Inthiscriticalsituationofitsaffairs,thepapalcourtwasatsufficientpainstocultivatethefriendshipofthepowerfulsovereignsofFranceandSpain,ofwhomthelatterwasatthattimeEmperorofGermany。Withtheirassistanceitwasenabled,thoughnotwithoutgreatdifficultyandmuchbloodshed,eithertosuppressaltogetherortoobstructverymuchtheprogressoftheReformationintheirdominions。Itwaswellenoughinclined,too,tobecomplaisanttotheKingofEngland。
Butfromthecircumstancesofthetimes,itcouldnotbesowithoutgivingoffencetoastillgreatersovereign,CharlesV,KingofSpainandEmperorofGermany。HenryVIIIaccordingly,thoughhedidnotembracehimselfthegreaterpartofthedoctrinesoftheReformation,wasyetenabled,bytheirgeneralprevalence,tosuppressallthemonasteries,andtoabolishtheauthorityoftheChurchofRomeinhisdominions。Thatheshouldgosofar,thoughhewentnofurther,gavesomesatisfactiontothepatronsoftheReformation,whohavinggotpossessionofthegovernmentinthereignofhissonandsuccessor,completedwithoutanydifficultytheworkwhichHenryVIIIhadbegun。
Insomecountries,asinScotland,wherethegovernmentwasweak,unpopular,andnotveryfirmlyestablished,theReformationwasstrongenoughtooverturn,notonlythechurch,butthestatelikewiseforattemptingtosupportthechurch。
AmongthefollowersoftheReformationdispersedinallthedifferentcountriesofEurope,therewasnogeneraltribunalwhich,likethatofthecourtofRome,oranoecumenicalcouncil,couldsettlealldisputesamongthem,andwithirresistibleauthorityprescribetoallofthemthepreciselimitsoforthodoxy。WhenthefollowersoftheReformationinonecountry,therefore,happenedtodifferfromtheirbrethreninanother,astheyhadnocommonjudgetoappealto,thedisputecouldneverbedecided;andmanysuchdisputesaroseamongthem。Thoseconcerningthegovernmentofthechurch,andtherightofconferringecclesiasticalbenefices,wereperhapsthemostinterestingtothepeaceandwelfareofcivilsociety。TheygavebirthaccordinglytothetwoprincipalpartiesofsectsamongthefollowersoftheReformation,theLutheranandCalvinisticsects,theonlysectsamongthemofwhichthedoctrineanddisciplinehaveeveryetbeenestablishedbylawinanypartofEurope。
ThefollowersofLuther,togetherwithwhatiscalledtheChurchofEngland,preservedmoreorlessoftheepiscopalgovernment,establishedsubordinationamongtheclergy,gavethesovereignthedisposalofallthebishopricsandotherconsistorialbeneficeswithinhisdominions,andtherebyrenderedhimtherealheadofthechurch;andwithoutdeprivingthebishopoftherightofcollatingtothesmallerbeneficeswithinhisdiocese,they,eventothosebenefices,notonlyadmitted,butfavouredtherightofpresentationbothinthesovereignandinallotherlay—patrons。Thissystemofchurchgovernmentwasfromthebeginningfavourabletopeaceandgoodorder,andtosubmissiontothecivilsovereign。Ithasnever,accordingly,beentheoccasionofanytumultorcivilcommotioninanycountryinwhichithasoncebeenestablished。TheChurchofEnglandinparticularhasalwaysvaluedherself,withgreatreason,upontheunexceptionableloyaltyofherprinciples。Undersuchagovernmenttheclergynaturallyendeavourtorecommendthemselvestothesovereign,tothecourt,andtothenobilityandgentryofthecountry,bywhoseinfluencetheychieflyexpecttoobtainpreferment。Theypaycourttothosepatronssometimes,nodoubt,bythevilestflatteryandassentation,butfrequently,too,bycultivatingallthoseartswhichbestdeserve,andwhicharethereforemostlikelytogainthemtheesteemofpeopleofrankandfortune;bytheirknowledgeinallthedifferentbranchesofusefulandornamentallearning,bythedecentliberalityoftheirmanners,bythesocialgoodhumouroftheirconversation,andbytheiravowedcontemptofthoseabsurdandhypocriticalausteritieswhichfanaticsinculcateandpretendtopractise,inordertodrawuponthemselvestheveneration,anduponthegreaterpartofmenofrankandfortune,whoavowthattheydonotpractisethem,theabhorrenceofthecommonpeople。Suchaclergy,however,whiletheypaytheircourtinthismannertothehigherranksoflife,areveryapttoneglectaltogetherthemeansofmaintainingtheirinfluenceandauthoritywiththelower。Theyarelistenedto,esteemed,andrespectedbytheirsuperiors;butbeforetheirinferiorstheyarefrequentlyincapableofdefending,effectuallyandtotheconvictionofsuchhearers,theirownsoberandmoderatedoctrinesagainstthemostignorantenthusiastwhochoosestoattackthem。
ThefollowersofZwingli,ormoreproperlythoseofCalvin,onthecontrary,bestoweduponthepeopleofeachparish,wheneverthechurchbecamevacant,therightofelectingtheirownpastor,andestablishedatthesametimethemostperfectequalityamongtheclergy。Theformerpartofthisinstitution,aslongasitremainedinvigour,seemstohavebeenproductiveofnothingbutdisorderandconfusion,andtohavetendedequallytocorruptthemoralsbothoftheclergyandofthepeople。Thelatterpartseemsnevertohavehadanyeffectsbutwhatwereperfectlyagreeable。
Aslongasthepeopleofeachparishpreservedtherightofelectingtheirownpastors,theyactedalmostalwaysundertheinfluenceoftheclergy,andgenerallyofthemostfactiousandfanaticaloftheorder。Theclergy,inordertopreservetheirinfluenceinthosepopularelections,became,oraffectedtobecome,manyofthem,fanaticsthemselves,encouragedfanaticismamongthepeople,andgavethepreferencealmostalwaystothemostfanaticalcandidate。Sosmallamatterastheappointmentofaparishpriestoccasionedalmostalwaysaviolentcontest,notonlyinoneparish,butinalltheneighbouringparishes,whoseldomfailedtotakepartinthequarrel。Whentheparishhappenedtobesituatedinagreatcity,itdividedalltheinhabitantsintotwoparties;andwhenthatcityhappenedeithertoconstituteitselfalittlerepublic,ortobetheheadandcapitalofalittlerepublic,asisthecasewithmanyoftheconsiderablecitiesinSwitzerlandandHolland,everypaltrydisputeofthiskind,overandaboveexasperatingtheanimosityofalltheirotherfactions,threatenedtoleavebehinditbothanewschisminthechurch,andanewfactioninthestate。Inthosesmallrepublics,therefore,themagistrateverysoonfounditnecessary,forthesakeofpreservingthepublicpeace,toassumetohimselftherightofpresentingtoallvacantbenefices。InScotland,themostextensivecountryinwhichthisPresbyterianformofchurchgovernmenthaseverbeenestablished,therightsofpatronagewereineffectabolishedbytheactwhichestablishedPresbyteryinthebeginningofthereignofWilliamIII。Thatactatleastputitinthepowerofcertainclassesofpeopleineachparishtopurchase,foraverysmallprice,therightofelectingtheirownpastor。Theconstitutionwhichthisactestablishedwasallowedtosubsistforabouttwo—and—twentyyears,butwasabolishedbythe10thofQueenAnne,c。12,onaccountoftheconfusionsanddisorderswhichthismorepopularmodeof,electionhadalmosteverywhereoccasioned。InsoextensiveacountryasScotland,however,atumultinaremoteparishwasnotsolikelytogivedisturbancetogovernmentasinasmallerstate。The10thofQueenAnnerestoredtherightsofpatronage。ButthoughinScotlandthelawgivesthebeneficewithoutanyexceptiontothepersonpresentedbythepatron,yetthechurchrequiressometimes(forshehasnotinthisrespectbeenveryuniforminherdecisions)acertainconcurrenceofthepeoplebeforeshewillconferuponthepresenteewhatiscalledthecureofsouls,ortheecclesiasticaljurisdictionintheparish。Shesometimesatleast,fromanaffectedconcernforthepeaceoftheparish,delaysthesettlementtillthisconcurrencecanbeprocured。Theprivatetamperingofsomeoftheneighbouringclergy,sometimestoprocure,butmorefrequentlytoprevent,thisconcurrence,andthepopularartswhichtheycultivateinordertoenablethemuponsuchoccasionstotampermoreeffectually,areperhapsthecauseswhichprincipallykeepupwhateverremainsoftheoldfanaticalspirit,eitherintheclergyorinthepeopleofScotland。
TheequalitywhichthePresbyterianformofchurchgovernmentestablishesamongtheclergy,consists,first,intheequalityofauthorityorecclesiasticaljurisdiction;and,secondly,intheequalityofbenefice。InallPresbyterianchurchestheequalityofauthorityisperfect:thatofbeneficeisnotso。Thedifference,however,betweenonebeneficeandanotherisseldomsoconsiderableascommonlytotemptthepossessorevenofthesmallonetopaycourttohispatronbythevileartsofflatteryandassentationinordertogetabetter。
InallthePresbyterianchurches,wheretherightsofpatronagearethoroughlyestablished,itisbynoblerandbetterartsthattheestablishedclergyingeneralendeavourtogainthefavouroftheirsuperiors;bytheirlearning,bytheirreproachableregularityoftheirlife,andbythefaithfulanddiligentdischargeoftheirduty。Theirpatronsevenfrequentlycomplainoftheindependencyoftheirspirit,whichtheyareapttoconstrueintoingratitudeforpastfavours,butwhichatworst,perhaps,isseldomanymorethanthatindifferencewhichnaturallyarisesfromtheconsciousnessthatnofurtherfavoursofthekindareevertobeexpected。ThereisscarceperhapstobefoundanywhereinEuropeamorelearned,decent,independent,andrespectablesetofmenthanthegreaterpartofthePresbyterianclergyofHolland,Geneva,Switzerland,andScotland。
Wherethechurchbeneficesareallnearlyequal,noneofthemcanbeverygreat,andthismediocrityofbenefice,thoughitmaynodoubtbecarried,toofar,has,however,someveryagreeableeffects。Nothingbutthemostexemplarymoralscangivedignitytoamanofsmallfortune。Thevicesoflevityandvanitynecessarilyrenderhimridiculous,andare,besides,almostasruinoustohimastheyaretothecommonpeople。Inhisownconduct,therefore,heisobligedtofollowthatsystemofmoralswhichthecommonpeoplerespectthemost。Hegainstheiresteemandaffectionbythatplanoflifewhichhisowninterestandsituationwouldleadhimtofollow。Thecommonpeoplelookuponhimwiththatkindnesswithwhichwenaturallyregardonewhoapproachessomewhattoourowncondition,butwho,wethink,oughttobeinahigher。Theirkindnessnaturallyprovokeshiskindness。Hebecomescarefultoinstructthem,andattentivetoassistandrelievethem。Hedoesnotevendespisetheprejudicesofpeoplewhoaredisposedtobesofavourabletohim,andnevertreatsthemwiththosecontemptuousandarrogantairswhichwesooftenmeetwithintheprouddignitariesofopulentandwell—endowedchurches。ThePresbyterianclergy,accordingly,havemoreinfluenceoverthemindsofthecommonpeoplethanperhapstheclergyofanyotherestablishedchurch。ItisaccordinglyinPresbyteriancountriesonlythatweeverfindthecommonpeopleconverted,withoutpersecution,completely,andalmosttoaman,totheestablishedchurch。
Incountrieswherechurchbeneficesarethegreaterpartofthemverymoderate,achairinauniversityisgenerallyabetterestablishmentthanachurchbenefice。Theuniversitieshave,inthiscase,thepickingandchoosingoftheirmembersfromallthechurchmenofthecountry,who,ineverycountry,constitutebyfarthemostnumerousclassofmenofletters。Wherechurchbenefices,onthecontrary,aremanyofthemveryconsiderable,thechurchnaturallydrawsfromtheuniversitiesthegreaterpartoftheireminentmenofletters,whogenerallyfindsomepatronwhodoeshimselfhonourbyprocuringthemchurchpreferment。Intheformersituationwearelikelytofindtheuniversitiesfilledwiththemosteminentmenoflettersthataretobefoundinthecountry。Inthelatterwearelikelytofindfeweminentmenamongthem,andthosefewamongtheyoungestmembersofthesociety,whoarelikely,too,tobedrainedawayfromitbeforetheycanhaveacquiredexperienceandknowledgeenoughtobeofmuchusetoit。ItisobservedbyMr。deVoltaire,thatFatherPorrie,aJesuitofnogreateminenceintherepublicofletters,wastheonlyprofessortheyhadeverhadinFrancewhoseworkswereworththereading。Inacountrywhichhasproducedsomanyeminentmenofletters,itmustappearsomewhatsingularthatscarceoneofthemshouldhavebeenaprofessorinauniversity。
ThefamousGassendiwas,inthebeginningofhislife,aprofessorintheUniversityofAix。Uponthefirstdawningofhisgenius,itwasrepresentedtohimthatbygoingintothechurchhecouldeasilyfindamuchmorequietandcomfortablesubsistence,aswellasabettersituationforpursuinghisstudies;andheimmediatelyfollowedtheadvice。TheobservationofMr。deVoltairemaybeapplied,Ibelieve,notonlytoFrance,buttoallotherRomanCatholiccountries。Weveryrarelyfind,inanyofthem,aneminentmanofletterswhoisaprofessorinauniversity,except,perhaps,intheprofessionsoflawandphysic;professionsfromwhichthechurchisnotsolikelytodrawthem。AftertheChurchofRome,thatofEnglandisbyfartherichestandbestendowedchurchinChristendom。InEngland,accordingly,thechurchiscontinuallydrainingtheuniversitiesofalltheirbestandablestmembers;andanoldcollegetutor,whoisknownanddistinguishedinEuropeasaneminentmanofletters,isasrarelytobefoundthereasinanyRomanCatholiccountry。InGeneva,onthecontrary,intheProtestantcantonsofSwitzerland,intheProtestantcountriesofGermany,inHolland,inScotland,inSweden,andDenmark,themosteminentmenofletterswhomthosecountrieshaveproduced,have,notallindeed,butthefargreaterpartofthem,beenprofessorsinuniversities。Inthosecountriestheuniversitiesarecontinuallydrainingthechurchofallitsmosteminentmenofletters。
Itmay,perhaps,beworthwhiletoremarkthat,ifweexpectthepoets,afeworators,andafewhistorians,thefargreaterpartoftheothereminentmenofletters,bothofGreeceandRome,appeartohavebeeneitherpublicorprivateteachers;
generallyeitherofphilosophyorofrhetoric。ThisremarkwillbefoundtoholdtruefromthedaysofLysiasandIsocrates,ofPlatoandAristotle,downtothoseofPlutarchandEpictetus,ofSuetoniusandQuintilian。Toimposeuponanymanthenecessityofteaching,yearafteryear,anyparticularbranchofscience,seems,inreality,tobethemosteffectualmethodforrenderinghimcompletelymasterofithimself。Bybeingobligedtogoeveryyearoverthesameground,ifheisgoodforanything,henecessarilybecomes,inafewyears,wellacquaintedwitheverypartofit:andifuponanyparticularpointheshouldformtoohastyanopiniononeyear,whenhecomesinthecourseofhislecturestoreconsiderthesamesubjecttheyearthereafter,heisverylikelytocorrectit。Astobeateacherofscienceiscertainlythenaturalemploymentofameremanofletters,soisitlikewise,perhaps,theeducationwhichismostlikelytorenderhimamanofsolidlearningandknowledge。Themediocityofchurchbeneficesnaturallytendstodrawthegreaterpartofmenofletters,inthecountrywhereittakesplace,totheemploymentinwhichtheycanbethemostusefultothepublic,and,atthesametime,togivethemthebesteducation,perhaps,theyarecapableofreceiving。Ittendstorendertheirlearningbothassolidaspossible,andasusefulaspossible。
Therevenueofeveryestablishedchurch,suchpartsofitexceptedasmayarisefromparticularlandsormanors,isabranch,itoughttobeobserved,ofthegeneralrevenueofthestatewhichisthusdivertedtoapurposeverydifferentfromthedefenceofthestate。Thetithe,forexample,isarealland—tax,whichputsitoutofthepoweroftheproprietorsoflandtocontributesolargelytowardsthedefenceofthestateastheyotherwisemightbeabletodo。Therentofland,however,is,accordingtosome,thesolefund,and,accordingtoothers,theprincipalfund,fromwhich,inallgreatmonarchies,theexigenciesofthestatemustbeultimatelysupplied。Themoreofthisfundthatisgiventothechurch,theless,itisevident,canbesparedtothestate。Itmaybelaiddownasacertainmaximthat,allotherthingsbeingsupposedequal,thericherthechurch,thepoorermustnecessarilybe,eitherthesovereignontheonehand,orthepeopleontheother;and,inallcases,thelessablemustthestatebetodefenditself。InseveralProtestantcountries,particularlyinalltheProtestantcantonsofSwitzerland,therevenuewhichancientlybelongedtotheRomanCatholicChurch,thetithesandchurchlands,hasbeenfoundafundsufficient,notonlytoaffordcompetentsalariestotheestablishedclergy,buttodefray,withlittleornoaddition,alltheotherexpensesofthestate。ThemagistratesofthepowerfulcantonofBerne,inparticular,haveaccumulatedoutofthesavingsfromthisfundaverylargesum,supposedtoamounttoseveralmillions,partofwhichisdepositedinapublictreasure,andpartisplacedatinterestinwhatarecalledthepublicfundsofthedifferentindebtednationsofEurope;chieflyinthoseofFranceandGreatBritain。Whatmaybetheamountofthewholeexpensewhichthechurch,eitherofBerne,orofanyotherProtestantcanton,coststhestate,Idonotpretendtoknow。Byaveryexactaccountitappearsthat,in1755,thewholerevenueoftheclergyoftheChurchofScotland,includingtheirglebeorchurchlands,andtherentoftheirmansesordwelling—houses,estimatedaccordingtoareasonablevaluation,amountedonlytoL68,5141s。51/12d。Thisverymoderaterevenueaffordsadecentsubsistencetoninehundredandforty—fourministers。Thewholeexpenseofthechurch,includingwhatisoccasionallylaidoutforthebuildingandreparationofchurches,andofthemansesofministers,cannotwellbesupposedtoexceedeightyoreighty—fivethousandpoundsayear。ThemostopulentchurchinChristendomdoesnotmaintainbettertheuniformityoffaith,thefervourofdevotion,thespiritoforder,regularity,andausteremoralsinthegreatbodyofthepeople,thanthisverypoorlyendowedChurchofScotland。Allthegoodeffects,bothcivilandreligious,whichanestablishedchurchcanbesupposedtoproduce,areproducedbyitascompletelyasbyanyother。ThegreaterpartoftheProtestantchurchesofSwitzerland,whichingeneralarenotbetterendowedthantheChurchofScotland,producethoseeffectsinastillhigherdegree。InthegreaterpartoftheProtestantcantonsthereisnotasinglepersontobefoundwhodoesnotprofesshimselftobeoftheestablishedchurch。Ifheprofesseshimselftobeofanyother,indeed,thelawobligeshimtoleavethecanton。Butsosevere,orratherindeedsooppressivealaw,couldneverhavebeenexecutedinsuchfreecountrieshadnotthediligenceoftheclergybeforehandconvertedtotheestablishedchurchthewholebodyofthepeople,withtheexceptionof,perhaps,afewindividualsonly。InsomepartsofSwitzerland,accordingly,where,fromtheaccidentalunionofaProtestantandRomanCatholiccountry,theconversionhasnotbeensocomplete,bothreligionsarenotonlytoleratedbutestablishedbylaw。
Theproperperformanceofeveryserviceseemstorequirethatitspayorrecompenseshouldbe,asexactlyaspossible,proportionedtothenatureoftheservice。Ifanyserviceisverymuchunderpaid,itisveryapttosufferbythemeannessandincapacityofthegreaterpartofthosewhoareemployedinit。
Ifitisverymuchoverpaid,itisapttosuffer,perhaps,stillmorebytheirnegligenceandidleness。Amanofalargerevenue,whatevermaybehisprofession,thinksheoughttolivelikeothermenoflargerevenues,andtospendagreatpartofhistimeinfestivity,invanity,andindissipation。Butinaclergymanthistrainoflifenotonlyconsumesthetimewhichoughttobeemployedinthedutiesofhisfunction,butintheeyesofthecommonpeopledestroysalmostentirelythatsanctityofcharacterwhichcanaloneenablehimtoperformthosedutieswithproperweightandauthority。
PART4
OftheExpenseofSupportingtheDignityoftheSovereignOverandabovetheexpensesnecessaryforenablingthesovereigntoperformhisseveralduties,acertainexpenseisrequisiteforthesupportofhisdignity。Thisexpensevariesbothwiththedifferentperiodsofimprovement,andwiththedifferentformsofgovernment。
Inanopulentandimprovedsociety,whereallthedifferentordersofpeoplearegrowingeverydaymoreexpensiveintheirhouses,intheirfurniture,intheirtables,intheirdress,andintheirequipage,itcannotwellbeexpectedthatthesovereignshouldaloneholdoutagainstthefashion。Henaturally,therefore,orrathernecessarily,becomesmoreexpensiveinallthosedifferentarticlestoo。Hisdignityevenseemstorequirethatheshouldbecomeso。
Asinpointofdignityamonarchismoreraisedabovehissubjectsthanthechiefmagistrateofanyrepubliciseversupposedtobeabovehisfellow—citizens,soagreaterexpenseisnecessaryforsupportingthathigherdignity。Wenaturallyexpectmoresplendourinthecourtofakingthaninthemansion—houseofadogeorburgomaster。
CONCLUSION
Theexpenseofdefendingthesociety,andthatofsupportingthedignityofthechiefmagistrate,arebothlaidoutforthegeneralbenefitofthewholesociety。Itisreasonable,therefore,thattheyshouldbedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety,allthedifferentmemberscontributing,asnearlyaspossible,inproportiontotheirrespectiveabilities。
Theexpenseoftheadministrationofjustice,too,may,nodoubt,beconsideredaslaidoutforthebenefitofthewholesociety。Thereisnoimpropriety,therefore,initsbeingdefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety。Thepersons,however,whogaveoccasiontothisexpensearethosewho,bytheirinjusticeinonewayoranother,makeitnecessarytoseekredressorprotectionfromthecourtsofjustice。Thepersonsagainmostimmediatelybenefitedbythisexpensearethosewhomthecourtsofjusticeeitherrestoretotheirrightsormaintainintheirrights。Theexpenseoftheadministrationofjustice,therefore,mayveryproperlybedefrayedbytheparticularcontributionofoneorother,orboth,ofthosetwodifferentsetsofpersons,accordingasdifferentoccasionsmayrequire,thatis,bythefeesofcourt。Itcannotbenecessarytohaverecoursetothegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety,exceptfortheconvictionofthosecriminalswhohavenotthemselvesanyestateorfundsufficientforpayingthosefees。
Thoselocalorprovincialexpensesofwhichthebenefitislocalorprovincial(whatislaidout,forexample,uponthepoliceofaparticulartownordistrict)oughttobedefrayedbyalocalorprovincialrevenue,andoughttobenoburdenuponthegeneralrevenueofthesociety。Itisunjustthatthewholesocietyshouldcontributetowardsanexpenseofwhichthebenefitisconfinedtoapartofthesociety。
Theexpenseofmaintaininggoodroadsandcommunicationsis,nodoubt,beneficialtothewholesociety,andmay,therefore,withoutanyinjustice。bedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety。Thisexpense,however,ismostimmediatelyanddirectlybeneficialtothosewhotravelorcarrygoodsfromoneplacetoanother,andtothosewhoconsumesuchgoods。TheturnpiketollsinEngland,andthedutiescalledpeagesinothercountries,layitaltogetheruponthosetwodifferentsetsofpeople,andtherebydischargethegeneralrevenueofthesocietyfromaveryconsiderableburden。
Theexpenseoftheinstitutionsforeducationandreligiousinstructionislikewise,nodoubt,beneficialtothewholesociety,andmay,therefore,withoutinjustice,bedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety。Thisexpense,however,mightperhapswithequalpropriety,andevenwithsomeadvantage,bedefrayedaltogetherbythosewhoreceivetheimmediatebenefitofsucheducationandinstruction,orbythevoluntarycontributionofthosewhothinktheyhaveoccasionforeithertheoneortheother。
Whentheinstitutionsorpublicworkswhicharebeneficialtothewholesocietyeithercannotbemaintainedaltogether,orarenotmaintainedaltogetherbythecontributionofsuchparticularmembersofthesocietyasaremostimmediatelybenefitedbythem,thedeficiencymustinmostcasesbemadeupbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety。Thegeneralrevenueofthesociety,overandabovedefrayingtheexpenseofdefendingthesociety,andofsupportingthedignityofthechiefmagistrate,mustmakeupforthedeficiencyofmanyparticularbranchesofrevenue。ThesourcesofthisgeneralorpublicrevenueIshallendeavourtoexplaininthefollowingchapter。
CHAPTERIIOftheSourcesoftheGeneralorPublicRevenueoftheSocietyTHErevenuewhichmustdefray,notonlytheexpenseofdefendingthesocietyandofsupportingthedignityofthechiefmagistrate,butalltheothernecessaryexpensesofgovernmentforwhichtheconstitutionofthestatehasnotprovidedanyparticularrevenue,maybedrawneither,first,fromsomefundwhichpeculiarlybelongstothesovereignorcommonwealth,andwhichisindependentoftherevenueofthepeople;or,secondly,fromtherevenueofthepeople。
PART1
OftheFundsorSourcesofRevenuewhichmaypeculiarlybelongtotheSovereignorCommonwealthTHEfundsorsourcesofrevenuewhichmaypeculiarlybelongtothesovereignorcommonwealthmustconsisteitherinstockorinland。
Thesovereign,likeanyotherownerofstock,mayderivearevenuefromit,eitherbyemployingithimself,orbylendingit。Hisrevenueisintheonecaseprofit,intheotherinterest。
TherevenueofaTartarorArabianchiefconsistsinprofit。
Itarisesprincipallyfromthemilkandincreaseofhisownherdsandflocks,ofwhichhehimselfsuperintendsthemanagement,andistheprincipalshepherdorherdsmanofhisownhordeortribe。
Itis,however,inthisearliestandrudeststateofcivilgovernmentonlythatprofithasevermadetheprincipalpartofthepublicrevenueofamonarchialstate。
Smallrepublicshavesometimesderivedaconsiderablerevenuefromtheprofitofmercantileprojects。TherepublicofHamburgissaidtodosofromtheprofitsofapublicwinecellarandapothecary’sshop。Thestatecannotbeverygreatofwhichthesovereignhasleisuretocarryonthetradeofawinemerchantorapothecary。Theprofitofapublicbankhasbeenasourceofrevenuetomoreconsiderablestates。IthasbeensonotonlytoHamburg,buttoVeniceandAmsterdam。ArevenueofthiskindhasevenbysomepeoplebeenthoughtnotbelowtheattentionofsogreatanempireasthatofGreatBritain。ReckoningtheordinarydividendoftheBankofEnglandatfiveandahalfpercentanditscapitalattenmillionssevenhundredandeightythousandpounds,thenetannualprofit,afterpayingtheexpenseofmanagement,mustamount,itissaid,tofivehundredandninety—twothousandninehundredpounds。Government,itispretended,couldborrowthiscapitalatthreepercentinterest,andbytakingthemanagementofthebankintoitsownhands,mightmakeaclearprofitoftwohundredandsixty—ninethousandfivehundredpoundsayear。Theorderly,vigilant,andparsimoniousadministrationofsucharistocraciesasthoseofVeniceandAmsterdamisextremelyproper,itappearsfromexperience,forthemanagementofamercantileprojectofthiskind。ButwhethersuchagovernmentasthatofEngland—which,whatevermaybeitsvirtues,hasneverbeenfamousforgoodeconomy;which,intimeofpeace,hasgenerallyconducteditselfwiththeslothfulandnegligentprofusionthatisperhapsnaturaltomonarchies;andintimeofwarhasconstantlyactedwithallthethoughtlessextravagancethatdemocraciesareapttofallinto—couldbesafelytrustedwiththemanagementofsuchaproject,mustatleastbegooddealmoredoubtful。
Thepostofficeisproperlyamercantileproject。Thegovernmentadvancestheexpenseofestablishingthedifferentoffices,andofbuyingorhiringthenecessaryhorsesorcarriages,andisrepaidwithalargeprofitbythedutiesuponwhatiscarried。Itisperhapstheonlymercantileprojectwhichhasbeensuccessfullymanagedby,Ibelieve,everysortofgovernment。Thecapitaltobeadvancedisnotveryconsiderable。
Thereisnomysteryinthebusiness。Thereturnsarenotonlycertain,butimmediate。
Princes,however,havefrequentlyengagedinmanyothermercantileprojects,andhavebeenwilling,likeprivatepersons,tomendtheirfortunesbybecomingadventurersinthecommonbranchesoftrade。Theyhavescarceeversucceeded。Theprofusionwithwhichtheaffairsofprincesarealwaysmanagedrendersitalmostimpossiblethattheyshould。Theagentsofaprinceregardthewealthoftheirmasterasinexhaustible;arecarelessatwhatpricetheybuy;arecarelessatwhatpricetheysell;arecarelessatwhatexpensetheytransporthisgoodsfromoneplacetoanother。Thoseagentsfrequentlylivewiththeprofusionofprinces,andsometimestoo,inspiteofthatprofusion,andbyapropermethodofmakinguptheiraccounts,acquirethefortunesofprinces。Itwasthus,aswearetoldbyMachiavel,thattheagentsofLorenzoofMedicis,notaprinceofmeanabilities,carriedonhistrade。TherepublicofFlorencewasseveraltimesobligedtopaythedebtintowhichtheirextravagancehadinvolvedhim。Hefounditconvenient,accordingly,togiveupthebusinessofmerchant,thebusinesstowhichhisfamilyhadoriginallyowedtheirfortune,andinthelatterpartofhislifetoemploybothwhatremainedofthatfortune,andtherevenueofthestateofwhichhehadthedisposal,inprojectsandexpensesmoresuitabletohisstation。
Notwocharactersseemmoreinconsistentthanthoseoftraderandsovereign。IfthetradingspiritoftheEnglishEastIndiaCompanyrendersthemverybadsovereigns,thespiritofsovereigntyseemstohaverenderedthemequallybadtraders。
Whiletheyweretradersonlytheymanagedtheirtradesuccessfully,andwereabletopayfromtheirprofitsamoderatedividendtotheproprietorsoftheirstock。Sincetheybecamesovereigns,witharevenuewhich,itissaid,wasoriginallymorethanthreemillionssterling,theyhavebeenobligedtobegextraordinaryassistanceofgovernmentinordertoavoidimmediatebankruptcy。Intheirformersituation,theirservantsinIndiaconsideredthemselvesastheclerksofmerchants:intheirpresentsituation,thoseservantsconsiderthemselvesastheministersofsovereigns。
Astatemaysometimesderivesomepartofitspublicrevenuefromtheinterestofmoney,aswellasfromtheprofitsofstock。
Ifithasamassedatreasure,itmaylendapartofthattreasureeithertoforeignstates,ortoitsownsubjects。
ThecantonofBernederivesaconsiderablerevenuebylendingapartofitstreasuretoforeignstates;thatis,byplacingitinthepublicfundsofthedifferentindebtednationsofEurope,chieflyinthoseofFranceandEngland。Thesecurityofthisrevenuemustdepend,first,uponthesecurityofthefundsinwhichitisplaced,oruponthegoodfaithofthegovernmentwhichhasthemanagementofthem;and,secondly,uponthecertaintyorprobabilityofthecontinuanceofpeacewiththedebtornation。Inthecaseofawar,theveryfirstactofhostility,onthepartofthedebtornation,mightbetheforfeitureofthefundsofitscreditor。Thispolicyoflendingmoneytoforeignstatesis,sofarasIknow,peculiartothecantonofBerne。
ThecityofHamburghasestablishedasortofpublicpawnshop,whichlendsmoneytothesubjectsofthestateuponpledgesatsixpercentinterest。ThispawnshoporLombard,asitiscalled,affordsarevenue,itispretended,tothestateofahundredandfiftythousandcrowns,which,atfourandsixpencethecrown,amountstoL33,750sterling。
ThegovernmentofPennsylvania,withoutamassinganytreasure,inventedamethodoflending,notmoneyindeed,butwhatisequivalenttomoney,toitssubjects。Byadvancingtoprivatepeopleatinterest,anduponlandsecuritytodoublethevalue,paperbillsofcredittoberedeemedfifteenyearsaftertheirdate,andinthemeantimemadetransferablefromhandtohandlikebanknotes,anddeclaredbyactofassemblytobealegaltenderinallpaymentsfromoneinhabitantoftheprovincetoanother,itraisedamoderaterevenue,whichwentaconsiderablewaytowardsdefrayinganannualexpenseofaboutL4500,thewholeordinaryexpenseofthatfrugalandorderlygovernment。Thesuccessofanexpedientofthiskindmusthavedependeduponthreedifferentcircumstances;first,uponthedemandforsomeotherinstrumentofcommercebesidesgoldandsilvermoney;oruponthedemandforsuchaquantityofconsumablestockascouldnotbehadwithoutsendingabroadthegreaterpartoftheirgoldandsilvermoneyinordertopurchaseit;secondly,uponthegoodcreditofthegovernmentwhichmadeuseofthisexpedient;and,thirdly,uponthemoderationwithwhichitwasused,thewholevalueofthepaperbillsofcreditneverexceedingthatofthegoldandsilvermoneywhichwouldhavebeennecessaryforcarryingontheircirculationhadtherebeennopaperbillsofcredit。ThesameexpedientwasupondifferentoccasionsadoptedbyseveralotherAmericancolonies:
but,fromwantofthismoderation,itproduced,inthegreaterpartofthem,muchmoredisorderthanconveniency。
Theunstableandperishablenatureofstockandcredit,however,renderthemunfittobetrustedtoastheprincipalfundsofthatsure,steady,andpermanentrevenuewhichcanalonegivesecurityanddignitytogovernment。Thegovernmentofnogreatnationthatwasadvancedbeyondtheshepherdstateseemsevertohavederivedthegreaterpartofitspublicrevenuefromsuchsources。
Landisafundofamorestableandpermanentnature;andtherentofpubliclands,accordingly,hasbeentheprincipalsourceofthepublicrevenueofmanyagreatnationthatwasmuchadvancedbeyondtheshepherdstate。Fromtheproduceorrentofthepubliclands,theancientrepublicsofGreeceandItalyderived,foralongtime,thegreaterpartofthatrevenuewhichdefrayedthenecessaryexpensesofthecommonwealth。TherentofthecrownlandsconstitutedforalongtimethegreaterpartoftherevenueoftheancientsovereignsofEurope。
Warandthepreparationforwararethetwocircumstanceswhichinmoderntimesoccasionthegreaterpartofthenecessaryexpenseofallgreatstates。ButintheancientrepublicsofGreeceandItalyeverycitizenwasasoldier,whobothservedandpreparedhimselfforserviceathisownexpense。Neitherofthosetwocircumstances,therefore,couldoccasionanyveryconsiderableexpensetothestate。Therentofaverymoderatelandedestatemightbefullysufficientfordefrayingalltheothernecessaryexpensesofgovernment。
IntheancientmonarchiesofEurope,themannersandcustomsofthetimessufficientlyPreparedthegreatbodyofthepeopleforwar;andwhentheytookthefield,theywere,bytheconditionoftheirfeudaltenures,tobemaintainedeitherattheirownexpense,oratthatoftheirimmediatelords,withoutbringinganynewchargeuponthesovereign。Theotherexpensesofgovernmentwere,thegreaterpartofthem,verymoderate。Theadministrationofjustice,ithasbeenshown,insteadofbeingacauseofexpense,wasasourceofrevenue。Thelabourofthecountrypeople,forthreedaysbeforeandforthreedaysafterharvest,wasthoughtafundsufficientformakingandmaintainingallthebridges,highways,andotherpublicworkswhichthecommerceofthecountrywassupposedtorequire。Inthosedaystheprincipalexpenseofthesovereignseemstohaveconsistedinthemaintenanceofhisownfamilyandhousehold。Theofficersofhishousehold,accordingly,werethenthegreatofficersofstate。