoftheartofprinting。Someoftheoldmanuscriptscontaindrawingsrepresentingacopierortranscriberatwork，wherethemonkisrepresentedasprovidedwithasingularandtolerablycompletesetofapparatustoaidhiminhiswork。Thedeskforcontainingthesheetorskinonwhichheiswriting，theclasptokeepthissheetflat，theinkstand，thepen，andtheknife，themanuscriptfromwhichthecopyisbeingmade，thedeskforcontainingthatmanuscript，andtheweightforkeepingitinitsplace，——allareshown，withaclearnesswhich，despiteofbadperspective，rendersthemquiteintelligible。
Ofthetwosubstances，parchmentandvellum，beforetheinventionofpaper，anotherwordortwomaybesaid。Parchmentismadefromtheskinofsheeporlambs；vellum，fromthatofveryyoungcalvessometimesunbornones，buttheprocessofpreparingisprettymuchthesameinbothcases。Whenthehairorwoolhasbeenremoved，theskinissteepedinlimewater，andthenstretchedonasquareframeinalightmanner。Whilesostretched，itisscrapedonthefleshsidewithabluntiron，wettedwithamoistrag，coveredwithpoundedchalk，andrubbedwellwithpumicestone。Afteratime，theseoperationsarerepeated，butwithouttheuseofchalk；theskinisthenturned，andscrapedonthehairsideonceonly；
thefleshsideisthenscrapedoncemore，andagainrubbedoverwithchalk，whichisbrushedoffwithapieceoflambskinretainingthewool。Allthisisdonebytheskinner，whoallowstheskintodryonaframe，andthencutsitoutandsendsittotheparchmentmaker，whorepeatstheoperationwithasharpertool，usingasackstuffedwithflockswoolorhairtolaytheskinupon，insteadofstretchingitonaframe。
Respectingthequality，value，andpreparationofparchmentinpastages，itisstatedinthe“PennyCyclopaedia“thatparchmentfromtheseventhtothetenthcenturywas“whiteandgood，andattheearliestoftheseperiodsitappearstohavenearlysupersededpapyrus，whichwasbrittleandmoreperishable。Averyfewbooksoftheseventhcenturyhaveleavesofparchmentandpapyrusmixed，thattheformercostlymaterialmightstrengthenandsupportthefriablepaper。Abouttheeleventhcenturyitgrewworse，andadirtycoloredparchmentisevidenceofawantofantiquity。Thismaypossiblyarisefromthecircumstancesthatwritersofthistimepreparedtheirownparchment，andtheywereprobablynotsoskilledasmanufacturers。AcuriouspassagefromasermonofHildebert，ArchbishopofTours，whowasbornin1054，isavoucherforthisfact。Thesermonisonthe“BookofLife。”whichherecommendshishearerstoobtain：
’Doyouknowwhatawriterdoes？Hefirstcleanseshisparchmentfromthegrease，andtakesofftheprincipalpartofthedirt；thenheentirelyrubsoffthehairandfibreswithpumicestone；ifhedidnotdoso，theletterswrittenuponitwouldnotbegood，norwouldtheylastlong。Hethenruleslinesthatthewritingmaybestraight。Allthesethingsyououghttodo，ifyouwishtopossessthebookwhichIhavebeendisplayingtoyou。’
Atthistimeparchmentwasaverycostlymaterial。
WefinditmentionedthatGui，CountofNevers，havingsentavaluablepresentofplatetotheChartreuxofParis，theunostentatiousmonksreturneditwitharequestthathewouldsendthemparchmentinstead。”
CHAPTERXXX。
MODERNINKBACKGROUNDSTRUEPAPER。
WHENITWASTHATTRUEPAPERWASINVENTED——CITATIONS
FROMMUNSELLABOUTCHINESEANDOTHER
ANCIENTPAPER——ASHORTCHRONOLOGYFROMTHE
SAMEAUTHOR——LINENPAPERINUSEINTHETWELFTH
CENTURY——BOMBYCINEPAPER——DEVELOPMENTSOF
THEMICROSCOPE——METHODSEMPLOYEDINASCERTAINING
ORIGINOFLINENPAPERBYMEERMAN——SOME
OBSERVATIONSRELATIVETOTHEEVOLUTIONOFPAPER——
RAPIDIMPROVEMENTINQUALITYAFTERINVENTION
OFPRINTING——CURIOUSCUSTOMSINTHEUSEOFTHE
WATERMARK——NODISTINCTIONSINQUALITYOFPAPER
USEDFORMSS。OROTHERBOOKS——ANECDOTESAND
OBSERVATIONSABOUTTHEWATERMARK——ITSVALUE
INDETECTINGFRAUDS——INTERESTINGANECDOTEOF
ITSUSEINFABRICATINGAFRAUD——FULLER’SCHARACTERIZATION
OFTHEPAPERSOFDIFFERENTCOUNTRIES——WHEN
THEFIRSTPAPERMILLWASESTABLISHED
INEUROPEFORTHEMANUFACTUREOFLINEN
PAPER——DATEOFTHEESTABLISHMENTOFTHEFIRST
PAPERMILLINAMERICA——WHOFIRSTSUGGESTED
WOODASAMATERIALFORMAKINGPAPER——SOME
NAMESOFAUTHORSONTHESUBJECTOFPAPER——STORY
OFRAGPAPERINSTRUCTIVEASWELLASINTERESTING。
WHENitwasthatthegreatchangeoccurredandtruepapermadeoffibrousmatterorragsreducedtoapulpinwaterwasinventedhasbeenasubjectofconsiderablethoughtandinvestigation。Munsell，inhis“ChronologyofPaperandPaper-Making。”creditsittotheChinese，andestimatesitsdatetobeincludedinthefirstcenturyoftheChristianera。Heobserves：
“TheChinesepaperiscommonlysupposedtobemadeofsilk；butthisisamistake。Silkbyitselfcannotbereducedtoapulpsuitableformakingpaper。Refusesilkissaidtobeoccasionallyusedwithotheringredients，butthegreaterpartoftheChinesepaperismadefromtheinnerbarkofthebambooandmulberrytree，calledbythemthepapertree，hempenrags，etc。Thelatterarepreparedforpaperbybeingcutandwellwashedintanks。Theyarethenbleachedanddried；intwelvedaystheyareconvertedintoapulp，whichisthenmadeintoballsofaboutfourpoundsweight。Theseareafterwardssaturatedwithwater，andmadeintopaperonaframeoffinereeds；andaredriedbybeingpressedunderlargestones。Aseconddryingoperationisperformedbyplasteringthesheetsonthewallsofaroom。
Thesheetsarethencoatedwithgumsize，andpolishedwithstones。Theyalsomakepaperfromcottonandlinenrags，andacoarseyellowsortfromricestraw，whichisusedforwrapping。Theyareenabledtomakesheetsofalargesize，themouldonwhichthepulpismadeintopaperbeingsometimestenortwelvefeetlongandverywide，andmanagedbymeansofPulleys。
“TheJapanesepreparepaperfromthemulberryasfollows：inthemonthofDecemberthetwigsarecutintolengthsnotexceedingthirtyinchesandputtogetherinbundles。Thesefagotsarethenplaceduprightinalargevesselcontainingalkalineley，andboiledtillthebarkshrinkssoastoallowaboutahalfaninchofthewoodtoappearfreeatthetop。Aftertheyarethusboiledtheyareexposedtoacoolatmosphere，andlaidawayforfutureuse。Whenasufficientquantityhasbeenthuscollected，itissoakedinwaterthreeorfourdays，whenablackishskinwhichcovereditisscrapedoff。Atthesametimealsothestrongerbarkwhichisofafullyear’sgrowthisseparatedfromthethinner，whichcoveredtheyoungerbranches，andwhichyieldsthebestandwhitestpaper。Afterithasbeensufficientlycleansedoutandseparated，itmustbeboiledinclearley，andifstirredfrequentlyitsoonbecomesofasuitablenature。
“Itisthenwashed，aprocessrequiringmuchattentionandgreatskillandjudgment；forifitbenotwashedlongenough，althoughstrongandofgoodbody，willbecoarseandoflittlevalue；ifwashedtoolongitwillaffordawhitepaper，butwillbespongyandunfitforwritingupon。Havingbeenwasheduntilitbecomesasoftandwoollypulp，itisspreaduponatableandbeatfinewithamallet。Itisthenputintoatubwithaninfusionofriceandbreniroot，whenthewholeisstirreduntiltheingredientsarethoroughlymixedinamassofproperconsistence。Themouldsonwhichsheetsareformedaremadeofreedscutintonarrowstripsinsteadofwire，andtheprocessofdippingislikethatofothercountries。Afterbeingallowedtoremainashorttimeinheapsunderaslightpressure，thesheetsareexposedtothesun，bywhichtheyareproperlydried。
“TheArabiansintheseventhcenturyappeartohaveeitherdiscoveredortohavelearnedfromtheChineseorHindoos，quitelikelyfromthelatter，theartofmakingpaperfromcotton；foritisknownthatamanufactoryofsuchpaperwasestablishedatSamarcandabouttheyear706A。D，TheArabiansseemtohavecarriedthearttoSpain，andtohavetheremadepaperfromlinenandhempaswellasfromcotton。
“TheartofmanufacturingpaperfromcottonissupposedtohavefounditswayintoEuropeintheeleventhcentury。Thefirstpaperofthatkindwasmadeofrawcotton；butitsmanufacturewasbytheArabiansextendedtooldworn-outcotton，andeventothesmallestpiecesitissaid。Butastherearecottonplantsofvariouskinds，itwasnaturalthattheyshouldproducepapersofdifferentqualities；anditwasimpossibletounitetheirwoollyparticlessofirmlyastoformastrongsubstantialpaper，forwantofsufficientskillandpropermachinery，usingastheydidmortarsandrudehorse-mills。TheGreeks，itissaid，madeuseofcottonpaperbeforetheLatins。ItcameintoGermanythroughVeniceandwascalledGreekparchment。
“TheMoors，whowerethepaper-makersofSpain，havingbeenexpelledbytheSpaniards，thelatter，acquaintedwithwatermills，improvedthemanufacturesoastoproduceapaperfromcottonnearlyequaltothatmadeoflinenrags。”
AchronologyofpaperrelatingtotheearliestspecimensofthemcanalsobefoundinMunsell’sworkonthatsubject；severalareherecited：
“A。D。704。TheArabiansaresupposedtohaveacquiredtheknowledgeofmakingpaperofcotton，bytheirconquestsinTartary。
“A。D。706。Casiri，aSpanishauthor，attributestheinventionofcottonpapertoJosephAmru，inthisyear，atMecca；butitiswellknownthattheChineseandPersianswereacquaintedwithitsmanufacturebeforethisperiod。
“A。D。900。Thebullsofthepopesintheeighthandninthcenturieswerewrittenuponcottonpaper。
“A。D。900。Montfaucon，whoonaccountofhisdiligenceandtheextentofhisresearchesisgreatauthority，wroteadissertationtoprovethatchartabombycine，cottonpaper，wasdiscoveredintheempireoftheeasttowardtheendoftheninthorbeginningofthetenthcentury。
“A。D。1007。Theplenarium，orinventory，ofthetreasureofthechurchofSandersheim，iswrittenuponpaperofcotton，bearingthisdate。
“A。D。1049。TheoldestmanuscriptinEnglandwrittenuponcottonpaper，isintheBodleiancollectionoftheBritishMuseum，havingthisdate。
“A。D。1050。Themostancientmanuscriptoncottonpaper，thathasbeendiscoveredintheRoyalLibraryatParishavingadate，bearsrecordofthisyear。
“A。D。1085。TheChristiansuccessorsofMoorishpaper-makersatToledoinSpain，workedthepaper-millstobetteradvantagethantheirpredecessors。
Insteadofmanufacturingpaperofrawcotton，whichiseasilyrecognizedbyitsyellownessandbrittleness，theymadeitofrags，inmouldsthroughwhichthewaterranoff；forthisreasonitwascalledparchmentcloth。
“A。D。1100。TheAphorismsofHippocrates，inArabia，themanuscriptofwhichbearsthisdate，hasbeenpronouncedtheoldestspecimenoflinenpaperthathascometolight。
“A。D。1100。Arabicmanuscriptswereatthistimewrittenonsatinpaper，andembellishedwithaquantityofornamentalwork，paintedinsuchgayandresplendentcolorsthatthereadermightbeholdhisfacereflectedasiffromamirror。
“A。D。1100。TherewasadiplomaofRoger，kingofSicily，dated1145，inwhichbesaysthathehadrenewedonparchmentacharterthathadbeenwrittenoncottonpaperin1100。
“A。D。1102。ThekingofSicilyappearstohaveaccordedadiplomatoanancientfamilyofpaper-makerswhohadestablishedamanufactoryinthatisland，wherecottonwasindigenous，andthishasbeenthoughttopointtotheoriginofcottonpaper，quiteerroneously。
“A。D。1120。PetertheVenerable，abbotofClum，whoflourishedaboutthistime，declaredthatpaperfromlinenragswasinuseinhisday。
“A。D。1150。Edrisi，whowroteatthistime，tellsusthatthepapermadeatXativa，anancientcityofValencia，wasexcellent，andwasexportedtocountrieseastandwest。
“A。D。1151。AnArabianauthorcertifiesthatveryfinewhitecottonpaperwasmanufacturedinSpain，andCacimabenHegiassuresusthatthebestwasmadeatXativa。TheSpaniardsbeingacquaintedwithwater-mills，improvedupontheMoorishmethodofgrindingtherawcottonandrags；andbystampingthelatterinthemill，theyproducedabetterpulpthanfromrawcotton，bywhichvarioussortsofpaperweremanufactured，nearlyequaltothosemadefromlinenrags。
“A。D。1153。PetrusMauritiustheAbbideCluni，whodiedinthisyear，hasthefollowingpassageonpaperinhisTreatiseagainsttheJews；
’Thebookswereadeverydayaremadeofsheep，goat，orcalfskin；orofragsexrasaurisveterumpannorum，’supposedtoalludetomodernpaper。
“A。D。1178。AtreatyofpeacebetweenthekingsofAragonandCastileistheoldestspecimenoflinenpaperusedinSpainwithadate。ItissupposedthattheMoors，ontheirsettlementinSpain，wherecottonwasscarce，madepaperofhempandflax。Theinventoroflinen-ragpaper，whoeverhewas，isentitledtothegratitudeofposterity。
“A。D。1200。CasiripositivelyaffirmsthattherearemanuscriptsintheEscurialpalacenearMadrid，uponbothcottonandhemppaper，writtenpriortothistime。”
Abdollatiph，anArabianphysician，whovisitedEgyptin1200，saysthatthelinenmummy-clothswerehabituallyusedtomakewrappingpaperfortheshopkeepers。
AdocumentwiththesealspreserveddatedA。D。
1239andsignedbyAdolphus，countofSchaumburgiswrittenonlinenpaper。ItispreservedintheuniversityofRinteln，Germany，andestablishesthefactthatlinenpaperwasalreadyinuseinGermany。
Specimensofflaxpaperandstillextantarequitenumerous，averyfewofthemhavingdatesincludedintheeighthandninthcenturies。
ThechartaDamascena，so-calledfromthefactofitsmanufactureinthecityofDamascus，wasinuseintheeighthcentury。ManyArabianMSS。onsuchapaperexistdatingfromtheninthcentury。
Thechartabombycinabombyx，asilkandcottonpaperwasmuchemployedduringmediaevalperiods。
Themicroscope，however，hasdemonstratedconclusivelymanythingsformerlyindoubtandrelatingparticularlytothematterofthecharacteroffibreusedinpaper-making。Oneofthemostimportantisthenowestablishedfactthatthereisnodifferencebetweenthefibresoftheoldcottonandlinenpapers，asmadefromragssonamed。
ToascertainthepreciseperiodandtheparticularnationofEurope，whenandamongwhomtheuseofourcommonpaperfabricatedfromlinenragsfirstoriginated，wasaveryearnestobjectofresearchwiththelearnedMeerman，authorofanowexceedinglyrareworkonthissubjectandpublishedin1767。
Hismodeofinquirywasunique。Heproposedarewardoftwenty-fivegoldenducats，towhoevershoulddiscoverwhatondueexaminationshouldappeartobethemostancientmanuscriptorpublicdocumentinscribedonpapermanufacturedfromlinenrags。ThisproposalwasdistributedthroughallpartsofEurope。HislittlevolumecontainsthereplieswhichMeermanreceived。Thescholarswhoremittedtheresultoftheirinvestigationswereunabletodistinguishbetweenwhattheyestimatedascottonorlinenrags。Theydid，however，establishthefactthatpapermadeoflinenragsexistedbefore1308，andsomeofthemevensoughttogivethehonoroftheinventiontoGermany。TheyalsoassertedthatthemostancientEnglishspecimenofsuchapaperbelongedtotheyear1342。
Thetransformationofpapermadefromeveryconceivablefibrousmaterialintowhatiscommonlyknownas“linen“ortruepaperwasofslowgrowthuntilaftertheinventionofprinting。Followingthatgreateventitissurprising，how，insoshortaperiod，themanufacturersofpaperimproveditsqualityandthedegreeofexcellencewhichitlaterattained。
Theyimitatedtheoldvellumsocloselythatitwasevencalledvellumandissoknowntothisday。
Thisclassofpaperwasemployedbothforwritingandprintingpurposesandhasneverbeenexcelled，surpassinganylikeproductionsofmoderntimes。
Acuriouscustomcameintovogueduringtheearlyinfancyofthe“linen“paperindustry，whichisofsomuchinterestandpossessessocuriousahistoryastobewellworthmentioning。Itisthewatermarkasitiscommonlybuterroneouslytermedinconnectionwithpapermanufacture。
Itsorigindatesbacktothethirteenthcentury，thoughthemonumentsindicatingitsusebeforethetimeofprintingarebutfewinnumber。
Therealemploymentofthewatermarkmaybesaidtohavecommencedatthetimewhenitwasacustomofthefirstprinterstoomittheirnamesfromtheirworks。Also，itistobeconsideredthatatthisperiodcomparativelyfewpeoplecouldeitherreadorwriteandthereforepictures，designsorothermarkswereemployedtoenablethemtodistinguishthepaperofonemanufacturerfromanother。Thesemarksastheybecamecommonnaturallygavetheirnamestothedifferentsortsofpaper。
Theearliestknownwatermarkonlinenpaperrepresentedapictureofatowerandwasofthedateof1293。Thenextknownwatermarkwhichcanbedesignatedisaram’sheadandisfoundinabookofaccountsbelongingtoanofficialofBordeauxwhichwasthensubjecttoEngland。Itisdated1330。
Inthefifteenthcenturytherewerenodistinctionsinthequalityofpaperusedformanuscriptsorforbooks。IntheMentzBibleof1462aretobefoundnolessthanthreesortsofpaper。OfthisBible，thewatermarkinsomesheetsisabull’sheadsimply，andinothersabull’sheadfromwhoseforeheadrisesalongline，attheendofwhichisacross。Inothersheetsthewatermarkisabunchofgrapes。
In1498thewatermarkofpaperconsistedofaneightpointedstarwithinadoublecircle。Thedesignofanopenhandwithastaratthetopwhichwasinuseasearlyas1530，probablygavethenametowhatisstillcalledhandpaper。
ItappearsthatevensohighapersonageasHenryVIIIofEnglandin1540utilizedthewatermarkinordertoshowhiscontemptforandanimositytoPopePaulIII，withwhomhehadthenquarreled，gaveordersforthepreparationofpaper，thewatermarkofwhichwasahogwithamiter：thisheusedforhisprivatecorrespondence。
Alittlelater，aboutthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury，thefavoritepapermarkwasthejugorpot，fromwhichwouldappeartohaveoriginatedthetermpotpaper。Stillanotherbelongingtothisperiodwasthedeviceofaglove。
Atthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury，thedevicewasafool’scapandwhichhascontinuedbynameastheparticularsizewhichwenowdesignatefool’scap。
Thewatermarkhascontinuedtoincreaseinpopularityandto-daymaybefoundinalmostanykindofpaper，eitherintheshapeofdesigns，figures，numbersornames。
Thecircumstanceofthewatermarkhasatvarioustimesbeenthemeansofdetectingfrauds，forgeriesandimpositionsinourcourtsoflawandelsewhere。
Thefollowingisintroducedasawhimsicalexampleofsuchdetectionsandissaidtohaveoccurredinthefifteenthcentury，andisrelatedbyBeloe，London，1807：
“ThemonksofacertainmonasteryatMessinaexhibitedtoavisitorwithgreattriumph，aletterwhichtheyclaimedhadbeenwrittenininkbytheVirginMarywithherownhand，notontheancientpapyrus，butonpapermadeofrags。Thevisitortowhomitwasshownobservedwithaffectedsolemnity，thattheletterinvolvedalsoamiraclebecausethepaperonwhichitwaswrittencouldnothavebeeninexistenceuntiloverathousandyearsafterherdeath。”
Aninterestingexampleoftheuseofwatermarksonpaperforfraudulentpurposesistobefoundinapamphletentitled“Ireland’sConfessions。”Thisperson，asonofSamuelIreland，whowasadistinguisheddraughtsmanandengraver，abouttheendoftheeighteenthcenturyfabricatedapretendedShakespeareMSS。，whichasaliteraryforgerywasthemostremarkableofitstime。PrevioustohisconfessionsithadbeenacceptedbytheShakespeareanscholarsasunquestionablytheworkoftheimmortalbard。ThefollowingisacitationfromhisConfessions：
“Beingthusurgedforwardtotheproductionofmoremanuscripts，itbecamenecessarythatI
shouldposses；asufficientquantityofoldpapertoenablemetoproceed；inconsequenceofwhichI
appliedtoabook-sellernamedVerey，inGreatMay’sbuildings，St。Martin’sLane，who，forthesumoffiveshillings，sufferedmetotakefromallthefolioandquartovolumesinhisshoptheflyleaveswhichtheycontained。BythismeansIwasamplystoredwiththatcommodity——nordidIfearanymentionofthecircumstancebyMr。Verey，whosequiet，unsuspectingdisposition，Iwaswellconvinced，wouldneverleadhimtomakethetransactionpublic；inadditiontowhich，hewasnotlikelyeventoknowanythingconcerningthesupposedShakespeareandiscoverybymyself，andevenifhehad，Idonotimaginethatmypurchaseoftheoldpaperinquestionwouldhaveexcitedinhimthesmallestdegreeofsuspicion。AsIwasfullyaware，fromthevarietyofwater-marks，whichareinexistenceatthepresentday，thattheymusthaveconstantlybeenalteredsincetheperiodofElizabethandbeingforsometimewhollyunacquaintedwiththewater-marksofthatage，Iverycarefullyproducedmyfirstspecimensofthewritingonsuchsheetsofoldpaperashadnomarkswhatever。Havinghearditfrequentlystatedthattheappearanceofsuchmarksonthepaperswouldhavegreatlytendedtoestablishtheirvalidity，Ilistenedattentivelytoeveryremarkwhichwasmadeuponthesubject，andfromthenceIatlengthgleanedtheintelligencethatajugwastheprevalentwater-markofthereignofElizabeth；inconsequenceofwhichIinspectedallthesheetsofoldpapertheninmypossession，andhavingselectedsuchashadthejuguponthem，Iproducedthesucceedingmanuscriptsuponthese，beingcareful，however，tominglewiththemacertainnumberofblankleaves，thattheproductiononasuddenofsomanywater-marksmightnotexcitesuspicioninthebreastsofthosepersonswhoweremostconversantwiththemanuscripts。”
Fuller，writingin1662，characterizesthepaperofhisday：
“Paperparticipatesinsomesortofthecharacterofthecountrywhichmakesit；theVenetianbeingneat，subtle，andcourt-like；theFrenchlight，slight，andslender；andtheDutchthick，corpulent，andgross，stickinguptheinkwiththesponginessthereof。Andhecomplainsofthe’vastsumsofmoneyexpendedinourlandforpaperoutofItaly，France，andGermany，whichmightbelessenedwereitmadeinournation。’“
UlmanStrotherin1390startedhispapermillatNuremberginBavariawhichwasthefirstpapermillknowntohavebeenestablishedinGermany，andissaidtohavebeentheonlyoneinEuropethenmanufacturingpaperfromlinenrags。
AmongtheprivyexpensesofHenryVIIoftheyear1498appearsthefollowingentry：“Arewardgiventothepapermill，16s。8d。”ThisisprobablythepapermillmentionedbyWynkindeWorde，thefatherofEnglishtypography。ItwaslocatedatHertford，andthewatermarkheemployedwasastarwithinadoublecircle。
ThemanufactureofpaperinEnglandprevioustotherevolutionof1688wasanindustryofverysmallproportions，mostofthepaperbeingimportedfromHolland。
ThefirstpapermillestablishedinAmericawasbyWilliamRittenhousewhoemigratedfromHollandandsettledinGermantown，Pa。，in1690。AtRoxborough，nearPhiladelphia，onastreamafterwardscalledPaperMillrun，whichemptiesintotheWissahickenriver，waslocatedthesitewhichincompanywithWilliamBradford，aprinter，hechoseforhismill。Thepaperwasmadefromlinenrags，mostlytheproductofflaxraisedinthevicinityandmadefirstintowearingapparel。
ItwasReaumer，whoin1719firstsuggestedthepossibilityofpaperbeingmadefromwood。Heobtainedhisinformationonthissubjectfromexaminationofwasps’nests。
MatthiasKoopsin1800publishedaworkon“Paper“madefromstraw，woodandothersubstances。
Hissecondeditionappearedin1801andwascomposedofoldpaperre-madeintonew。Anotherworkonthesubjectof“PaperfromStraw，&c……”
byPiette，appearedin1835，whichsaidworkcontainsmorethanahundredpages，eachoneofwhichwasmadefromadifferentkindofmaterial。
Manyothervaluableworksareobtainablewhichtreatofragpapermanufactureandthestoriestheytellareinstructiveaswellasinteresting。
CHAPTERXXXI。
MODERNINKBACKGROUNDSWOODPAPERAND“SAFETY“
PAPER。
SOMEGENERALOBSERVATIONSABOUTPAPER-MAKING
MATERIALS——PROBABILITIESASTOTHEFUTUREOF
THEPUBLICRECORDS——ESTIMATIONOFSUCHMATTERS
BYTHELATEPOPE——INVENTIONOFWOOD-PULPPAPER——
ITSLASTINGQUALITIES——THETHREEKINDSOFSUCH
PAPERDEFINED——DISCUSSIONOFTHESUBJECTOF
FUNGIINPAPERBYGLYDE——SOMETESTSTOASCERTAIN
THEMATERIALOFWHICHPAPERISCOMPOSED——
TESTSASTOSIZINGANDTHEDETERMINATIONOFTHE
DIRECTIONOFTHEGRAIN——ABSORBINGPOWERSOF
BLOTTINGPAPER——TESTSFORGROUNDWOOD——NEW
MODEOFANALYSTS——WHENTHEFIRST“SAFETY“
PAPERWASINVENTED——THEMANYKINDSOF“SAFETY“
PAPERANDPROCESSESINTHEIRMANUFACTURE——
CHRONOLOGICALREVIEWCOVERINGTHISSUBJECT——
SURVEYOFTHEVARIOUSPROCESSESINTHETREATMENT
ANDUSEOF“SAFETY“PAPER——ONLYTHREE
CHEMICAL“SAFETY“PAPERSNOWONTHEMARKET——
WHYITISPOSSIBLETORAISESOMEMONETARY
INSTRUMENTS。
PAPERmanufacturershavetriedallthepulp-makingsubstances。Thisstatementtotheunlearnedmustseemcurious，becauseintheveryearlytimestheywerecontentwithasinglematerialandthatdidnotevenrequiretobefirstmadeintotheformofpulp。
Whenthesupplyofpapyrusfailed，itwasragswhichtheysubstituted。Bythesimplestprocessestheyproducedapaperwithwhichourbestcannotcompare。
Insomecountriesgreatcareisexercisedinselectingthequalityofpaperforofficialuse，inothersnoneatall。
Whatwillbethestateofourarchivesafewhundredyearshence，iftheybenotcontinuallyrecopied？
Someoftheprintedpaperrotsevenmorequicklythanwritten。
ThelatePopeatonetimeinvitedmanyofthesavants，chemistsandlibrariansofEurope，tomeetatEinsiedlenAbbeyinSwitzerland。Herequestedthatthesubjectoftheirdiscussionsshouldbebothinkandpaper。Hevolunteeredtheinformation，alreadyknowntotheinitiated，thattherecordsofthisgenerationinhiscustodyandunderhiscontrolwerefastdisappearingandunlessthewritingmaterialsweremuchimprovedheestimatedthattheywouldentirelydisappear。ItisstatedthatatthismeetingthePope’srepresentativesubmittedanumberofdocumentsfromtheVaticanarchiveswhicharescarcelydecipherablethoughdatedinthenineteenthcentury。Inafewofthoseofdateslaterthan1873thepaperwassotenderthatunlesshandledwithexceptionalcare，itwouldbreakinpieceslikescorchedpaper。
Theseconditionsareinlinewithmanyofthosewhichprevailwithfewexceptionsineverycountry，townorhamlet。
Acontributorycauseasweknowisaclassofpoorandcheapinksnowinalmostuniversaluse。Theotheristheso-called“modern“orwood-pulppaperingeneralvogue。
Reaumur，asalreadystated，backin1719suggestedfrominformationgatheredinexaminationsofwasps’
nests，thatapapermightbemanufacturedfromwood。Thisideadoesnotappeartohavebeenacteduponuntilmanyyearslater，althoughintheinteriminventorswereexhaustingtheiringenuityintheselectionoffibrousmaterialsfromwhichpapermightbemanufactured。
Thesuccessfulintroductionofwoodasasubstitutefororwithragsinpapermanufactureuntilabout1870wasofslowgrowth；sincewhichtimevastquantitieshavebeenemployed。Inthiscountryalonemillionsoftonsofrawmaterialarebeingimportedtosaynothingofhomeproducts。
Itsvalueinthecauseofprogressofsomeartswhichcontributegreatlytoourcomfortandcivilizationcannotbeoverestimated，butneverthelessthewoodpaperisboundtodisintegrateanddecay，andthetimenotveryfardistanteither。Hence，itsuseforrecordsofanykindisalwaystobecondemned。
Therearethreeclassesofwoodpulp；mechanicalwood，sodaprocess，andthesulphite。ThefirstormechanicalwoodisaGermaninventionof1844，wherethelogsafterbeingcutupintoproperblocks，werethengroundagainstamovingmillstoneagainstwhichtheywerepressedandwiththeaidofflowingwaterreducedtoapulpyform。Thispulpwastransportedintosuitabletanksandthenpumpedtothe“beaters。”
Thesodaprocesswoodandsulphitewoodpulparebothmadebychemicalprocesses。ThefirstwasinventedbyMelinerin1865。Thepreparationofpulpbythisprocessconsistsbrieflyinfirstcuttingupthelogsintosuitablesectionsandthrowingthemintoachippingmachine。Thechipsarethenintroducedintotankscontainingastrongsolutionofcausticsodaandboiledunderpressure。
Thesulphiteprocessissubstantiallythesameexceptthatthechipsarethrownintowhatarecalleddigestersandfedwiththechemicalswhichformanacidsulphite。Therealinventorofthislatterprocessisnotknown。
Thechemicalsemployedinbothoftheseprocessescompelaseparationoftheresinousmattersfromthecelltissuesorcellulose。Theseproductsarethentreatedinthemanufacturingofpaperwithfewvariations，thesameastheordinaryragpulp。
Thesenowperfectedprocessesaretheresultsoflongandcontinuingexperimentationsmadebymanyinventors。
ThefollowingpaperwasreadbeforetheLondonSocietyofArtsbyMr。AlfredGlyde，inMay，1850，andisequallyapplicabletosomeofthewoodpaperofthepresentday：
“Owingtotheimperfectionsformerlyexistinginthemicroscope，littlewasknownoftherealnatureoftheplantscalledfungiuntilwithinthelastfewyears，butsincetheimprovementsinthatinstrumentthesubjectofthedevelopment，growth，andofficesofthefungihasreceivedmuchattention。
Theycompose，withthealgaeandlichens，theclassofthallogensLindley，thealgaeexistinginwater，theothertwoinaironly。Afungusisacellularflowerlessplant，fructifyingsolelybyspores，bywhichitispropagated，andthemethodsofattachmentofwhicharesingularlyvariousandbeautiful。Thefungidiffersfromthelichensandalgaeinderivingtheirnourishmentfromthesubstancesonwhichtheygrow，insteadoffromthemediainwhichtheylive。Theycontainalargerquantityofnitrogenintheirconstitutionthanvegetablesgenerallydo，andthesubstancecalled’fungine’
hasanearresemblancetoanimalmatter。
Theirsporesareinconceivablynumerousandminute，andarediffusedverywidely，developingthemselveswherevertheyfindorganicmatterinafitstate。Theprincipalconditionsrequiredfortheirgrowtharemoisture，heat，andthepresenceofoxygenandelectricity。Nodecompositionordevelopmentoffungitakesplaceindryorganicmatter，afactillustratedbythehighstateofpreservationinwhichtimberhasbeenfoundafterthelapseofcenturies，aswellasbytheconditionofmummy-cases，bandages，etc。，keptdryinthehotclimateofEgypt。Decaywillnottakeplaceinatemperaturebelowthatofthefreezingpointofwater，norwithoutoxygen，byexcludingwhich，iscontainedintheair，meatandvegetablesmaybekeptfreshandsweetformanyyears。
“Theactionwhichtakesplacewhenmoistvegetablesubstancesareexposedtooxygenisthatofslowcombustion’eremacausis’，theoxygenunitingwiththewoodandliberatingavolumeofcarbonicacidequaltoitself，andanotherportioncombiningwiththehydrogenofthewoodtoformwater。Decompositiontakesplaceoncontactwithabodyalreadyundergoingthesamechange，inthesamemannerthatyeastcausesfermentation。Animalmatterentersintocombinationwithoxygeninpreciselythesamewayasvegetablematter，butas，inadditiontocarbonandhydrogen，itcontainsnitrogen，theproductsoftheeremacausisaremorenumerous，beingcarbonandnitrateofammonia，carburettedandsulphurettedhydrogen，andwater，andtheseammoniacalsaltsgreatlyfavorthegrowthoffungi。Nowpaperconsistsessentiallyofwoodyfibre，havinganimalmatterassizeonitssurface。
Thefirstmicroscopicsymptomofdecayinpaperisirregularityofsurface，withaslightchangeofcolor，indicatingthecommencementoftheprocessjustnoticed，duringwhich，inadditiontocarbonicacid，certainorganicacidsareformed，ascrenicandulmicacids，which，ifthepaperhasbeenstainedbyacoloringmatter，willformspotsofredonthesurface。Thesameprocessofdecaygoesoninparchmentasinpaper，onlywithmorerapidity，fromthepresenceofnitrogeninitscomposition。
Whenthisdecayhasbeguntotakeplace，fungiareproduced，themostcommonspeciesbeingPeniciliumglaucum。Theyinsinuatethemselvesbetweenthefibre，causingafreeradmissionofair，andconsequentlyhastenthedecay。Thesubstancesmostsuccessfullyusedaspreventivesofdecayarethesaltsofmercury，copper，andzinc。Bichlorideofmercurycorrosivesublimateisthematerialemployedinthekyanizationoftimber，theprobablemodeofactionbeingitscombinationwiththealbumenofthewood，toformaninsolublecompoundnotsusceptibleofspontaneousdecomposition，andthereforeincapableofexcitingfermentation。Theantisepticpowerofcorrosivesublimatemaybeeasilytestedbymixingalittleofitwithflourpaste，thedecayofwhich，andtheappearanceoffungi，arequitepreventedbyit。Nexttocorrosivesublimateinantisepticvaluestandthesaltsofcopperandzinc。Foruseinthepreservationofpaperthesulphateofzincisbetterthanthechloride，whichistoacertainextentdelinquescent。”
Therearenumerouspapertestswhichincludethematterofsizing，directionofthegrain，absorbingpowers，characterofingredients，etc。Afewofthemarecited。
SIZING——Theeverydaytestsastohardnessofsizinganswereveryordinarypurpose：Moistenwiththetongue，andifthepaperisslack-sizedyoucandetectitoftenbytheinstantdrawingorabsorptionofthemoisture。Watchthespotmoistened，andthelongeritremainswetthebetterthepaperissized。
Lookthroughthespotdampened——thepoorerthesizingthemoretransparentisthepaperwhereitiswet。Ifthoroughlysizednodifferencewillbeapparentbetweenthespotdampenedandthebalanceofthesheet。Whenthereisaquestionastowhetherapaperistuborenginesized，itcanbeusuallydecidedbywettingtheforefingerandthumbandpressingthesheetbetweenthem。Iftub-sized，thegluewhichisappliedtothesurfacewillperceptiblyclingtothefingers。
TOTESTTHEINKRESISTINGQUALITYOFPAPER——
Drawaheavyinklineacrossthesheet。Ifthepaperispoorlysized，afeatheryedgewillappear，causedbyspreadingoftheink。Slack-sizedpaperwillbepenetratedbytheink，whichwillplainlyappearonthereversesideofthesheet。
TODETERMINETHEDIRECTIONOFTHEGRAIN——
Aneasybutsuretesttodeterminethedirectionofthegraininasheetofpaper，whichwillbefoundusefulandworthremembering，isasfollows：
Forinstance，thesizeofsheetis17x22inches。
Cutoutacircularpieceasnearlyroundastheeyecanjudge；beforeentirelydetachingfromthesheet，markonthecirclethe17-inchwayandthe22-inchway；thenfloatthecutoutpieceonwaterforafewseconds；thenplaceonthepalmofthehand，takingcarenottolettheedgessticktothehand，andthepaperwillcurluntilitformsacone；thegrainofthepaperrunstheoppositewayfromwhichthepapercurls。
ABSORBINGPOWERSOFBLOTTINGPAPER——Comparativetestsastoabsorbingpowersofblottingcanbemadebetweensheetsofsameweightperreambyallowingthepointedcornerofasheettotouchthesurfaceofadropofink。Repeatwitheachsheettobetested，andcomparetheheightineachtowhichtheinkhasbeenabsorbed。Awell-madeblottingpapershouldhavelittleornofreefibredusttofillwithinkandsmearthepaper。
TESTFORGROUNDWOOD——Makeastreakacrossthepaperwithasolutionofanilinesulphateorwithconcentratednitricacid；thefirstwillturngroundwoodyellow，thesecondwillturnitbrown。Igiveanilinesulphatethepreference，asnitricacidactsuponunbleachedsulphite，ifpresentinthepaper，thesameasitactsupongroundwood，viz。，turningitbrown。
Phloroglucingivesarose-redstainonpapercontainingsulphitewoodpulp，afterthespecimenhasbeenpreviouslytreatedwithaweaksolutionofhydrochloricacid。
Abouttheendoftheeighteenthcenturyitbecamenecessarytomakespecialpapersdenominated“safetypaper。”Theirmanufacturehascontinueduntilthepresentdayalthoughmuchlimited，largelybecauseoftheemploymentofmechanicaldeviceswhichseektosafetymonetaryinstruments。Suchsafetypapersareofseveralkinds。
1。Papermadewithdistinguishingmarkstoindicateproprietorship，aswiththeBankofEnglandwatermark，toimitatewhichisafelony。OrthepaperoftheUnitedStatescurrency，whichhassilkfibersunitedwiththepulp，theimitationofwhichisafelony。
2。Papermadewithlayersormaterialswhicharedisturbedbyerasureorchemicaldischargeofwrittenorprintedcontents，soastopreventfraudulenttampering。
3。Papermadeofpeculiarmaterialsorcolor，topreventcopyingbyphotographicmeans。
Anumberofprocessesmaybecited：
Onekindismadeofapulptingedwithastaineasilyaffectedbychlorine，acids，oralkalis，andismadeintosheetsasusual。
Watermarksmadebywirestwinedamongthemeshesofthewireclothonwhichthepaperismade。
Threadsembodiedinthewebofthepaper。
ColoredthreadssystematicallyarrangedwereformerlyusedinEnglandforpost-officeenvelopesandexchequerbills。
Silkenfibersmixedwiththepulpordusteduponitinprocessofformation，asusedintheUnitedStatescurrency。
Tigere，1817，treatedthepulpofthepaper，previoustosizing，withasolutionofprussiateofpotash。
SirWin。Congreve，1819，preparedacoloredlayerofpulpincombinationwithwhitelayers，alsobyprintingupononesheetandcoveringitwithanouterlayer，eitherplainorwater-marked。
GlynnandAppel，1821，mixedacoppersaltinthepulpandafterwardaddedanalkalioralkalinesalttoproduceacopiousprecipitate。Thepulpwasthenwashedandmadeintopaperandthereafterdippedinasaponaceouscompound。
Stevenson，1837，incorporatedintopaperametallicbasesuchasmanganese，andaneutralcompoundlikeprussiateofpotash，toprotectwritingfrombeingtamperedwith。
Varnham，1845，inventedapaperconsistingofawhitesheetorsurfaceononeorbothsidesofacoloredsheet。
Stones，1851。Aniodideorbromideinconnectionwithferrocyanideofpotassiumandstarchcombinedwiththepulp。
Johnson，1853，employedtheroughandirregularsurfaceproducedbythefractureofcastironorotherbrittlemetaltoformawatermarkforpaperbytakinganimpressiontherefromonsoftmetal，gutta-
percha，etc。，andafterwardtransferringittothewireclothonwhichthepaperismade。
Scoutteten，1853，treatedpaperwithcaoutchouedissolvedinbisulphideofcarbon，inordertorenderitimpermeableandtopreventerasuresorchemicalaction。
Ross，1854，inventedwater-liningorprintingthedenominationofthenoteincolorswhilethepulpwasyetsoft。
Evans，1854，commingledalaceoropen-workfabricinthepulp。
Courboulay，1856，mixedthepulpandappliedtothepapersaltsofiodineorbromine。
Loubatieres，1857，manufacturedpaperinlayers，anyorallofwhichmightbecolored，orhaveimpressionsorconspicuousmarksforpreventingforgery。
Herapath，1858，saturatedpaperduringorafteritsmanufacturewithasolutionofaferrocyanide，aferriccyanide，orsulphocyanideofpotassium，sodium，orammonium。
SeysandBrewer，1858，appliedaqueoussolutionsofferrocyanideofpotassiumorothersalts，whichformedanindeliblecompoundwiththeferruginousbaseofwritingink。
Sparre，1859，utilizedopaquematter，suchasprussianblue，whiteorredlead，insolubleinwaterandstenciledononelayerofthepaperweb，formingaregularpattern；thiswasthencoveredbyasecondlayerofpaper。
Moss，1859，inventedacoloringmatterpreparedfromburnedchinaorotherclay，oxideofchromiumorsulphur，andcombineditwiththepulp。
Barclay，1859，incorporatedwiththepaper：
1。Solubleferrocyanides，ferricyanides，andsulphocyanidesofvariousmetals，byformingdibasicsaltswithpotassium，sodium，orammonium，inconjunctionwithvegetable，animal，ormetalliccoloringmatters。
2。Saltsofmanganese，lead，ornickelnotcontainingferrocyanogen。
3。Ferrocyanides，etc。，ofpotassium，sodium，andammonium，inconjunctionwithinsolublesaltsofmanganese，lead，ornickel。
Hooper，1860。Employedoxidesofiron，eitheraloneordissolvedinanacid，andmixedwiththepulp。
Nissen，1860。Treatedpaperwithapreparationofiron，togetherwithammonia，prussiateofpotashandchlorine，whileinthepulporbeingsized。
Middleton，1860。Joinedtogetheroneportionofabanknoteprintedupononesheetofthinpaperandtheotherpartonanother；thetwowerethencementedtogetherbyindia-rubber，gutta-percha，orothercompound。
Theinteriorprintingcouldbeseenthroughitscoveringsheet，sothatthewholedeviceonthenoteappearedonitsface。
Olier，1861。Employedseverallayersofpaperofvariousmaterialsandcolors；themiddleonewascoloredwithadelebledye，whosecolorwaschangedbytheapplicationofchemicalstotheouterlayer。
Olier，1863。Preparedapaperofthreelayersofdifferentthicknesses，thecentralonehavinganeasilyremovablecolor，andtheexternallayerswerechargedwithsilicateofmagnesiaorothersalt。
ForsterandDraper，1864。TreatingpaperduringoraftermanufacturewithartificialultramarineandPrussianblueorothermetalliccompound。
Hayward，1864。Incorporatedthreadsoffibrousmaterialsofdifferentcolorsorcharactersintoandamongthepulp。
Loewenberg，1866。Introducedprussiateofpotashandoxalicacidorsuchotheralkalinesaltsoracidsintothepulp，inordertoindicatefraudintheremovalofcancellationstampsorwrittenmarks。
Casilear，1868。Printednumbersonafugitiveground，tintorcolorinordertopreventalterationoffiguresornumbers。
Jameson，1870。Printedonpaper，designswithferrocyanideofpotassiumandthensoakedthepaperwhendryinasolutionofoxalicacidinalcohol。
Duthie，1872。Madeagroundworkofwritinginkofdifferentcolorsbyanyknownmeansofpenruling。
Syms，1876。Producedgraduatedcoloredstains，whichweremadetopartiallypenetrateandspreadinthepulpweb。
VanNuys，1878。ColoredthePaperwithapigmentandthenprinteddesignswithasolublesulphide。
Casilear，1878。Unitedtwodistinctivecoloredpapers，oneafugitiveandtheotherapermanentcolor。
Hendrichs，1879。Dippedordinarypaperinanaqueoussolutionofsulphateofcopperandcarbonateofammoniaandthenaddedalkalinesolutionsofcochinealorequivalentcoloringmatter。
Nowlan，1884。Backedtheordinarychemicalpaperwithathinsheetofwaterproofpaper。
Menzies，1884。Introducediodideandiodateofpotassiumortheirequivalentsintopaper。
Clapp，1884。Saturatedpaperwithgallo-tanicacid，buttheinkusedonthispapercontainedferri-sesquichlorideorothersimilarpreparationofiron。
Hill，1885。Introducedintopaper，ferrocyanideofmanganeseandhydratedperoxideofiron。
Schreiber，1885。Coloredpapermaterialwithindigoandwithasubsequenttreatmentofchromatessolubleonlyinalcohol。
Schreiber，1885。Treatedfinishedpaperwithferric-
oxidesaltsandwithferrocyanidesinsolubleinwaterbutsolubleinacids。
Schlumberger，1890。Impregnatedwhitepaperwitharesinatedferroussalt，aresincompoundofplumbicferrocyanide，andaresincompoundofferrocyanideofmanganeseincombinationwithasaltofmolybdenumandaresincompoundofzincsulphide。
Schlumberger，1893。Dyedfirstthesplashfibersandmixedthemwiththepaperpulp。Second。Healsotreatedportionsofthesurfacewithanalkali，soastoformlinesorcharactersthereon，thenimmersedthesameinaweakacid，inordertoproducewater-marklines。
Carvalho，1894。1。Chargedthepaperwithbismuthiodideandsodiumiodide。2。Chargedthepaperwithabismuthsaltandiodideofsodaincombinationwithprimulin，congoredorotherpigment。3。Chargedthepaperwithabenzidinedyeandanalkalineiodide。
1895。Appliedacompound，sensitivetoinkerasingchemicals，AFTERthewritinghasbeenplacedonthepaper。
HoskinsandWeis，1895，asafetypaperhavingaddedtheretoasolubleferrocyanideandaper-saltofironinsolubleinwaterbutdecomposablebyaweakacidinthepresenceofasolubleferrocyanide，asandforthepurposedescribed。2Asafetypaperhavingaddedtheretoaferrocyanidesolubleinwater，aper-saltofironinsolubleinwaterbuteasilydecomposedbyweakacidsinthepresenceofaferrocyanidesolubleinwater，andasaltofmanganeseeasilydecomposedbyalkalisorbleachingagents，substantiallyasdescribed。
Areviewofthevariousprocessesfortreatmentofpaperinpulporwhenfinished，demonstratesthattime，moneyandstudyhasbeendevotedtotheproductionofaREALsafetypaper。Somecompositionsandprocesseshaveinameasurebeensuccessful。Itisfound，however，thattheingenuityofthoseevil-mindedpersons，tothedetectionofwhoseeffortstoalterthewritingindocumentsthisclassofinventionhasmoreparticularlybeendirected，findsareadywayofremovinginsomecasestheevidencewhichthechemicalreagentfurnishes。Thisbeingtruemostofthemhavebecomeobsolete，havingentirelyfailedtoaccomplishthepurposesforwhichtheywereinvented。
Therearebutthreeso-calledsafetypapersnowonthemarket，ifweexcludethosepossessingprinteddesignsinfugitivecolors。
Itisastrangeanomaly，neverthelessitistrue，that90percentormoreofthe“raised“checks，notes，orothermonetaryinstrumentswhichwereintheiroriginalconditionwrittenonordinaryorso-calledsafetypaper，nevercouldhavebeensuccessfully“putthrough“butforthegrossandattimescriminalnegligenceoftheirwritersbythefailuretoadoptprecautionsoftheverysimplestkinds，andtherebyavoidedplacingtemptationinthewayofmanywhounderothercircumstanceswouldneverhavethoughtofbecomingforgers。
Thereisnosafetypaper，safetyink，ormechanicalappliancewhichwillpreventtheinsertionofwordsorfiguresbeforeotherwordsorfiguresifablankspacebeleftwheretheforgercanplacethem。
CHAPTERXXXII。
CURIOSAINKANDOTHERWRITINGMATERIALS。
ARTIFICIALINKANDPAPEROWETHEIRINVENTIONTO
THEWASP——PHoeNICIA，“LANDOFTHEPURPLE-DYE“——
LINES，ADDRESSEDTOTHEPHoeNICIAN——OLDEST
EXISTINGPIECEOFLITERARYCOMPOSITION——WHERE
PAPYRUSSTILLGROWS——DUCANGE’SLINESONTHE
STYLUS——MATERIALSUSEDTOPROMULGATEANCIENT
LAWSOFGREECE——ANCIENTMETHODOFWRITING
WILLS——MATERIALSEMPLOYEDINANCIENTHEBREW
ROLLS——ANTIQUITYOFEXISTINGHEBREWWRITING——
OLDESTSPECIMENOFGREEKWAXWRITING——
WOODENTALLIESASEMPLOYEDINENGLAND——WHEN
WRITINGINGOLDCEASED——DATEOFTHEFIRSTDISCOVERY
OFGREEKPAPYRUSINEGYPT——PERIODSTO
WHICHBELONGVARIOUSSTYLESOFWRITING——ANECDOTE
ANDPOEMABOUTTHEFIRSTGOLDPEN——INTERESTING
NOTESABOUTPENSANDINK-HORNS——EMPLOYMENT
OFTHEPENASABADGEINTHEFOURTEENTH
CENTURY——SOMELINESBYCOCKER——THEOLDEST
EXISTINGWRITTENDOCUMENTSOFRUSSIA——WHEN
SEALINGWAXWASFIRSTEMPLOYED——PLINY’S
DESCRIPTIONOFTHEDIFFERENTKINDSOFPAPYRUS
PAPER——MODEOFPRESERVINGTHEANCIENTPAPYRUS
ROLLS——SUGGESTIONSRESPECTINGUSESOFINK——
COMPARATIVETABLEABOUTCOALTARANDITSBY-
PRODUCTS——COMPOSITIONSOFSECRETINKSANDHOW
TORENDERTHEMVISIBLE——CHARACTEROFINKEMPLOYED
FORMANYYEARSBYTHEWASHINGTONPATENT
OFFICE——FACTSELICITEDBYHERAPATHINTHEUNROLLMENT
OFAMUMMY——LINESFROMSHAKESPEARE
ANDPERSEUS——SEVENTEENTHCENTURYOBSERVATIONS
ABOUTSECRETINKS——CAUSEOFTHEDESTRUCTION
OFMANYANCIENTMSS——METHODSTOBEEMPLOYED
INTHERESTORATIONOFSOMEOLDINKS——
VARIATIONSINTHEMEANINGOFWORDS——THEPOUNCE
BOXPRECEDEDBLOTTINGPAPER——SOMEOBSERVATIONS
ABOUTBLOTTINGPAPER——ANECDOTERELATING
TODR。GALE——WHENWAFERSWEREINTRODUCED——
PERSIANANECDOTEABOUTTHEDIVES——EPISODES
RESPECTINGTHESTYLUS——DESCRIPTIONBYBELOE
OFANCIENTPERSICANDARABICMSS——CITATIONFROM
OLDBOSTONNEWSPAPERANDPOEM——METHODOF
COLLECTINGRAGSIN1807ANDSOMELINESADDRESSED
TOTHELADIES——METHODTOPHOTOGRAPH
COLOREDINKS——POEMBYISABELLEHOWEFISKE。
INconsideringtheimportantandkindredsubjectsof“gall“inkand“pulp“paper，wearenottoforgettheLITTLEthingsconnectedwiththeirdevelopmentandwhich，indeed，madetheirinventionpossible。
Thegall-nutcontainsgallicandgallo-tannicacid，andwhichacids，inconjunctionwithanironsalt，formsthesolebaseofthebestink。Thisnutisproducedbythepuncturesmadeontheyoungbudsofbranchesofcertainspeciesofoaktreesbythefemalewasp。Thissamebusylittleinsectwasalsothefirstprofessionalpapermaker。Sheitwaswhotaughtusnotonlythewaytochangedrywoodintoasuitablepulp，thekindofsizetobeused，howtowaterproofandgivethepaperstrength，butmanymoremarvelousdetailsappertainingtothemanufactureofpaperwhichintheirramificationshaveprovedofinestimablebenefitandservicetothehumanrace。
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TheGreekword“Phoenicia“meansliterally“thelandofthepurpledye。”andtothePhoeniciansisattributedtheinventionoftheartofwriting。
TOTHEPHOENICIAN。
“Creatorofcelestialarts，Thypaintedwordspeakstotheeye；
TosimplelinesthyskillimpartsTheglowingspirit’secstasy。”
TheoldestpieceofliterarycompositionknownintheoldestbookrollinexistenceistobefoundinthecelebratedpapyrusPrisse，nowintheLouvreatParis。ItconsistsofeighteenpiecesinEgyptianhieraticwriting，ascribedtoabouttheyearB。C。
2500。