ARTICLEII
OftheExpenseoftheInstitutionsfortheEducationofYouthTheinstitutionsfortheeducationoftheyouthmay,inthesamemanner,furnisharevenuesufficientfordefrayingtheirownexpense。Thefeeorhonorarywhichthescholarpaystothemasternaturallyconstitutesarevenueofthiskind。
Evenwheretherewardofthemasterdoesnotarisealtogetherfromthisnaturalrevenue,itstillisnotnecessarythatitshouldbederivedfromthatgeneralrevenueofthesociety,ofwhichthecollectionandapplicationis,inmostcountries,assignedtotheexecutivepower。ThroughthegreaterpartofEurope,accordingly,theendowmentofschoolsandcollegesmakeseithernochargeuponthatgeneralrevenue,orbutaverysmallone。Iteverywhereariseschieflyfromsomelocalorprovincialrevenue,fromtherentofsomelandedestate,orfromtheinterestofsomesumofmoneyallottedandputunderthemanagementoftrusteesforthisparticularpurpose,sometimesbythesovereignhimself,andsometimesbysomeprivatedonor。
Havethosepublicendowmentscontributedingeneraltopromotetheendoftheirinstitution?Havetheycontributedtoencouragethediligenceandtoimprovetheabilitiesoftheteachers?Havetheydirectedthecourseofeducationtowardsobjectsmoreuseful,bothtotheindividualandtothepublic,thanthosetowhichitwouldnaturallyhavegoneofitsownaccord?Itshouldnotseemverydifficulttogiveatleastaprobableanswertoeachofthosequestions。
Ineveryprofession,theexertionofthegreaterpartofthosewhoexerciseitisalwaysinproportiontothenecessitytheyareunderofmakingthatexertion。Thisnecessityisgreatestwiththosetowhomtheemolumentsoftheirprofessionaretheonlysourcefromwhichtheyexpecttheirfortune,oreventheirordinaryrevenueandsubsistence。Inordertoacquirethisfortune,oreventogetthissubsistence,theymust,inthecourseofayear,executeacertainquantityofworkofaknownvalue;and,wherethecompetitionisfree,therivalshipofcompetitors,whoareallendeavouringtojustleoneanotheroutofemployment,obligeseverymantoendeavourtoexecutehisworkwithacertaindegreeofexactness。Thegreatnessoftheobjectswhicharetobeacquiredbysuccessinsomeparticularprofessionsmay,nodoubt,sometimesanimatetheexertionofafewmenofextraordinaryspiritandambition。Greatobjects,however,areevidentlynotnecessaryinordertooccasionthegreatestexertions。Rivalshipandemulationrenderexcellency,eveninmeanprofessions,anobjectofambition,andfrequentlyoccasiontheverygreatestexertions。Greatobjects,onthecontrary,aloneandunsupportedbythenecessityofapplication,haveseldombeensufficienttooccasionanyconsiderableexertion。InEngland,successintheprofessionofthelawleadstosomeverygreatobjectsofambition;andyethowfewmen,borntoeasyfortunes,haveeverinthiscountrybeeneminentinthatprofession!
Theendowmentsofschoolsandcollegeshavenecessarilydiminishedmoreorlessthenecessityofapplicationintheteachers。Theirsubsistence,sofarasitarisesfromtheirsalaries,isevidentlyderivedfromafundaltogetherindependentoftheirsuccessandreputationintheirparticularprofessions。
Insomeuniversitiesthesalarymakesbutapart,andfrequentlybutasmallpart,oftheemolumentsoftheteacher,ofwhichthegreaterpartarisesfromthehonorariesorfeesofhispupils。Thenecessityofapplication,thoughalwaysmoreorlessdiminished,isnotinthiscaseentirelytakenaway。Reputationinhisprofessionisstillofsomeimportancetohim,andhestillhassomedependencyupontheaffection,gratitude,andfavourablereportofthosewhohaveattendeduponhisinstructions;andthesefavourablesentimentsheislikelytogaininnowaysowellasbydeservingthem,thatis,bytheabilitiesanddiligencewithwhichhedischargeseverypartofhisduty。
Inotheruniversitiestheteacherisprohibitedfromreceivinganyhonoraryorfeefromhispupils,andhissalaryconstitutesthewholeoftherevenuewhichhederivesfromhisoffice。Hisinterestis,inthiscase,setasdirectlyinoppositiontohisdutyasitispossibletosetit。Itistheinterestofeverymantoliveasmuchathiseaseashecan;andifhisemolumentsaretobepreciselythesame,whetherhedoesordoesnotperformsomeverylaboriousduty,itiscertainlyhisinterest,atleastasinterestisvulgarlyunderstood,eithertoneglectitaltogether,or,ifheissubjecttosomeauthoritywhichwillnotsufferhimtodothis,toperformitinascarelessandslovenlyamannerasthatauthoritywillpermit。Ifheisnaturallyactiveandaloveroflabour,itishisinteresttoemploythatactivityinanywayfromwhichhecanderivesomeadvantage,ratherthanintheperformanceofhisduty,fromwhichhecanderivenone。
Iftheauthoritytowhichheissubjectresidesinthebodycorporate,thecollege,oruniversity,ofwhichhehimselfisamember,andwhichthegreaterpartoftheothermembersare,likehimself,personswhoeitherareoroughttobeteachers,theyarelikelytomakeacommoncause,tobeallveryindulgenttooneanother,andeverymantoconsentthathisneighbourmayneglecthisduty,providedhehimselfisallowedtoneglecthisown。IntheuniversityofOxford,thegreaterpartofthepublicprofessorshave,forthesemanyyears,givenupaltogethereventhepretenceofteaching。
Iftheauthoritytowhichheissubjectresides,notsomuchinthebodycorporateofwhichheisamember,asinsomeotherextraneouspersons—inthebishopofthediocese,forexample;inthegovernoroftheprovince;or,perhaps,insomeministerofstateitisnotindeedinthiscaseverylikelythathewillbesufferedtoneglecthisdutyaltogether。Allthatsuchsuperiors,however,canforcehimtodo,istoattenduponhispupilsacertainnumberofhours,thatis,togiveacertainnumberoflecturesintheweekorintheyear。Whatthoselecturesshallbemuststilldependuponthediligenceoftheteacher;andthatdiligenceislikelytobeproportionedtothemotiveswhichhehasforexertingit。Anextraneousjurisdictionofthiskind,besides,isliabletobeexercisedbothignorantlyandcapriciously。Initsnatureitisarbitraryanddiscretionary,andthepersonswhoexerciseit,neitherattendinguponthelecturesoftheteacherthemselves,norperhapsunderstandingthescienceswhichitishisbusinesstoteach,areseldomcapableofexercisingitwithjudgment。Fromtheinsolenceofoffice,too,theyarefrequentlyindifferenthowtheyexerciseit,andareveryapttocensureordeprivehimofhisofficewantonly,andwithoutanyjustcause。Thepersonsubjecttosuchjurisdictionisnecessarilydegradedbyit,and,insteadofbeingoneofthemostrespectable,isrenderedoneofthemeanestandmostcontemptiblepersonsinthesociety。Itisbypowerfulprotectiononlythathecaneffectuallyguardhimselfagainstthebadusagetowhichheisatalltimesexposed;andthisprotectionheismostlikelytogain,notbyabilityordiligenceinhisprofession,butbyobsequiousnesstothewillofhissuperiors,andbybeingready,atalltimes,tosacrificetothatwilltherights,theinterest,andthehonourofthebodycorporateofwhichheisamember。WhoeverhasattendedforanyconsiderabletimetotheadministrationofaFrenchuniversitymusthavehadoccasiontoremarktheeffectswhichnaturallyresultfromanarbitraryandextraneousjurisdictionofthiskind。
Whateverforcesacertainnumberofstudentstoanycollegeoruniversity,independentofthemeritorreputationoftheteachers,tendsmoreorlesstodiminishthenecessityofthatmeritorreputation。
Theprivilegesofgraduatesinarts,inlaw,physic,anddivinity,whentheycanbeobtainedonlybyresidingacertainnumberofyearsincertainuniversities,necessarilyforceacertainnumberofstudentstosuchuniversities,independentofthemeritorreputationoftheteachers。Theprivilegesofgraduatesareasortofstatutesofapprenticeship,whichhavecontributedtotheimprovementofeducation,justastheotherstatutesofapprenticeshiphavetothatofarts,andmanufactures。
Thecharitablefoundationsofscholarships,exhibitions,bursaries,etc。,necessarilyattachacertainnumberofstudentstocertaincolleges,independentaltogetherofthemeritofthoseparticularcolleges。Werethestudentsuponsuchcharitablefoundationsleftfreetochoosewhatcollegetheylikedbest,suchlibertymightperhapscontributetoexcitesomeemulationamongdifferentcolleges。Aregulation,onthecontrary,whichprohibitedeventheindependentmembersofeveryparticularcollegefromleavingitandgoingtoanyother,withoutleavefirstaskedandobtainedofthatwhichtheymeanttoabandon,wouldtendverymuchtoextinguishthatemulation。
Ifineachcollegethetutororteacher,whowastoinstructeachstudentinallartsandsciences,shouldnotbevoluntarilychosenbythestudent,butappointedbytheheadofthecollege;
andif,incaseofneglect,inability,orbadusage,thestudentshouldnotbeallowedtochangehimforanother,withoutleavefirstaskedandobtained,sucharegulationwouldnotonlytendverymuchtoextinguishallemulationamongthedifferenttutorsofthesamecollege,buttodiminishverymuchinallofthemthenecessityofdiligenceandofattentiontotheirrespectivepupils。Suchteachers,thoughverywellpaidbytheirstudents,mightbeasmuchdisposedtoneglectthemasthosewhoarenotpaidbythematall,orwhohavenootherrecompensebuttheirsalary。
Iftheteacherhappenstobeamanofsense,itmustbeanunpleasantthingtohimtobeconscious,whileheislecturinghisstudents,thatheiseitherspeakingorreadingnonsense,orwhatisverylittlebetterthannonsense。Itmust,too,beunpleasanttohimtoobservethatthegreaterpartofhisstudentsdeserthislectures,orperhapsattenduponthemwithplainenoughmarksofneglect,contempt,andderision。Ifheisobliged,therefore,togiveacertainnumberoflectures,thesemotivesalone,withoutanyotherinterest,mightdisposehimtotakesomepainstogivetolerablygoodones。Severaldifferentexpedients,however,maybefallenuponwhichwilleffectuallyblunttheedgeofallthoseincitementstodiligence。Theteacher,insteadofexplainingtohispupilshimselfthescienceinwhichheproposestoinstructthem,mayreadsomebookuponit;andifthisbookiswritteninaforeignanddeadlanguage,byinterpretingittothemintotheirown;or,whatwouldgivehimstilllesstrouble,bymakingtheminterpretittohim,andbynowandthenmakinganoccasionalremarkuponit,hemayflatterhimselfthatheisgivingalecture。Theslightestdegreeofknowledgeandapplicationwillenablehimtodothiswithoutexposinghimselftocontemptorderision,orsayinganythingthatisreallyfoolish,absurd,orridiculous。Thedisciplineofthecollege,atthesametime,mayenablehimtoforceallhispupilstothemostregularattendanceuponthisshamlecture,andtomaintainthemostdecentandrespectfulbehaviourduringthewholetimeoftheperformance。
Thedisciplineofcollegesanduniversitiesisingeneralcontrived,notforthebenefitofthestudents,butfortheinterest,ormoreproperlyspeaking,fortheeaseofthemasters。
Itsobjectis,inallcases,tomaintaintheauthorityofthemaster,andwhetherheneglectsorperformshisduty,toobligethestudentsinallcasestobehavetohim,asifheperformeditwiththegreatestdiligenceandability。Itseemstopresumeperfectwisdomandvirtueintheoneorder,andthegreatestweaknessandfollyintheother。Wherethemasters,however,reallyperformtheirduty,therearenoexamples,Ibelieve,thatthegreaterpartofthestudentseverneglecttheirs。Nodisciplineiseverrequisitetoforceattendanceuponlectureswhicharereallyworththeattending,asiswellknownwhereveranysuchlecturesaregiven。Forceandrestraintmay,nodoubt,beinsomedegreerequisiteinordertoobligechildren,orveryyoungboys,toattendtothosepartsofeducationwhichitisthoughtnecessaryforthemtoacquireduringthatearlyperiodoflife;butaftertwelveorthirteenyearsofage,providedthemasterdoeshisduty,forceorrestraintcanscarceeverbenecessarytocarryonanypartofeducation。Suchisthegenerosityofthegreaterpartofyoungmen,that,sofarfrombeingdisposedtoneglectordespisetheinstructionsoftheirmaster,providedheshowssomeseriousintentionofbeingofusetothem,theyaregenerallyinclinedtopardonagreatdealofincorrectnessintheperformanceofhisduty,andsometimeseventoconcealfromthepublicagooddealofgrossnegligence。
Thosepartsofeducation,itistobeobserved,fortheteachingofwhichtherearenopublicinstitutions,aregenerallythebesttaught。Whenayoungmangoestoafencingoradancingschool,hedoesnotindeedalwayslearntofenceortodanceverywell;butheseldomfailsoflearningtofenceortodance。Thegoodeffectsoftheridingschoolarenotcommonlysoevident。
Theexpenseofaridingschoolissogreat,thatinmostplacesitisapublicinstitution。Thethreemostessentialpartsofliteraryeducation,toread,write,andaccount,itstillcontinuestobemorecommontoacquireinprivatethaninpublicschools;anditveryseldomhappensthatanybodyfailsofacquiringthemtothedegreeinwhichitisnecessarytoacquirethem。
InEnglandthepublicschoolsaremuchlesscorruptedthantheuniversities。Intheschoolstheyoutharetaught,oratleastmaybetaught,GreekandLatin;thatis,everythingwhichthemasterspretendtoteach,orwhich,itisexpected,theyshouldteach。Intheuniversitiestheyouthneitheraretaught,noralwayscanfindanypropermeansofbeingtaught,thescienceswhichitisthebusinessofthoseincorporatedbodiestoteach。Therewardoftheschoolmasterinmostcasesdependsprincipally,insomecasesalmostentirely,uponthefeesorhonorariesofhisscholars。Schoolshavenoexclusiveprivileges。
Inordertoobtainthehonoursofgraduation,itisnotnecessarythatapersonshouldbringacertificateofhishavingstudiedacertainnumberofyearsatapublicschool。Ifuponexaminationheappearstounderstandwhatistaughtthere,noquestionsareaskedabouttheplacewherehelearntit。
Thepartsofeducationwhicharecommonlytaughtinuniversities,itmay,perhaps,besaidarenotverywelltaught。
Buthaditnotbeenforthoseinstitutionstheywouldnothavebeencommonlytaughtatall,andboththeindividualandthepublicwouldhavesufferedagooddealfromthewantofthoseimportantpartsofeducation。
ThepresentuniversitiesofEuropewereoriginally,thegreaterpartofthem,ecclesiasticalcorporations,institutedfortheeducationofchurchmen。TheywerefoundedbytheauthorityofthePope,andweresoentirelyunderhisimmediateprotection,thattheirmembers,whethermastersorstudents,hadallofthemwhatwasthencalledthebenefitofclergy,thatis,wereexemptedfromtheciviljurisdictionofthecountriesinwhichtheirrespectiveuniversitiesweresituated,andwereamenableonlytotheecclesiasticaltribunals。Whatwastaughtinthegreaterpartofthoseuniversitieswassuitabletotheendoftheirinstitution,eithertheology,orsomethingthatwasmerelypreparatorytotheology。
WhenChristianitywasfirstestablishedbylaw,acorruptedLatinhadbecomethecommonlanguageofallthewesternpartsofEurope。Theserviceofthechurchaccordingly,andthetranslationoftheBiblewhichwasreadinchurches,werebothinthatcorruptedLatin;thatis,inthecommonlanguageofthecountry。AftertheirruptionofthebarbarousnationswhooverturnedtheRomanempire,LatingraduallyceasedtobethelanguageofanypartofEurope。Butthereverenceofthepeoplenaturallypreservestheestablishedformsandceremoniesofreligionlongafterthecircumstanceswhichfirstintroducedandrenderedthemreasonablearenomore。ThoughLatin,therefore,wasnolongerunderstoodanywherebythegreatbodyofthepeople,thewholeserviceofthechurchstillcontinuedtobeperformedinthatlanguage。TwodifferentlanguageswerethusestablishedinEurope,inthesamemannerasinancientEgypt;alanguageofthepriests,andalanguageofthepeople;asacredandaprofane;alearnedandanunlearnedlanguage。Butitwasnecessarythatthepriestsshouldunderstandsomethingofthatsacredandlearnedlanguageinwhichtheyweretoofficiate;andthestudyoftheLatinlanguagethereforemade,fromthebeginning,anessentialpartofuniversityeducation。
ItwasnotsowiththateitheroftheGreekoroftheHebrewlanguage。TheinfallibledecreesofthechurchhadpronouncedtheLatintranslationoftheBible,commonlycalledtheLatinVulgate,tohavebeenequallydictatedbydivineinspiration,andthereforeofequalauthoritywiththeGreekandHebreworiginals。
Theknowledgeofthosetwolanguages,therefore,notbeingindispensablyrequisitetoachurchman,thestudyofthemdidnotforalongtimemakeanecessarypartofthecommoncourseofuniversityeducation。TherearesomeSpanishuniversities,Iamassured,inwhichthestudyoftheGreeklanguagehasneveryetmadeanypartofthatcourse。ThefirstreformersfoundtheGreektextoftheNewTestament,andeventheHebrewtextoftheOld,morefavorabletotheiropinionsthantheVulgatetranslation,which,asmightnaturallybesupposed,hadbeengraduallyaccommodatedtosupportthedoctrinesoftheCatholicChurch。
Theysetthemselves,therefore,toexposethemanyerrorsofthattranslation,whichtheRomanCatholicclergywerethusputunderthenecessityofdefendingorexplaining。Butthiscouldnotwellbedonewithoutsomeknowledgeoftheoriginallanguages,ofwhichthestudywasthereforegraduallyintroducedintothegreaterpartofuniversities,bothofthosewhichembraced,andofthosewhichrejected,thedoctrinesoftheReformation。TheGreeklanguagewasconnectedwitheverypartofthatclassicallearningwhich,thoughatfirstprincipallycultivatedbyCatholicsandItalians,happenedtocomeintofashionmuchaboutthesametimethatthedoctrinesoftheReformationweresetonfoot。Inthegreaterpartofuniversities,therefore,thatlanguagewastaughtprevioustothestudyofphilosophy,andassoonasthestudenthadmadesomeprogressintheLatin。TheHebrewlanguagehavingnoconnectionwithclassicallearning,and,excepttheHolyScriptures,beingthelanguageofnotasinglebookinanyesteem,thestudyofitdidnotcommonlycommencetillafterthatofphilosophy,andwhenthestudenthadentereduponthestudyoftheology。
OriginallythefirstrudimentsbothoftheGreekandLatinlanguagesweretaughtinuniversities,andinsomeuniversitiestheystillcontinuetobeso。Inothersitisexpectedthatthestudentshouldhavepreviouslyacquiredatleasttherudimentsofoneorbothofthoselanguages,ofwhichthestudycontinuestomakeeverywhereaveryconsiderablepartofuniversityeducation。
TheancientGreekphilosophywasdividedintothreegreatbranches;physics,ornaturalphilosophy;ethics,ormoralphilosophy;andlogic。Thisgeneraldivisionseemsperfectlyagreeabletothenatureofthings。
Thegreatphenomenaofnature—therevolutionsoftheheavenlybodies,eclipses,comets;thunder,lightning,andotherextraordinarymeteors;thegeneration,thelife,growth,anddissolutionofplantsandanimals—areobjectswhich,astheynecessarilyexcitethewonder,sotheynaturallycallforththecuriosity,ofmankindtoinquireintotheircauses。Superstitionfirstattemptedtosatisfythiscuriosity,byreferringallthosewonderfulappearancestotheimmediateagencyofthegods。
Philosophyafterwardsendeavouredtoaccountforthemfrommorefamiliarcauses,orfromsuchasmankindwerebetteracquaintedwith,thantheagencyofthegods。Asthosegreatphenomenaarethefirstobjectsofhumancuriosity,sothesciencewhichpretendstoexplainthemmustnaturallyhavebeenthefirstbranchofphilosophythatwascultivated。Thefirstphilosophers,accordingly,ofwhomhistoryhaspreservedanyaccount,appeartohavebeennaturalphilosophers。
Ineveryageandcountryoftheworldmenmusthaveattendedtothecharacters,designs,andactionsofoneanother,andmanyreputablerulesandmaximsfortheconductofhumanlifemusthavebeenlaiddownandapprovedofbycommonconsent。Assoonaswritingcameintofashion,wisemen,orthosewhofanciedthemselvessuch,wouldnaturallyendeavourtoincreasethenumberofthoseestablishedandrespectedmaxims,andtoexpresstheirownsenseofwhatwaseitherproperorimproperconduct,sometimesinthemoreartificialformofapologues,likewhatarecalledthefablesofAesop;andsometimesinthemoresimpleoneofapophthegms,orwisesayings,liketheProverbsofSolomon,theversesofTheognisandPhocyllides,andsomepartoftheworksofHesiod。Theymightcontinueinthismannerforalongtimemerelytomultiplythenumberofthosemaximsofprudenceandmorality,withoutevenattemptingtoarrangetheminanyverydistinctormethodicalorder,muchlesstoconnectthemtogetherbyoneormoregeneralprinciplesfromwhichtheywerealldeducible,likeeffectsfromtheirnaturalcauses。Thebeautyofasystematicalarrangementofdifferentobservationsconnectedbyafewcommonprincipleswasfirstseenintherudeessaysofthoseancienttimestowardsasystemofnaturalphilosophy。
Somethingofthesamekindwasafterwardsattemptedinmorals。
Themaximsofcommonlifewerearrangedinsomemethodicalorder,andconnectedtogetherbyafewcommonprinciples,inthesamemannerastheyhadattemptedtoarrangeandconnectthephenomenaofnature。Thesciencewhichpretendstoinvestigateandexplainthoseconnectingprinciplesiswhatisproperlycalledmoralphilosophy。
Differentauthorsgavedifferentsystemsbothofnaturalandmoralphilosophy。Buttheargumentsbywhichtheysupportedthosedifferentsystems,forfrombeingalwaysdemonstrations,werefrequentlyatbestbutveryslenderprobabilities,andsometimesmeresophisms,whichhadnootherfoundationbuttheinaccuracyandambiguityofcommonlanguage。Speculativesystemshaveinallagesoftheworldbeenadoptedforreasonstoofrivoloustohavedeterminedthejudgmentofanymanofcommonsenseinamatterofthesmallestpecuniaryinterest。Grosssophistryhasscarceeverhadanyinfluenceupontheopinionsofmankind,exceptinmattersofphilosophyandspeculation;andintheseithasfrequentlyhadthegreatest。Thepatronsofeachsystemofnaturalandmoralphilosophynaturallyendeavouredtoexposetheweaknessoftheargumentsadducedtosupportthesystemswhichwereoppositetotheirown。Inexaminingthosearguments,theywerenecessarilyledtoconsiderthedifferencebetweenaprobableandademonstrativeargument,betweenafallaciousandaconclusiveone:andLogic,orthescienceofthegeneralprinciplesofgoodandbadreasoning,necessarilyaroseoutoftheobservationswhichascrutinyofthiskindgaveoccasionto。Thoughinitsoriginposteriorbothtophysicsandtoethics,itwascommonlytaught,notindeedinall,butinthegreaterpartoftheancientschoolsofphilosophy,previouslytoeitherofthosesciences。
Thestudent,itseemstohavebeenthought,tounderstandwellthedifferencebetweengoodandbadreasoningbeforehewasledtoreasonuponsubjectsofsogreatimportance。
ThisancientdivisionofphilosophyintothreepartswasinthegreaterpartoftheuniversitiesofEuropechangedforanotherintofive。
Intheancientphilosophy,whateverwastaughtconcerningthenatureeitherofthehumanmindoroftheDeity,madeapartofthesystemofphysics。Thosebeings,inwhatevertheiressencemightbesupposedtoconsist,werepartsofthegreatsystemoftheuniverse,andparts,too,productiveofthemostimportanteffects。Whateverhumanreasoncouldeitherconcludeorconjectureconcerningthem,made,asitwere,twochapters,thoughnodoubttwoveryimportantones,ofthesciencewhichpretendedtogiveanaccountoftheoriginandrevolutionsofthegreatsystemoftheuniverse。ButintheuniversitiesofEurope,wherephilosophywastaughtonlyassubservienttotheology,itwasnaturaltodwelllongeruponthesetwochaptersthanuponanyotherofthescience。Theyweregraduallymoreandmoreextended,andweredividedintomanyinferiorchapters,tillatlastthedoctrineofspirits,ofwhichsolittlecanbeknown,cametotakeupasmuchroominthesystemofphilosophyasthedoctrineofbodies,ofwhichsomuchcanbeknown。Thedoctrinesconcerningthosetwosubjectswereconsideredasmakingtwodistinctsciences。WhatarecalledMetaphysicsorPneumaticsweresetinoppositiontoPhysics,andwerecultivatednotonlyasthemoresublime,but,forthepurposesofaparticularprofession,asthemoreusefulscienceofthetwo。Thepropersubjectofexperimentandobservation,asubjectinwhichacarefulattentioniscapableofmakingsomanyusefuldiscoveries,wasalmostentirelyneglected。Thesubjectinwhich,afterafewverysimpleandalmostobvioustruths,themostcarefulattentioncandiscovernothingbutobscurityanduncertainty,andcanconsequentlyproducenothingbutsubtletiesandsophisms,wasgreatlycultivated。
Whenthosetwoscienceshadthusbeensetinoppositiontooneanother,thecomparisonbetweenthemnaturallygavebirthtoathird,towhatwascalledOntology,orthesciencewhichtreatedofthequalitiesandattributeswhichwerecommontoboththesubjectsoftheothertwosciences。ButifsubtletiesandsophismscomposedthegreaterpartoftheMetaphysicsorPneumaticsoftheschools,theycomposedthewholeofthiscobwebscienceofOntology,whichwaslikewisesometimescalledMetaphysics。
Whereinconsistedthehappinessandperfectionofaman,considerednotonlyasanindividual,butasthememberofafamily,ofastate,andofthegreatsocietyofmankind,wastheobjectwhichtheancientmoralphilosophyproposedtoinvestigate。Inthatphilosophythedutiesofhumanlifeweretreatedassubservienttothehappinessandperfectionofhumanlife。Butwhenmoral,aswellasnaturalphilosophy,cametobetaughtonlyassubservienttotheology,thedutiesofhumanlifeweretreatedofaschieflysubservienttothehappinessofalifetocome。Intheancientphilosophytheperfectionofvirtuewasrepresentedasnecessarilyproductive,tothepersonwhopossessedit,ofthemostperfecthappinessinthislife。Inthemodernphilosophyitwasfrequentlyrepresentedasgenerally,orratherasalmostalways,inconsistentwithanydegreeofhappinessinthislife;andheavenwastobeearnedonlybypenanceandmortification,bytheausteritiesandabasementofamonk;notbytheliberal,generous,andspiritedconductofaman。Casuistryandanasceticmoralitymadeup,inmostcases,thegreaterpartofthemoralphilosophyoftheschools。Byfarthemostimportantofallthedifferentbranchesofphilosophybecameinthismannerbyfarthemostcorrupted。
Such,therefore,wasthecommoncourseofphilosophicaleducationinthegreaterpartoftheuniversitiesinEurope。
Logicwastaughtfirst:Ontologycameinthesecondplace:
Pneumatology,comprehendingthedoctrineconcerningthenatureofthehumansoulandoftheDeity,inthethird:inthefourthfollowedadebasedsystemofmoralphilosophywhichwasconsideredasimmediatelyconnectedwiththedoctrinesofPneumatology,withtheimmortalityofthehumansoul,andwiththerewardsandpunishmentswhich,fromthejusticeoftheDeity,weretobeexpectedinalifetocome:ashortandsuperficialsystemofPhysicsusuallyconcludedthecourse。
ThealterationswhichtheuniversitiesofEuropethusintroducedintotheancientcourseofphilosophywereallmeantfortheeducationofecclesiastics,andtorenderitamoreproperintroductiontothestudyoftheology。Buttheadditionalquantityofsubtletyandsophistry,thecasuistryandtheasceticmoralitywhichthosealterationsintroducedintoit,certainlydidnotrenderitmoreproperfortheeducationofgentlemenormenoftheworld,ormorelikelyeithertoimprovetheunderstanding,ortomendtheheart。
ThiscourseofphilosophyiswhatstillcontinuestobetaughtinthegreaterpartoftheuniversitiesofEurope,withmoreorlessdiligence,accordingastheconstitutionofeachparticularuniversityhappenstorenderdiligencemoreorlessnecessarytotheteachers。Insomeoftherichestandbestendoweduniversities,thetutorscontentthemselveswithteachingafewunconnectedshredsandparcelsofthiscorruptedcourse;
andeventhesetheycommonlyteachverynegligentlyandsuperficially。
Theimprovementswhich,inmoderntimes,havebeenmadeinseveraldifferentbranchesofphilosophyhavenot,thegreaterpartofthem,beenmadeinuniversities,thoughsomenodoubthave。Thegreaterpartofuniversitieshavenotevenbeenveryforwardtoadoptthoseimprovementsaftertheyweremade;andseveralofthoselearnedsocietieshavechosentoremain,foralongtime,thesanctuariesinwhichexplodedsystemsandobsoleteprejudicesfoundshelterandprotectionaftertheyhadbeenhuntedoutofeveryothercorneroftheworld。Ingeneral,therichestandbestendoweduniversitieshavebeentheslowestinadoptingthoseimprovements,andthemostaversetopermitanyconsiderablechangeintheestablishedplanofeducation。Thoseimprovementsweremoreeasilyintroducedintosomeofthepooreruniversities,inwhichtheteachers,dependingupontheirreputationforthegreaterpartoftheirsubsistence,wereobligedtopaymoreattentiontothecurrentopinionsoftheworld。
ButthoughthepublicschoolsanduniversitiesofEuropewereoriginallyintendedonlyfortheeducationofaparticularprofession,thatofchurchmen;andthoughtheywerenotalwaysverydiligentininstructingtheirpupilseveninthescienceswhichweresupposednecessaryforthatprofession,yettheygraduallydrewtothemselvestheeducationofalmostallotherpeople,particularlyofalmostallgentlemenandmenoffortune。
Nobettermethod,itseems,couldbefallenuponofspending,withanyadvantage,thelongintervalbetweeninfancyandthatperiodoflifeatwhichmenbegintoapplyingoodearnesttotherealbusinessoftheworld,thebusinesswhichistoemploythemduringtheremainderoftheirdays。Thegreaterpartofwhatistaughtinschoolsanduniversities,however,doesnotseemtobethemostproperpreparationforthatbusiness。
InEnglanditbecomeseverydaymoreandmorethecustomtosendyoungpeopletotravelinforeigncountriesimmediatelyupontheirleavingschool,andwithoutsendingthemtoanyuniversity。
Ouryoungpeople,itissaid,generallyreturnhomemuchimprovedbytheirtravels。Ayoungmanwhogoesabroadatseventeenoreighteen,andreturnshomeatoneandtwenty,returnsthreeorfouryearsolderthanhewaswhenhewentabroad;andatthatageitisverydifficultnottoimproveagooddealinthreeorfouryears。Inthecourseofhistravelshegenerallyacquiressomeknowledgeofoneortwoforeignlanguages;aknowledge,however,whichisseldomsufficienttoenablehimeithertospeakorwritethemwithpropriety。Inotherrespectshecommonlyreturnshomemoreconceited,moreunprincipled,moredissipated,andmoreincapableofanyseriousapplicationeithertostudyortobusinessthanhecouldwellhavebecomeinsoshortatimehadhelivedathome。Bytravellingsoveryyoung,byspendinginthemostfrivolousdissipationthemostpreciousyearsofhislife,atadistancefromtheinspectionandcontrolofhisparentsandrelations,everyusefulhabitwhichtheearlierpartsofhiseducationmighthavehadsometendencytoforminhim,insteadofbeingrivetedandconfirmed,isalmostnecessarilyeitherweakenedoreffaced。Nothingbutthediscreditintowhichtheuniversitiesareallowingthemselvestofallcouldeverhavebroughtintoreputesoveryabsurdapracticeasthatoftravellingatthisearlyperiodoflife。Bysendinghissonabroad,afatherdelivershimselfatleastforsometime,fromsodisagreeableanobjectasthatofasonunemployed,neglected,andgoingtoruinbeforehiseyes。
Suchhavebeentheeffectsofsomeofthemoderninstitutionsforeducation。
Differentplansanddifferentinstitutionsforeducationseemtohavetakenplaceinotheragesandnations。
IntherepublicsofancientGreece,everyfreecitizenwasinstructed,underthedirectionofthepublicmagistrate,ingymnasticexercisesandinmusic。Bygymnasticexercisesitwasintendedtohardenhisbody,tosharpenhiscourage,andtopreparehimforthefatiguesanddangersofwar;andastheGreekmilitiawas,byallaccounts,oneofthebestthateverwasintheworld,thispartoftheirpubliceducationmusthaveansweredcompletelythepurposeforwhichitwasintended。Bytheotherpart,music,itwasproposed,atleastbythephilosophersandhistorianswhohavegivenusanaccountofthoseinstitutions,tohumanizethemind,tosoftenthetemper,andtodisposeitforperformingallthesocialandmoraldutiesbothofpublicandprivatelife。
InancientRometheexercisesoftheCampusMartiusansweredthepurposeasthoseoftheGymnasiuminancientGreece,andtheyseemtohaveanswereditequallywell。ButamongtheRomanstherewasnothingwhichcorrespondedtothemusicaleducationoftheGreeks。ThemoralsoftheRomans,however,bothinprivateandpubliclife,seemtohavebeennotonlyequal,but,uponthewhole,agooddealsuperiortothoseoftheGreeks。Thattheyweresuperiorinprivatelife,wehavetheexpresstestimonyofPolybiusandofDionysiusofHalicarnassus,twoauthorswellacquaintedwithbothnations;andthewholetenoriftheGreekandRomanhistorybearswitnesstothesuperiorityofthepublicmoralsoftheRomans。Thegoodtemperandmoderationofcontendingfactionsseemstobethemostessentialcircumstancesinthepublicmoralsofafreepeople。ButthefactionsoftheGreekswerealmostalwaysviolentandsanguinary;whereas,tillthetimeoftheGracchi,nobloodhadeverbeenshedinanyRomanfaction;andfromthetimeoftheGracchitheRomanrepublicmaybeconsideredasinrealitydissolved。Notwithstanding,therefore,theveryrespectableauthorityofPlato,Aristotle,andPolybius,andnotwithstandingtheveryingeniousreasonsbywhichMr。Montesquieuendeavourstosupportthatauthority,itseemsprobablethatthemusicaleducationoftheGreekshadnogreateffectinmendingtheirmorals,since,withoutanysucheducation,thoseoftheRomanswereuponthewholesuperior。Therespectofthoseancientsagesfortheinstitutionsoftheirancestorshadprobablydisposedthemtofindmuchpoliticalwisdominwhatwas,perhaps,merelyanancientcustom,continuedwithoutinterruptionfromtheearliestperiodofthosesocietiestothetimesinwhichtheyhadarrivedataconsiderabledegreeofrefinement。Musicanddancingarethegreatamusementsofalmostallbarbarousnations,andthegreataccomplishmentswhicharesupposedtofitanymanforentertaininghissociety。ItissoatthisdayamongthenegroesonthecoastofAfrica。ItwassoamongtheancientCelts,amongtheancientScandinavians,and,aswemaylearnfromHomer,amongtheancientGreeksinthetimesprecedingtheTrojanwar。WhentheGreektribeshadformedthemselvesintolittlerepublics,itwasnaturalthatthestudyofthoseaccomplishmentsshould,foralongtime,makeapartofthepublicandcommoneducationofthepeople。