Themasterswhoinstructedtheyoungpeople,eitherinmusicorinmilitaryexercises,donotseemtohavebeenpaid,orevenappointedbythestate,eitherinRomeoreveninAthens,theGreekrepublicofwhoselawsandcustomswearethebestinformed。Thestaterequiredthateveryfreecitizenshouldfithimselffordefendingitinwar,andshould,uponthataccount,learnhismilitaryexercises。Butitlefthimtolearnthemofsuchmastersashecouldfind,anditseemstohaveadvancednothingforthispurposebutapublicfieldorplaceofexerciseinwhichheshouldpractiseandperformthem。
IntheearlyagesbothoftheGreekandRomanrepublics,theotherpartsofeducationseemtohaveconsistedinlearningtoread,write,andaccountaccordingtothearithmeticofthetimes。Theseaccomplishmentstherichercitizensseemfrequentlytohaveacquiredathomebytheassistanceofsomedomesticpedagogue,whowasgenerallyeitheraslaveorafreed—man;andthepoorercitizens,intheschoolsofsuchmastersasmadeatradeofteachingforhire。Suchpartsofeducation,however,wereabandonedaltogethertothecareoftheparentsorguardiansofeachindividual。Itdoesnotappearthatthestateeverassumedanyinspectionordirectionofthem。ByalawofSolon,indeed,thechildrenwereacquittedfrommaintainingthoseparentsintheiroldagewhohadneglectedtoinstructtheminsomeprofitabletradeorbusiness。
Intheprogressofrefinement,whenphilosophyandrhetoriccameintofashion,thebettersortofpeopleusedtosendtheirchildrentotheschoolsofphilosophersandrhetoricians,inordertobeinstructedinthesefashionablesciences。Butthoseschoolswerenotsupportedbythepublic。Theywereforalongtimebarelytoleratedbyit。Thedemandforphilosophyandrhetoricwasforalongtimesosmallthatthefirstprofessedteachersofeithercouldnotfindconstantemploymentinanyonecity,butwereobligedtotravelaboutfromplacetoplace。InthismannerlivedZenoofElea,Protagoras,Gorgias,Hippias,andmanyothers。Asthedemandincreased,theschoolsbothofphilosophyandrhetoricbecamestationary;firstinAthens,andafterwardsinseveralothercities。Thestate,however,seemsnevertohaveencouragedthemfurtherthanbyassigningsomeofthemaparticularplacetoteachin,whichwassometimesdone,too,byprivatedonors。ThestateseemstohaveassignedtheAcademytoPlato,theLyceumtoAristotle,andthePorticotoZenoofCitta,thefounderoftheStoics。ButEpicurusbequeathedhisgardenstohisownschool。TillaboutthetimeofMarcusAntonius,however,noteacherappearstohavehadanysalaryfromthepublic,ortohavehadanyotheremolumentsbutwhatarosefromthehonorariesorfeesofhisscholars。Thebountywhichthatphilosophicalemperor,aswelearnfromLucian,bestowedupononeoftheteachersofphilosophy,probablylastednolongerthanhisownlife。Therewasnothingequivalenttotheprivilegesofgraduation,andtohaveattendedanyofthoseschoolswasnotnecessary,inordertobepermittedtopractiseanyparticulartradeorprofession。Iftheopinionoftheirownutilitycouldnotdrawscholarstothem,thelawneitherforcedanybodytogotothemnorrewardedanybodyforhavinggonetothem。Theteachershadnojurisdictionovertheirpupils,noranyotherauthoritybesidesthatnaturalauthority,whichsuperiorvirtueandabilitiesneverfailtoprocurefromyoungpeopletowardsthosewhoareentrustedwithanypartoftheireducation。
AtRome,thestudyofthecivillawmadeapartoftheeducation,notofthegreaterpartofthecitizens,butofsomeparticularfamilies。Theyoungpeople,however,whowishedtoacquireknowledgeinthelaw,hadnopublicschooltogoto,andhadnoothermethodofstudyingitthanbyfrequentingthecompanyofsuchoftheirrelationsandfriendsasweresupposedtounderstandit。Itisperhapsworthwhiletoremark,thatthoughtheLawsoftheTwelveTableswere,manyofthem,copiedfromthoseofsomeancientGreekrepublics,yetlawneverseemstohavegrownuptobeascienceinanyrepublicofancientGreece。InRomeitbecameascienceveryearly,andgaveaconsiderabledegreeofillustrationtothosecitizenswhohadthereputationofunderstandingit。IntherepublicsofancientGreece,particularlyinAthens,theordinarycourtsofjusticeconsistedofnumerous,andthereforedisorderly,bodiesofpeople,whofrequentlydecidedalmostatrandom,orasclamour,faction,andpartyspirithappenedtodetermine。Theignominyofanunjustdecision,whenitwastobedividedamongfivehundred,athousand,orfifteenhundredpeople(forsomeoftheircourtsweresoverynumerous),couldnotfallveryheavyuponanyindividual。AtRome,onthecontrary,theprincipalcourtsofjusticeconsistedeitherofasinglejudgeorofasmallnumberofjudges,whosecharacters,especiallyastheydeliberatedalwaysinpublic,couldnotfailtobeverymuchaffectedbyanyrashorunjustdecision。Indoubtfulcasessuchcourts,fromtheiranxietytoavoidblame,wouldnaturallyendeavourtoshelterthemselvesundertheexampleorprecedentofthejudgeswhohadsatbeforethem,eitherinthesameorinsomeothercourt。ThisattentiontopracticeandprecedentnecessarilyformedtheRomanlawintothatregularandorderlysysteminwhichithasbeendelivereddowntous;andthelikeattentionhashadthelikeeffectsuponthelawsofeveryothercountrywheresuchattentionhastakenplace。ThesuperiorityofcharacterintheRomansoverthatoftheGreeks,somuchremarkedbyPolybiusandDionysiusofHalicarnassus,wasprobablymoreowingtothebetterconstitutionoftheircourtsofjusticethantoanyofthecircumstancestowhichthoseauthorsascribeit。
TheRomansaresaidtohavebeenparticularlydistinguishedfortheirsuperiorrespecttoanoath。Butthepeoplewhowereaccustomedtomakeoathonlybeforesomediligentandwell—informedcourtofjusticewouldnaturallybemuchmoreattentivetowhattheysworethantheywhowereaccustomedtodothesamethingbeforemobbishanddisorderlyassemblies。
Theabilities,bothcivilandmilitary,oftheGreeksandRomanswillreadilybeallowedtohavebeenatleastequaltothoseofanymodernnation。Ourprejudiceisperhapsrathertooverratethem。Butexceptinwhatrelatedtomilitaryexercises,thestateseemstohavebeenatnopainstoformthosegreatabilities,forIcannotbeinducedtobelievethatthemusicaleducationoftheGreekscouldbeofmuchconsequenceinformingthem。Masters,however,hadbeenfound,itseems,forinstructingthebettersortofpeopleamongthosenationsineveryartandscienceinwhichthecircumstancesoftheirsocietyrendereditnecessaryorconvenientforthemtobeinstructed。Thedemandforsuchinstructionproducedwhatitalwaysproduces—thetalentforgivingit;andtheemulationwhichanunrestrainedcompetitionneverfailstoexcite,appearstohavebroughtthattalenttoaveryhighdegreeofperfection。Intheattentionwhichtheancientphilosophersexcited,intheempirewhichtheyacquiredovertheopinionsandprinciplesoftheirauditors,inthefacultywhichtheypossessedofgivingacertaintoneandcharactertotheconductandconversationofthoseauditors,theyappeartohavebeenmuchsuperiortoanymodernteachers。Inmoderntimes,thediligenceofpublicteachersismoreorlesscorruptedbythecircumstanceswhichrenderthemmoreorlessindependentoftheirsuccessandreputationintheirparticularprofessions。Theirsalaries,too,puttheprivateteacher,whowouldpretendtocomeintocompetitionwiththem,inthesamestatewithamerchantwhoattemptstotradewithoutabountyincompetitionwiththosewhotradewithaconsiderableone。Ifhesellshisgoodsatnearlythesameprice,hecannothavethesameprofit,andatleast,ifnotbankruptcyandruin,willinfalliblybehislot。Ifheattemptstosellthemmuchdearer,heislikelytohavesofewcustomersthathiscircumstanceswillnotbemuchmended。Theprivilegesofgraduation,besides,areinmanycountriesnecessary,oratleastextremelyconvenient,tomostmenoflearnedprofessions,thatis,tothefargreaterpartofthosewhohaveoccasionforalearnededucation。Butthoseprivilegescanbeobtainedonlybyattendingthelecturesofthepublicteachers。Themostcarefulattendanceupontheablestinstructionsofanyprivateteachercannotalwaysgiveanytitletodemandthem。Itisfromthesedifferentcausesthattheprivateteacherofanyofthescienceswhicharecommonlytaughtinuniversitiesisinmoderntimesgenerallyconsideredasintheverylowestorderofmenofletters。Amanofrealabilitiescanscarcefindoutamorehumiliatingoramoreunprofitableemploymenttoturnthemto。Theendowmentofschoolsandcollegeshave,inthismanner,notonlycorruptedthediligenceofpublicteachers,buthaverendereditalmostimpossibletohaveanygoodprivateones。
Weretherenopublicinstitutionsforeducation,nosystem,nosciencewouldbetaughtforwhichtherewasnotsomedemand,orwhichthecircumstancesofthetimesdidnotrenderiteithernecessary,orconvenient,oratleastfashionable,tolearn。A
privateteachercouldneverfindhisaccountinteachingeitheranexplodedandantiquatedsystemofascienceacknowledgedtobeuseful,orascienceuniversallybelievedtobeamereuselessandpedanticheapofsophistryandnonsense。Suchsystems,suchsciences,cansubsistnowhere,butinthoseincorporatedsocietiesforeducationwhoseprosperityandrevenueareinagreatmeasureindependentoftheirreputationandaltogetherindependentoftheirindustry。Weretherenopublicinstitutionsforeducation,agentleman,aftergoingthroughwithapplicationandabilitiesthemostcompletecourseofeducationwhichthecircumstancesofthetimesweresupposedtoafford,couldnotcomeintotheworldcompletelyignorantofeverythingwhichisthecommonsubjectofconversationamonggentlemenandmenoftheworld。
Therearenopublicinstitutionsfortheeducationofwomen,andthereisaccordinglynothinguseless,absurd,orfantasticalinthecommoncourseoftheireducation。Theyaretaughtwhattheirparentsorguardiansjudgeitnecessaryorusefulforthemtolearn,andtheyaretaughtnothingelse。Everypartoftheireducationtendsevidentlytosomeusefulpurpose;eithertoimprovethenaturalattractionsoftheirperson,ortoformtheirmindtoreserve,tomodesty,tochastity,andtoeconomy;torenderthembothlikelytobecomethemistressesofafamily,andtobehaveproperlywhentheyhavebecomesuch。Ineverypartofherlifeawomanfeelssomeconveniencyoradvantagefromeverypartofhereducation。Itseldomhappensthataman,inanypartofhislife,derivesanyconveniencyoradvantagefromsomeofthemostlaboriousandtroublesomepartsofhiseducation。
Oughtthepublic,therefore,togivenoattention,itmaybeasked,totheeducationofthepeople?Orifitoughttogiveany,whatarethedifferentpartsofeducationwhichitoughttoattendtointhedifferentordersofthepeople?andinwhatmanneroughtittoattendtothem?
Insomecasesthestateofthesocietynecessarilyplacesthegreaterpartofindividualsinsuchsituationsasnaturallyforminthem,withoutanyattentionofgovernment,almostalltheabilitiesandvirtueswhichthatstaterequires,orperhapscanadmitof。Inothercasesthestateofthesocietydoesnotplacethepartofindividualsinsuchsituations,andsomeattentionofgovernmentisnecessaryinordertopreventthealmostentirecorruptionanddegeneracyofthegreatbodyofthepeople。
Intheprogressofthedivisionoflabour,theemploymentofthefargreaterpartofthosewholivebylabour,thatis,ofthegreatbodyofthepeople,comestobeconfinedtoafewverysimpleoperations,frequentlytooneortwo。Buttheunderstandingsofthegreaterpartofmenarenecessarilyformedbytheirordinaryemployments。Themanwhosewholelifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations,ofwhichtheeffectsareperhapsalwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame,hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstandingortoexercisehisinventioninfindingoutexpedientsforremovingdifficultieswhichneveroccur。Henaturallyloses,therefore,thehabitofsuchexertion,andgenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome。Thetorporofhismindrendershimnotonlyincapableofrelishingorbearingapartinanyrationalconversation,butofconceivinganygenerous,noble,ortendersentiment,andconsequentlyofforminganyjustjudgmentconcerningmanyevenoftheordinarydutiesofprivatelife。Ofthegreatandextensiveinterestsofhiscountryheisaltogetherincapableofjudging,andunlessveryparticularpainshavebeentakentorenderhimotherwise,heisequallyincapableofdefendinghiscountryinwar。Theuniformityofhisstationarylifenaturallycorruptsthecourageofhismind,andmakeshimregardwithabhorrencetheirregular,uncertain,andadventurouslifeofasoldier。Itcorruptseventheactivityofhisbody,andrendershimincapableofexertinghisstrengthwithvigourandperseveranceinanyotheremploymentthanthattowhichhehasbeenbred。Hisdexterityathisownparticulartradeseems,inthismanner,tobeacquiredattheexpenseofhisintellectual,social,andmartialvirtues。Butineveryimprovedandcivilisedsocietythisisthestateintowhichthelabouringpoor,thatis,thegreatbodyofthepeople,mustnecessarilyfall,unlessgovernmenttakessomepainstopreventit。
Itisotherwiseinthebarbaroussocieties,astheyarecommonlycalled,ofhunters,ofshepherds,andevenofhusbandmeninthatrudestateofhusbandrywhichprecedestheimprovementofmanufacturesandtheextensionofforeigncommerce。Insuchsocietiesthevariedoccupationsofeverymanobligeeverymantoexerthiscapacityandtoinventexpedientsforremovingdifficultieswhicharecontinuallyoccurring。Inventioniskeptalive,andthemindisnotsufferedtofallintothatdrowsystupiditywhich,inacivilisedsociety,seemstobenumbtheunderstandingofalmostalltheinferiorranksofpeople。Inthosebarbaroussocieties,astheyarecalled,everyman,ithasalreadybeenobserved,isawarrior。Everyman,too,isinsomemeasureastatesman,andcanformatolerablejudgmentconcerningtheinterestofthesocietyandtheconductofthosewhogovernit。Howfartheirchiefsaregoodjudgesinpeace,orgoodleadersinwar,isobvioustotheobservationofalmosteverysinglemanamongthem。Insuchasociety,indeed,nomancanwellacquirethatimprovedandrefinedunderstandingwhichafewmensometimespossessinamorecivilisedstate。Thoughinarudesocietythereisagooddealofvarietyintheoccupationsofeveryindividual,thereisnotagreatdealinthoseofthewholesociety。Everymandoes,oriscapableofdoing,almosteverythingwhichanyothermandoes,oriscapableofdoing。Everymanhasaconsiderabledegreeofknowledge,ingenuity,andinvention:
butscarceanymanhasagreatdegree。Thedegree,however,whichiscommonlypossessed,isgenerallysufficientforconductingthewholesimplebusinessofthesociety。Inacivilisedstate,onthecontrary,thoughthereislittlevarietyintheoccupationsofthegreaterpartofindividuals,thereisanalmostinfinitevarietyinthoseofthewholesociety。Thesevariedoccupationspresentanalmostinfinitevarietyofobjectstothecontemplationofthosefew,who,beingattachedtonoparticularoccupationthemselves,haveleisureandinclinationtoexaminetheoccupationsofotherpeople。Thecontemplationofsogreatavarietyofobjectsnecessarilyexercisestheirmindsinendlesscomparisonsandcombinations,andrenderstheirunderstandings,inanextraordinarydegree,bothacuteandcomprehensive。Unlessthosefew,however,happentobeplacedinsomeveryparticularsituations,theirgreatabilities,thoughhonourabletothemselves,maycontributeverylittletothegoodgovernmentorhappinessoftheirsociety。Notwithstandingthegreatabilitiesofthosefew,allthenoblerpartsofthehumancharactermaybe,inagreatmeasure,obliteratedandextinguishedinthegreatbodyofthepeople。
Theeducationofthecommonpeoplerequires,perhaps,inacivilisedandcommercialsocietytheattentionofthepublicmorethanthatofpeopleofsomerankandfortune。Peopleofsomerankandfortunearegenerallyeighteenornineteenyearsofagebeforetheyenteruponthatparticularbusiness,profession,ortrade,bywhichtheyproposetodistinguishthemselvesintheworld。Theyhavebeforethatfulltimetoacquire,oratleasttofitthemselvesforafterwardsacquiring,everyaccomplishmentwhichcanrecommendthemtothepublicesteem,orrenderthemworthyofit。Theirparentsorguardiansaregenerallysufficientlyanxiousthattheyshouldbesoaccomplished,andare,inmostcases,willingenoughtolayouttheexpensewhichisnecessaryforthatpurpose。Iftheyarenotalwaysproperlyeducated,itisseldomfromthewantofexpenselaidoutupontheireducation,butfromtheimproperapplicationofthatexpense。Itisseldomfromthewantofmasters,butfromthenegligenceandincapacityofthemasterswhoaretobehad,andfromthedifficulty,orratherfromtheimpossibility,whichthereisinthepresentstateofthingsoffindinganybetter。
Theemployments,too,inwhichpeopleofsomerankorfortunespendthegreaterpartoftheirlivesarenot,likethoseofthecommonpeople,simpleanduniform。Theyarealmostallofthemextremelycomplicated,andsuchasexercisetheheadmorethanthehands。Theunderstandingsofthosewhoareengagedinsuchemploymentscanseldomgrowtorpidforwantofexercise。Theemploymentsofpeopleofsomerankandfortune,besides,areseldomsuchasharassthemfrommorningtonight。Theygenerallyhaveagooddealofleisure,duringwhichtheymayperfectthemselvesineverybrancheitherofusefulorornamentalknowledgeofwhichtheymayhavelaidthefoundation,orforwhichtheymayhaveacquiredsometasteintheearlierpartoflife。
Itisotherwisewiththecommonpeople。Theyhavelittletimetospareforeducation。Theirparentscanscarceaffordtomaintainthemevenininfancy。Assoonastheyareabletoworktheymustapplytosometradebywhichtheycanearntheirsubsistence。Thattrade,too,isgenerallysosimpleanduniformastogivelittleexercisetotheunderstanding,while,atthesametime,theirlabourisbothsoconstantandsosevere,thatitleavesthemlittleleisureandlessinclinationtoapplyto,oreventothinkof,anythingelse。
Butthoughthecommonpeoplecannot,inanycivilisedsociety,besowellinstructedaspeopleofsomerankandfortune,themostessentialpartsofeducation,however,toread,write,andaccount,canbeacquiredatsoearlyaperiodoflifethatthegreaterpartevenofthosewhoaretobebredtothelowestoccupationshavetimetoacquirethembeforetheycanbeemployedinthoseoccupations。Foraverysmallexpensethepubliccanfacilitate,canencourage,andcanevenimposeuponalmostthewholebodyofthepeoplethenecessityofacquiringthosemostessentialpartsofeducation。
Thepubliccanfacilitatethisacquisitionbyestablishingineveryparishordistrictalittleschool,wherechildrenmaybetaughtforarewardsomoderatethatevenacommonlabourermayaffordit;themasterbeingpartly,butnotwholly,paidbythepublic,because,ifhewaswholly,orevenprincipally,paidbyit,hewouldsoonlearntoneglecthisbusiness。InScotlandtheestablishmentofsuchparishschoolshastaughtalmostthewholecommonpeopletoread,andaverygreatproportionofthemtowriteandaccount。InEnglandtheestablishmentofcharityschoolshashadaneffectofthesamekind,thoughnotsouniversally,becausetheestablishmentisnotsouniversal。Ifinthoselittleschoolsthebooks,bywhichthechildrenaretaughttoread,werealittlemoreinstructivethantheycommonlyare,andif,insteadofalittlesmatteringofLatin,whichthechildrenofthecommonpeoplearesometimestaughtthere,andwhichcanscarceeverbeofanyusetothem,theywereinstructedintheelementarypartsofgeometryandmechanics,theliteraryeducationofthisrankofpeoplewouldperhapsbeascompleteasitcanbe。Thereisscarceacommontradewhichdoesnotaffordsomeopportunitiesofapplyingtoittheprinciplesofgeometryandmechanics,andwhichwouldnotthereforegraduallyexerciseandimprovethecommonpeopleinthoseprinciples,thenecessaryintroductiontothemostsublimeaswellastothemostusefulsciences。
Thepubliccanencouragetheacquisitionofthosemostessentialpartsofeducationbygivingsmallpremiums,andlittlebadgesofdistinction,tothechildrenofthecommonpeoplewhoexcelinthem。
Thepubliccanimposeuponalmostthewholebodyofthepeoplethenecessityofacquiringthosemostessentialpartsofeducation,byobligingeverymantoundergoanexaminationorprobationinthembeforehecanobtainthefreedominanycorporation,orbeallowedtosetupanytradeeitherinavillageortowncorporate。
Itwasinthismanner,byfacilitatingtheacquisitionoftheirmilitaryandgymnasticexercises,byencouragingit,andevenbyimposinguponthewholebodyofthepeoplethenecessityoflearningthoseexercises,thattheGreekandRomanrepublicsmaintainedthemartialspiritoftheirrespectivecitizens。Theyfacilitatedtheacquisitionofthoseexercisesbyappointingacertainplaceforlearningandpractisingthem,andbygrantingtocertainmasterstheprivilegeofteachinginthatplace。Thosemastersdonotappeartohavehadeithersalariesorexclusiveprivilegesofanykind。Theirrewardconsistedaltogetherinwhattheygotfromtheirscholars;andacitizenwhohadlearnthisexercisesinthepublicgymnasiahadnosortoflegaladvantageoveronewhohadlearntthemprivately,providedthelatterhadlearntthemequallywell。Thoserepublicsencouragedtheacquisitionofthoseexercisesbybestowinglittlepremiumsandbadgesofdistinctionupon:thosewhoexcelledinthem。TohavegainedaprizeintheOlympic,Isthmian,orNemaeangames,gaveillustration,notonlytothepersonwhogainedit,buttohiswholefamilyandkindred。Theobligationwhicheverycitizenwasundertoserveacertainnumberofyears,ifcalledupon,inthearmiesoftherepublic,sufficientlyimposedthenecessityoflearningthoseexercises,withoutwhichhecouldnotbefitforthatservice。
Thatintheprogressofimprovementthepracticeofmilitaryexercises,unlessgovernmenttakesproperpainstosupportit,goesgraduallytodecay,and,togetherwithit,themartialspiritofthegreatbodyofthepeople,theexampleofmodernEuropesufficientlydemonstrates。Butthesecurityofeverysocietymustalwaysdepend,moreorless,uponthemartialspiritofthegreatbodyofthepeople。Inthepresenttimes,indeed,thatmartialspiritalone,andunsupportedbyawell—disciplinedstandingarmy,wouldnotperhapsbesufficientforthedefenceandsecurityofanysociety。Butwhereeverycitizenhadthespiritofasoldier,asmallerstandingarmywouldsurelyberequisite。Thatspirit,besides,wouldnecessarilydiminishverymuchthedangerstoliberty,whetherrealorimaginary,whicharecommonlyapprehendedfromastandingarmy。Asitwouldverymuchfacilitatetheoperationsofthatarmyagainstaforeigninvader,soitwouldobstructthemasmuchif,unfortunately,theyshouldeverbedirectedagainsttheconstitutionofthestate。
TheancientinstitutionsofGreeceandRomeseemtohavebeenmuchmoreeffectualformaintainingthemartialspiritofthegreatbodyofthepeoplethantheestablishmentofwhatarecalledthemilitiasofmoderntimes。Theyweremuchmoresimple。
Whentheywereonceestablishedtheyexecutedthemselves,anditrequiredlittleornoattentionfromgovernmenttomaintaintheminthemostperfectvigour。Whereastomaintain,evenintolerableexecution,thecomplexregulationsofanymodernmilitia,requiresthecontinualandpainfulattentionofgovernment,withoutwhichtheyareconstantlyfallingintototalneglectanddisuse。Theinfluence,besides,oftheancientinstitutionswasmuchmoreuniversal。Bymeansofthemthewholebodyofthepeoplewascompletelyinstructedintheuseofarms。
Whereasitisbutaverysmallpartofthemwhocaneverbesoinstructedbytheregulationsofanymodernmilitia,except,perhaps,thatofSwitzerland。Butacoward,amanincapableeitherofdefendingorofrevenginghimself,evidentlywantsoneofthemostessentialpartsofthecharacterofaman。Heisasmuchmutilatedanddeformedinhismindasanotherisinhisbody,whoiseitherdeprivedofsomeofitsmostessentialmembers,orhaslosttheuseofthem。Heisevidentlythemorewretchedandmiserableofthetwo;becausehappinessandmisery,whichresidealtogetherinthemind,mustnecessarilydependmoreuponthehealthfulorunhealthful,themutilatedorentirestateofthemind,thanuponthatofthebody。Eventhoughthemartialspiritofthepeoplewereofnousetowardsthedefenceofthesociety,yettopreventthatsortofmentalmutilation,deformity,andwretchedness,whichcowardicenecessarilyinvolvesinit,fromspreadingthemselvesthroughthegreatbodyofthepeople,wouldstilldeservethemostseriousattentionofgovernment,inthesamemannerasitwoulddeserveitsmostseriousattentiontopreventaleprosyoranyotherloathsomeandoffensivedisease,thoughneithermortalnordangerous,fromspreadingitselfamongthem,thoughperhapsnootherpublicgoodmightresultfromsuchattentionbesidesthepreventionofsogreatapublicevil。
Thesamethingmaybesaidofthegrossignoranceandstupiditywhich,inacivilisedsociety,seemsofrequentlytobenumbtheunderstandingsofalltheinferiorranksofpeople。A
manwithouttheproperuseoftheintellectualfacultiesofaman,is,ifpossible,morecontemptiblethanevenacoward,andseemstobemutilatedanddeformedinastillmoreessentialpartofthecharacterofhumannature。Thoughthestatewastoderivenoadvantagefromtheinstructionoftheinferiorranksofpeople,itwouldstilldeserveitsattentionthattheyshouldnotbealtogetheruninstructed。Thestate,however,derivesnoinconsiderableadvantagefromtheirinstruction。Themoretheyareinstructedthelessliabletheyaretothedelusionsofenthusiasmandsuperstition,which,amongignorantnations,frequentlyoccasionthemostdreadfuldisorders。Aninstructedandintelligentpeople,besides,arealwaysmoredecentandorderlythananignorantandstupidone。Theyfeelthemselves,eachindividually,morerespectableandmorelikelytoobtaintherespectoftheirlawfulsuperiors,andtheyarethereforemoredisposedtorespectthosesuperiors。Theyaremoredisposedtoexamine,andmorecapableofseeingthrough,theinterestedcomplaintsoffactionandsedition,andtheyare,uponthataccount,lessapttobemisledintoanywantonorunnecessaryoppositiontothemeasuresofgovernment。Infreecountries,wherethesafetyofgovernmentdependsverymuchuponthefavourablejudgmentwhichthepeoplemayformofitsconduct,itmustsurelybeofthehighestimportancethattheyshouldnotbedisposedtojudgerashlyorcapriciouslyconcerningit。
ARTICLEIIIOftheExpenseoftheInstitutionsfortheInstructionofPeopleofallAgesTheinstitutionsfortheinstructionofpeopleofallagesarechieflythoseforreligiousinstruction。Thisisaspeciesofinstructionofwhichtheobjectisnotsomuchtorenderthepeoplegoodcitizensinthisworld,astopreparethemforanotherandabetterworldinalifetocome。Theteachersofthedoctrinewhichcontainsthisinstruction,inthesamemannerasotherteachers,mayeitherdependaltogetherfortheirsubsistenceuponthevoluntarycontributionsoftheirhearers,ortheymayderiveitfromsomeotherfundtowhichthelawoftheircountrymayentitlethem;suchasalandedestate,atitheorlandtax,anestablishedsalaryorstipend。Theirexertion,theirzealandindustry,arelikelytobemuchgreaterintheformersituationthaninthelatter。Inthisrespecttheteachersofnewreligionshavealwayshadaconsiderableadvantageinattackingthoseancientandestablishedsystemsofwhichtheclergy,reposingthemselvesupontheirbenefices,hadneglectedtokeepupthefervouroffaithanddevotioninthegreatbodyofthepeople,andhavinggiventhemselvesuptoindolence,werebecomealtogetherincapableofmakinganyvigorousexertionindefenceevenoftheirownestablishment。Theclergyofanestablishedandwell—endowedreligionfrequentlybecomemenoflearningandelegance,whopossessallthevirtuesofgentlemen,orwhichcanrecommendthemtotheesteemofgentlemen:buttheyareaptgraduallytolosethequalities,bothgoodandbad,whichgavethemauthorityandinfluencewiththeinferiorranksofpeople,andwhichhadperhapsbeentheoriginalcausesofthesuccessandestablishmentoftheirreligion。Suchaclergy,whenattackedbyasetofpopularandbold,thoughperhapsstupidandignorantenthusiasts,feelthemselvesasperfectlydefencelessastheindolent,effeminate,andfull—fednationsofthesouthernpartsofAsiawhentheywereinvadedbytheactive,hardy,andhungryTartarsoftheNorth。Suchaclergy,uponsuchanemergency,havecommonlynootherresourcethantocalluponthecivilmagistratetopersecute,destroyordriveouttheiradversaries,asdisturbersofthepublicpeace。ItwasthusthattheRomanCatholicclergycalleduponthecivilmagistratestopersecutetheProtestants,andtheChurchofEnglandtopersecutetheDissenters;andthatingeneraleveryreligioussect,whenithasonceenjoyedforacenturyortwothesecurityofalegalestablishment,hasfounditselfincapableofmakinganyvigorousdefenceagainstanynewsectwhichchosetoattackitsdoctrineordiscipline。Uponsuchoccasionstheadvantageinpointoflearningandgoodwritingmaysometimesbeonthesideoftheestablishedchurch。Buttheartsofpopularity,alltheartsofgainingproselytes,areconstantlyonthesideofitsadversaries。InEnglandthoseartshavebeenlongneglectedbythewell—endowedclergyoftheestablishedchurch,andareatpresentchieflycultivatedbytheDissentersandbytheMethodists。Theindependentprovisions,however,whichinmanyplaceshavebeenmadefordissentingteachersbymeansofvoluntarysubscriptions,oftrustrights,andotherevasionsofthelaw,seemverymuchtohaveabatedthezealandactivityofthoseteachers。Theyhavemanyofthembecomeverylearned,ingenious,andrespectablemen;buttheyhaveingeneralceasedtobeverypopularpreachers。TheMethodists,withouthalfthelearningoftheDissenters,aremuchmoreinvogue。
IntheChurchofRome,theindustryandzealoftheinferiorclergyarekeptmorealivebythepowerfulmotiveofself—interestthanperhapsinanyestablishedProtestantchurch。
Theparochialclergyderive,manyofthem,averyconsiderablepartoftheirsubsistencefromthevoluntaryoblationsofthepeople;asourceofrevenuewhichconfessiongivesthemmanyopportunitiesofimproving。Themendicantordersderivetheirwholesubsistencefromsuchoblations。Itiswiththemaswiththehussarsandlightinfantryofsomearmies;noplunder,nopay。Theparochialclergyarelikethoseteacherswhoserewarddependspartlyupontheirsalary,andpartlyuponthefeesorhonorarieswhichtheygetfromtheirpupils,andthesemustalwaysdependmoreorlessupontheirindustryandreputation。
Themendicantordersarelikethoseteacherswhosesubsistencedependsaltogetherupontheindustry。Theyareobliged,therefore,touseeveryartwhichcananimatethedevotionofthecommonpeople。TheestablishmentofthetwogreatmendicantordersofSt。DominicandSt。Francis,itisobservedbyMachiavel,revived,inthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,thelanguishingfaithanddevotionoftheCatholicChurch。InRomanCatholiccountriesthespiritofdevotionissupportedaltogetherbythemonksandbythepoorerparochialclergy。Thegreatdignitariesofthechurch,withalltheaccomplishmentsofgentlemenandmenoftheworld,andsometimeswiththoseofmenoflearning,arecarefulenoughtomaintainthenecessarydisciplineovertheirinferiors,butseldomgivethemselvesanytroubleabouttheinstructionofthepeople。
\"Mostoftheartsandprofessionsinastate,\"saysbyfarthemostillustriousphilosopherandhistorianofthepresentage,\"areofsuchanaturethat,whiletheypromotetheinterestsofthesociety,theyarealsousefuloragreeabletosomeindividuals;andinthatcase,theconstantruleofthemagistrate,exceptperhapsonthefirstintroductionofanyart,istoleavetheprofessiontoitself,andtrustitsencouragementtotheindividualswhoreapthebenefitofit。Theartisans,findingtheirprofitstorisebythefavouroftheircustomers,increaseasmuchaspossibletheirskillandindustry;andasmattersarenotdisturbedbyanyinjudicioustampering,thecommodityisalwayssuretobeatalltimesnearlyproportionedtothedemand。
\"Buttherearealsosomecallings,which,thoughusefulandevennecessaryinastate,bringnoadvantageorpleasuretoanyindividual,andthesupremepowerisobligedtoalteritsconductwithregardtotheretainersofthoseprofessions。Itmustgivethempublicencouragementinordertotheirsubsistence,anditmustprovideagainstthatnegligencetowhichtheywillnaturallybesubject,eitherbyannexingparticularhonourstotheprofession,byestablishingalongsubordinationofranksandastrictdependence,orbysomeotherexpedient。Thepersonsemployedinthefinances,fleets,andmagistracy,areinstancesofthisorderofmen。
\"Itmaynaturallybethought,atfirstsight,thattheecclesiasticsbelongtothefirstclass,andthattheirencouragement,aswellasthatoflawyersandphysicians,maysafelybeentrustedtotheliberalityofindividuals,whoareattachedtotheirdoctrines,andwhofindbenefitorconsolationfromtheirspiritualministryandassistance。Theirindustryandvigilancewill,nodoubt,bewhettedbysuchanadditionalmotive;andtheirskillintheprofession,aswellastheiraddressingoverningthemindsofthepeople,mustreceivedailyincreasefromtheirincreasingpractice,study,andattention。
\"Butifweconsiderthemattermoreclosely,weshallfindthatthisinteresteddiligenceoftheclergyiswhateverywiselegislatorwillstudytoprevent;becauseineveryreligionexceptthetrueitishighlypernicious,andithasevenanaturaltendencytopervertthetrue,byinfusingintoitastrongmixtureofsuperstition,folly,anddelusion。Eachghostlypractitioner,inordertorenderhimselfmorepreciousandsacredintheeyesofhisretainers,willinspirethemwiththemostviolentabhorrenceofallothersects,andcontinuallyendeavour,bysomenovelty,toexcitethelanguiddevotionofhisaudience。
Noregardwillbepaidtotruth,morals,ordecencyinthedoctrinesinculcated。Everytenetwillbeadoptedthatbestsuitsthedisorderlyaffectionsofthehumanframe。Customerswillbedrawntoeachconventiclebynewindustryandaddressinpractisingonthepassionsandcredulityofthepopulace。Andintheend,thecivilmagistratewillfindthathehasdearlypaidforhispretendedfrugality,insavingafixedestablishmentforthepriests;andthatinrealitythemostdecentandadvantageouscompositionwhichhecanmakewiththespiritualguides,istobribetheirindolencebyassigningstatedsalariestotheirprofession,andrenderingitsuperfluousforthemtobefartheractivethanmerelytopreventtheirflockfromstrayinginquestofnewpastures。Andinthismannerecclesiasticalestablishments,thoughcommonlytheyaroseatfirstfromreligiousviews,proveintheendadvantageoustothepoliticalinterestsofsociety。\"
Butwhatevermayhavebeenthegoodorbadeffectsoftheindependentprovisionoftheclergy,ithas,perhaps,beenveryseldombestoweduponthemfromanyviewtothoseeffects。Timesofviolentreligiouscontroversyhavegenerallybeentimesofequallyviolentpoliticalfaction。Uponsuchoccasions,eachpoliticalpartyhaseitherfoundit,orimaginedit,foritsinteresttoleagueitselfwithsomeoneorotherofthecontendingreligioussects。Butthiscouldbedoneonlybyadopting,oratleastbyfavouring,thetenetsofthatparticularsect。Thesectwhichhadthegoodfortunetobeleaguedwiththeconqueringpartynecessarilysharedinthevictoryofitsally,bywhosefavourandprotectionitwassoonenabledinsomedegreetosilenceandsubdueallitsadversaries。Thoseadversarieshadgenerallyleaguedthemselveswiththeenemiesoftheconqueringparty,andwerethereforetheenemiesofthatparty。Theclergyofthisparticularsecthavingthusbecomecompletemastersofthefield,andtheirinfluenceandauthoritywiththegreatbodyofthepeoplebeinginitshighestvigour,theywerepowerfulenoughtooverawethechiefsandleadersoftheirownparty,andtoobligethecivilmagistratetorespecttheiropinionsandinclinations。Theirfirstdemandwasgenerallythatheshouldsilenceandsubdueantheiradversaries:andtheirsecond,thatheshouldbestowanindependentprovisiononthemselves。Astheyhadgenerallycontributedagooddealtothevictory,itseemednotunreasonablethattheyshouldhavesomeshareinthespoil。