Inthefirstplace，then，thisviewofthingsgreatly
weakens，inawealthyandindustriouscountry，theforceofthe
economicalargumentagainsttheexpenditureofpublicmoneyfor
reallyvaluable，eventhoughindustriouslyunproductive，
purposes。Ifforanygreatobjectofjusticeorphilanthropic
policy，suchastheindustrialregenerationofIreland，ora
comprehensivemeasureofcolonizationorofpubliceducation，it
wereproposedtoraisealargesumbywayofloan，politicians
neednotdemurtotheabstractionofsomuchcapital，astending
todryupthepermanentsourcesofthecountry’swealth，and
diminishthefundwhichsuppliesthesubsistenceofthelabouring
population。Theutmostexpensewhichcouldberequisiteforany
ofthesepurposes，wouldnotinallprobabilitydepriveone
labourerofemployment，ordiminishthenextyear’sproductionby
oneellofclothoronebushelofgrain。Inpoorcountries，the
capitalofthecountryrequiresthelegislator’ssedulouscare;
heisboundtobemostcautiousofencroachinguponit，and
shouldfavourtotheutmostitsaccumulationathome，andits
introductionfromabroad。Butinrich，populous，andhighly
cultivatedcountries，itisnotcapitalwhichisthedeficient
element，butfertileland;andwhatthelegislatorshoulddesire
andpromote，isnotagreateraggregatesaving，butagreater
returntosavings，eitherbyimprovedcultivation，orbyaccess
totheproduceofmorefertilelandsinotherpartsoftheglobe。
Insuchcountries，thegovernmentmaytakeanymoderateportion
ofthecapitalofthecountryandexpenditasrevenue，without
affectingthenationalwealth:thewholebeingeitherdrawnfrom
thatportionoftheannualsavingswhichwouldotherwisebesent
abroad，orbeingsubtractedfromtheunproductiveexpenditureof
individualsforthenextyearortwo，sinceeverymillionspent
makesroomforanothermilliontobesavedbeforereachingthe
overflowingpoint。Whentheobjectinviewisworththesacrifice
ofsuchanamountoftheexpenditurethatfurnishesthedaily
enjoymentsofthepeople，theonlywell—groundedeconomical
objectionagainsttakingthenecessaryfundsdirectlyfrom
capital，consistsoftheinconveniencesattendingtheprocessof
raisingarevenuebytaxation，topaytheinterestofadebt。
Thesameconsiderationsenableustothrowasideasunworthy
ofregard，oneofthecommonargumentsagainstemigrationasa
meansofreliefforthelabouringclass。Emigration，itissaid，
candonogoodtothelabourers，if，inordertodefraythecost，
asmuchmustbetakenawayfromthecapitalofthecountryas
fromitspopulation。Thatanythinglikethisproportioncould
requiretobeabstractedfromcapitalforthepurposeevenofthe
mostextensivecolonization，few，Ishouldthink，wouldnow
assert:butevenonthatuntenablesupposition，itisanerrorto
supposethatnobenefitwouldbeconferredonthelabouring
class。Ifone—tenthofthelabouringpeopleofEnglandwere
transferredtothecolonies，andalongwiththemone—tenthofthe
circulatingcapitalofthecountry，eitherwages，orprofits，or
both，wouldbegreatlybenefited，bythediminishedpressureof
capitalandpopulationuponthefertilityoftheland。There
wouldbeareduceddemandforfood:theinferiorarablelands
wouldbethrownoutofcultivation，andwouldbecomepasture;the
superiorwouldbecultivatedlesshighly，butwithagreater
proportionalreturn;foodwouldbeloweredinprice，andthough
moneywageswouldnotrise，everylabourerwouldbeconsiderably
improvedincircumstances，animprovementwhich，ifnoincreased
stimulustopopulationandfallofwagesensued，wouldbe
permanent;whileiftheredid，profitswouldrise，and
accumulationstartforwardsoastorepairthelossofcapital。
Thelandlordsalonewouldsustainsomelossofincome;andeven
they，onlyifcolonizationwenttothelengthofactually
diminishingcapitalandpopulation，butnotifitmerelycarried
offtheannualincrease。
2。Fromthesameprincipleswearenowabletoarriveata
finalconclusionrespectingtheeffectswhichmachinery，and
generallythesinkingofcapitalforaproductivepurpose，
produceupontheimmediateandultimateinterestsofthe
labouringclass。Thecharacteristicpropertyofthisclassof
industrialimprovementsistheconversionofcirculatingcapital
intofixed:anditwasshowninthefirstBook，thatinacountry
wherecapitalaccumulatesslowly，theintroductionofmachinery，
permanentimprovementsofland，andthelike，mightbe，forthe
time，extremelyinjurious;sincethecapitalsoemployedmightbe
directlytakenfromthewagesfund，thesubsistenceofthepeople
andtheemploymentforlabourcurtailed，andthegrossannual
produceofthecountryactuallydiminished。Butinacountryof
greatannualsavingsandlowprofits，nosucheffectsneedbe
apprehended。Sinceeventheemigrationofcapital，orits
unproductiveexpenditure，oritsabsolutewaste，donotinsucha
country，ifconfinedwithinanymoderatebounds，atalldiminish
theaggregateamountofthewagesfund——stilllesscanthemere
conversionofalikesumintofixedcapital，whichcontinuesto
beproductive，havethateffect。Itmerelydrawsoffatone
orificewhatwasalreadyflowingoutatanother;orifnot，the
greatervacantspaceleftinthereservoirdoesbutcausea
greaterquantitytoflowin。Accordingly，inspiteofthe
mischievousderangementsofthemoney—marketwhichwereatone
timeoccasionedbythesinkingofgreatsumsinrailways，Iwas
neverabletoagreewiththosewhoapprehendedmischief，from
thissource，totheproductiveresourcesofthecountry。Noton
theabsurdground（whichtoanyoneacquaintedwiththeelements
ofthesubjectneedsnoconfutation）thatrailwayexpenditureis
ameretransferofcapitalfromhandtohand，bywhichnothingis
lostordestroyed。Thisistrueofwhatisspentinthepurchase
oftheland;aportiontooofwhatispaidtoparliamentary
agents，counsel，engineers，andsurveyors，issavedbythosewho
receiveit，andbecomescapitalagain:butwhatislaidoutin
thebonafideconstructionoftherailwayitself，islostand
gone;whenonceexpended，itisincapableofeverbeingpaidin
wagesorappliedtothemaintenanceoflabourersagain;asa
matterofaccount，theresultisthatsomuchfoodandclothing
andtoolshavebeenconsumed，andthecountryhasgotarailway
instead。ButwhatIwouldurgeis，thatsumssoappliedare
mostlyamereappropriationoftheannualoverflowingwhichwould
otherwisehavegoneabroad，orbeenthrownawayunprofitably，
leavingneitherarailwaynoranyothertangibleresult。The
railwaygamblingof1844and1845probablysavedthecountryfrom
adepressionofprofitsandinterest，andariseofallpublic
andprivatesecurities，whichwouldhaveengenderedstillwilder
speculations，andwhentheeffectscameafterwardstobe
complicatedbythescarcityoffood，wouldhaveendedinastill
moreformidablecrisisthanwasexperiencedintheyears
immediatelyfollowing。InthepoorercountriesofEurope，the
rageforrailwayconstructionmighthavehadworseconsequences
thaninEngland，wereitnotthatinthosecountriessuch
enterprisesareinagreatmeasurecarriedonbyforeigncapital。
Therailwayoperationsofthevariousnationsoftheworldmaybe
lookeduponasasortofcompetitionfortheoverflowingcapital
ofthecountrieswhereprofitislowandcapitalabundant，as
EnglandandHolland。TheEnglishrailwayspeculationsarea
struggletokeepourannualincreaseofcapitalathome;thoseof
foreigncountriesareanefforttoobtainit。（1*）
Italreadyappearsfromtheseconsiderations，thatthe
conversionofcirculatingcapitalintofixed，whetherby
railways，ormanufactories，orships，ormachinery，orcanals，or
mines，orworksofdrainageandirrigation，isnotlikely，inany
richcountry，todiminishthegrossproduceortheamountof
employmentforlabour。Howmuchthenisthecasestrengthened，
whenweconsiderthatthesetransformationsofcapitalareofthe
natureofimprovementsinproduction，which，insteadof
ultimatelydiminishingcirculatingcapital，arethenecessary
conditionsofitsincrease，sincetheyaloneenableacountryto
possessaconstantlyaugmentingcapitalwithoutreducingprofits
totheratewhichwouldcauseaccumulationtostop。Thereis
hardlyanyincreaseoffixedcapitalwhichdoesnotenablethe
countrytocontaineventuallyalargercirculatingcapital，than
itotherwisecouldpossessandemploywithinitsownlimits;for
thereishardlyanycreationoffixedcapitalwhich，whenit
provessuccessful，doesnotcheapenthearticlesonwhichwages
arehabituallyexpended。Allcapitalsunkinthepermanent
improvementofland，lessensthecostoffoodandmaterials;
almostallimprovementsinmachinerycheapenthelabourer’s
clothingorlodging，orthetoolswithwhichthesearemade;
improvementsinlocomotion，suchasrailways，cheapentothe
consumerallthingswhicharebroughtfromadistance。Allthese
improvementsmakethelabourersbetteroffwiththesamemoney
wages，betteroffiftheydonotincreasetheirrateof
multiplication。Butiftheydo，andwagesconsequentlyfall，at
leastprofitsrise，and，whileaccumulationreceivesanimmediate
stimulus，roomismadeforagreateramountofcapitalbeforea
sufficientmotivearisesforsendingitabroad。Eventhe
improvementswhichdonotcheapenthethingsconsumedbythe
labourer，andwhich，therefore，donotraiseprofitsnorretain
capitalinthecountry，nevertheless，aswehaveseen，by
loweringtheminimumofprofitforwhichpeoplewillultimately
consenttosave，leaveanamplermarginthanpreviouslyfor
eventualaccumulation，beforearrivingatthestationarystate。
Wemayconclude，then，thatimprovementsinproduction，and
emigrationofcapitaltothemorefertilesoilsandunworked
minesoftheuninhabitedorthinlypeopledpartsoftheglobe，do
not，asappearstoasuperficialview，diminishthegrossproduce
andthedemandforlabourathome;but，onthecontrary，arewhat
wehavechieflytodependonforincreasingboth，andareeven
thenecessaryconditionsofanygreatorprolongedaugmentation
ofeither。Norisitanyexaggerationtosay，thatwithin
certain，andnotverynarrow，limits，themorecapitalacountry
likeEnglandexpendsinthesetwoways，themoreshewillhave
left。
NOTES:
1。Itishardlyneedfultopointouthowfullytheremarksinthe
texthavebeenverifiedbysubsequentfacts。Thecapitalofthe
country，farfromhavingbeeninanydegreeimpairedbythelarge
amountsunkinrailwayconstruction，wassoonagainoverflowing。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book4
Chapter6
OftheStationaryState
1。Theprecedingchapterscomprisethegeneraltheoryofthe
economicalprogressofsociety，inthesenseinwhichthoseterms
arecommonlyunderstood;theprogressofcapital，ofpopulation，
andoftheproductivearts。Butincontemplatinganyprogressive
movement，notinitsnatureunlimited，themindisnotsatisfied
withmerelytracingthelawsofthemovement;itcannotbutask
thefurtherquestion，towhatgoal？Towardswhatultimatepoint
issocietytendingbyitsindustrialprogress？Whentheprogress
ceases，inwhatconditionarewetoexpectthatitwillleave
mankind？
Itmustalwayshavebeenseen，moreorlessdistinctly，by
politicaleconomists，thattheincreaseofwealthisnot
boundless:thatattheendofwhattheytermtheprogressive
stateliesthestationarystate，thatallprogressinwealthis
butapostponementofthis，andthateachstepinadvanceisan
approachtoit。Wehavenowbeenledtorecognizethatthis
ultimategoalisatalltimesnearenoughtobefullyinview;
thatwearealwaysonthevergeofit，andthatifwehavenot
reacheditlongago，itisbecausethegoalitselffliesbefore
us。Therichestandmostprosperouscountrieswouldverysoon
attainthestationarystate，ifnofurtherimprovementsweremade
intheproductivearts，andiftherewereasuspensionofthe
overflowofcapitalfromthosecountriesintotheuncultivatedor
ill—cultivatedregionsoftheearth。
Thisimpossibilityofultimatelyavoidingthestationary
state——thisirresistiblenecessitythatthestreamofhuman
industryshouldfinallyspreaditselfoutintoanapparently
stagnantseamusthavebeen，tothepoliticaleconomistsofthe
lasttwogenerations，anunpleasinganddiscouragingprospect;
forthetoneandtendencyoftheirspeculationsgoescompletely
toidentifyallthatiseconomicallydesirablewiththe
progressivestate，andwiththatalone。WithMrM’Culloch，for
example，prosperitydoesnotmeanalargeproductionandagood
distributionofwealth，butarapidincreaseofit;histestof
prosperityishighprofits;andasthetendencyofthatvery
increaseofwealth，whichhecallsprosperity，istowardslow
profits，economicalprogress，accordingtohim，musttendtothe
extinctionofprosperity。AdamSmithalwaysassumesthatthe
conditionofthemassofthepeople，thoughitmaynotbe
positivelydistressed，mustbepinchedandstintedina
stationaryconditionofwealth，andcanonlybesatisfactoryina
progressivestate。Thedoctrinethat，tohoweverdistantatime
incessantstrugglingmayputoffourdoom，theprogressof
societymust’endinshallowsandinmiseries’，farfrombeing，
asmanypeoplestillbelieve，awickedinventionofMrMalthus，
waseitherexpresslyortacitlyaffirmedbyhismost
distinguishedpredecessors，andcanonlybesuccessfullycombated
onhisprinciples。Beforeattentionhadbeendirectedtothe
principleofpopulationastheactiveforceindeterminingthe
remunerationoflabour，theincreaseofmankindwasvirtually
treatedasaconstantquantity;itwas，atallevents，assumed
thatinthenaturalandnormalstateofhumanaffairspopulation
mustconstantlyincrease，fromwhichitfollowedthataconstant
increaseofthemeansofsupportwasessentialtothephysical
comfortofthemassofmankind。ThepublicationofMrMalthus’
Essayistheerafromwhichbetterviewsofthissubjectmustbe
dated;andnotwithstandingtheacknowledgederrorsofhisfirst
edition，fewwritershavedonemorethanhimself，inthe
subsequenteditions，topromotethesejusterandmorehopeful
anticipations。
Eveninaprogressivestateofcapital，inoldcountries，a
conscientiousorprudentialrestraintonpopulationis
indispensable，topreventtheincreaseofnumbersfrom
outstrippingtheincreaseofcapital，andtheconditionofthe
classeswhoareatthebottomofsocietyfrombeingdeteriorated。
Wherethereisnot，inthepeople，orinsomeverylarge
proportionofthem，aresoluteresistancetothisdeterioration—
adeterminationtopreserveanestablishedstandardofcomfort—
theconditionofthepoorestclasssinks，eveninaprogressive
state，tothelowestpointwhichtheywillconsenttoendure。The
samedeterminationwouldbeequallyeffectualtokeepuptheir
conditioninthestationarystate，andwouldbequiteaslikely
toexist。Indeed，evennow，thecountriesinwhichthegreatest
prudenceismanifestedintheregulatingofpopulation，areoften
thoseinwhichcapitalincreasesleastrapidly。Wherethereisan
indefiniteprospectofemploymentforincreasednumbers，thereis
apttoappearlessnecessityforprudentialrestraint。Ifitwere
evidentthatanewhandcouldnotobtainemploymentbutby
displacing，orsucceedingto，onealreadyemployed，thecombined
influencesofprudenceandpublicopinionmightinsomemeasure
bereliedonforrestrictingthecominggenerationwithinthe
numbersnecessaryforreplacingthepresent。
2。Icannot，therefore，regardthestationarystateof
capitalandwealthwiththeunaffectedaversionsogenerally
manifestedtowardsitbypoliticaleconomistsoftheoldschool。
Iaminclinedtobelievethatitwouldbe，onthewhole，avery
considerableimprovementonourpresentcondition。IconfessIam
notcharmedwiththeidealoflifeheldoutbythosewhothink
thatthenormalstateofhumanbeingsisthatofstrugglingto
geton;thatthetrampling，crushing，elbowing，andtreadingon
eachother’sheels，whichformtheexistingtypeofsociallife，
arethemostdesirablelotofhumankind，oranythingbutthe
disagreeablesymptomsofoneofthephasesofindustrial
progress。Itmaybeanecessarystageintheprogressof
civilization，andthoseEuropeannationswhichhavehithertobeen
sofortunateastobepreservedfromit，mayhaveityetto
undergo。Itisanincidentofgrowth，notamarkofdecline，for
itisnotnecessarilydestructiveofthehigheraspirationsand
theheroicvirtues;asAmerica，inhergreatcivilwar，has
provedtotheworld，bothbyherconductasapeopleandby
numeroussplendidindividualexamples，andasEngland，itisto
behoped，wouldalsoprove，onanequallytryingandexciting
occasion。Butitisnotakindofsocialperfectionwhich
philanthropiststocomewillfeelanyveryeagerdesiretoassist
inrealizing。Mostfitting，indeed，isit，thatwhilerichesare
power，andtogrowasrichaspossibletheuniversalobjectof
ambition，thepathtoitsattainmentshouldbeopentoall，
withoutfavourorpartiality。Butthebeststateforhumannature
isthatinwhich，whilenooneispoor，noonedesirestobe
richer，norhasanyreasontofearbeingthrustback，bythe
effortsofotherstopushthemselvesforward。
Thattheenergiesofmankindshouldbekeptinemploymentby
thestruggleforriches，astheywereformerlybythestruggleof
war，untilthebettermindssucceedineducatingtheothersinto
betterthings，isundoubtedlymoredesirablethanthatthey
shouldrustandstagnate。Whilemindsarecoarsetheyrequire
coarsestimuli，andletthemhavethem。Inthemeantime，those
whodonotacceptthepresentveryearlystageofhuman
improvementasitsultimatetype，maybeexcusedforbeing
comparativelyindifferenttothekindofeconomicalprogress
whichexcitesthecongratulationsofordinarypoliticians;the
mereincreaseofproductionandaccumulation。Forthesafetyof
nationalindependenceitisessentialthatacountryshouldnot
fallmuchbehinditsneighboursinthesethings。Butin
themselvestheyareoflittleimportance，solongaseitherthe
increaseofpopulationoranythingelsepreventsthemassofthe
peoplefromreapinganypartofthebenefitofthem。Iknownot
whyitshouldbematterofcongratulationthatpersonswhoare
alreadyricherthananyoneneedstobe，shouldhavedoubled
theirmeansofconsumingthingswhichgivelittleornopleasure
exceptasrepresentativeofwealth;orthatnumbersof
individualsshouldpassover，everyyear，fromthemiddleclasses
intoaricherclass，orfromtheclassoftheoccupiedrichto
thatoftheunoccupied。Itisonlyinthebackwardcountriesof
theworldthatincreasedproductionisstillanimportantobject:
inthosemostadvanced，whatiseconomicallyneededisabetter
distribution，ofwhichoneindispensablemeansisastricter
restraintonpopulation。Levellinginstitutions，eitherofajust
orofanunjustkind，cannotaloneaccomplishit;theymaylower
theheightsofsociety，buttheycannot，ofthemselves，
permanentlyraisethedepths。
Ontheotherhand，wemaysupposethisbetterdistributionof
propertyattained，bythejointeffectoftheprudenceand
frugalityofindividuals，andofasystemoflegislation
favouringequalityoffortunes，sofarasisconsistentwiththe
justclaimoftheindividualtothefruits，whethergreator
small，ofhisorherownindustry。Wemaysuppose，forinstance
（accordingtothesuggestionthrownoutinaformerchapter），a
limitationofthesumwhichanyonepersonmayacquirebygiftor
inheritance，totheamountsufficienttoconstituteamoderate
independence。Underthistwofoldinfluence，societywouldexhibit
theseleadingfeatures:awell—paidandaffluentbodyof
labourers;noenormousfortunes，exceptwhatwereearnedand
accumulatedduringasinglelifetime;butamuchlargerbodyof
personsthanatpresent，notonlyexemptfromthecoarsertoils，
butwithsufficientleisure，bothphysicalandmental，from
mechanicaldetails，tocultivatefreelythegracesoflife，and
affordexamplesofthemtotheclasseslessfavourably
circumstancedfortheirgrowth。Thisconditionofsociety，so
greatlypreferabletothepresent，isnotonlyperfectly
compatiblewiththestationarystate，but，itwouldseem，more
naturallyalliedwiththatstatethanwithanyother。
Thereisroomintheworld，nodoubt，andeveninold
countries，foragreatincreaseofpopulation，supposingthearts
oflifetogoonimproving，andcapitaltoincrease。Butevenif
innocuous，IconfessIseeverylittlereasonfordesiringit。
Thedensityofpopulationnecessarytoenablemankindtoobtain，
inthegreatestdegree，alltheadvantagesbothofco—operation
andofsocialintercourse，has，inallthemostpopulous
countries，beenattained。Apopulationmaybetoocrowded，though
allbeamplysuppliedwithfoodandraiment。Itisnotgoodfor
mantobekeptperforceatalltimesinthepresenceofhis
species。Aworldfromwhichsolitudeisextirpated，isavery
poorideal。Solitude，inthesenseofbeingoftenalone，is
essentialtoanydepthofmeditationorofcharacter;and
solitudeinthepresenceofnaturalbeautyandgrandeur，isthe
cradleofthoughtsandaspirationswhicharenotonlygoodfor
theindividual，butwhichsocietycouldilldowithout。Noris
theremuchsatis。factionincontemplatingtheworldwithnothing
lefttothespontaneousactivityofnature;witheveryroodof
landbroughtintocultivation，whichiscapableofgrowingfood
forhumanbeings;everyflowerywasteornaturalpastureploughed
up，allquadrupedsorbirdswhicharenotdomesticatedforman’s
useexterminatedashisrivalsforfood，everyhedgerowor
superfluoustreerootedout，andscarcelyaplaceleftwherea
wildshruborflowercouldgrowwithoutbeingeradicatedasa
weedinthenameofimprovedagriculture。Iftheearthmustlose
thatgreatportionofitspleasantnesswhichitowestothings
thattheunlimitedincreaseofwealthandpopulationwould
extirpatefromit，forthemerepurposeofenablingittosupport
alarger，butnotabetterorahappierpopulation，Isincerely
hope，forthesakeofposterity，thattheywillbecontenttobe
stationary，longbeforenecessitycompelsthemtoit。
Itisscarcelynecessarytoremarkthatastationary
conditionofcapitalandpopulationimpliesnostationarystate
ofhumanimprovement。Therewouldbeasmuchscopeaseverfor
allkindsofmentalculture，andmoralandsocialprogress;as
muchroomforimprovingtheArtofLiving，andmuchmore
likelihoodofitsbeingimproved，whenmindsceasedtobe
engrossedbytheartofgettingon。Eventheindustrialarts
mightbeasearnestlyandassuccessfullycultivated，withthis
soledifference，thatinsteadofservingnopurposebutthe
increaseofwealth，industrialimprovementswouldproducetheir
legitimateeffect，thatofabridginglabour。Hithertoitis
questionableifallthemechanicalinventionsyetmadehave
lightenedtheday’stoilofanyhumanbeing。Theyhaveenableda
greaterpopulationtolivethesamelifeofdrudgeryand
imprisonment，andanin。creasednumberofmanufacturersand
otherstomakefortunes。Theyhaveincreasedthecomfortsofthe
middleclasses。Buttheyhavenotyetbeguntoeffectthosegreat
changesinhumandestiny，whichitisintheirnatureandin
theirfuturitytoaccomplish。Onlywhen，inadditiontojust
institutions，theincreaseofmankindshallbeunderthe
deliberateguidanceofjudiciousforesight，cantheconquests
madefromthepowersofnaturebytheintellectandenergyof
scientificdiscoverers，becomethecommonpropertyofthe
species，andthemeansofimprovingandelevatingtheuniversal
lot。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomybyJohnStuartMillBook4
Chapter7
OntheProbableFuturityoftheLabouringClasses1。Theobservationsintheprecedingchapterhadfortheirprincipalobjecttodeprecateafalseidealofhumansociety。
Theirapplicabilitytothepracticalpurposesofpresenttimes，consistsinmoderatingtheinordinateimportanceattachedtothemereincreaseofproduction，andfixingattentionuponimproveddistribution，andalargeremunerationoflabour，asthetwodesiderata。Whethertheaggregateproduceincreasesabsolutelyornot，isathinginwhich，afteracertainamounthasbeenobtained，neitherthelegislatornorthephilanthropistneedfeelanystronginterest:but，thatitshouldincreaserelativelytothenumberofthosewhoshareinit，isoftheutmostpossibleimportance;andthis，（whetherthewealthofmankindbestationary，orincreasingatthemostrapidrateeverknowninanoldcountry），mustdependontheopinionsandhabitsofthemostnumerousclass，theclassofmanuallabourers。
WhenIspeak，eitherinthisplaceorelsewhere，of’thelabouringclasses’，oroflabourersasa’class’，Iusethosephrasesincompliancewithcustom，andasdescriptiveofanexisting，butbynomeansanecessaryorpermanent，stateofsocialrelations。Idonotrecognizeaseitherjustorsalutary，astateofsocietyinwhichthereisany’class’whichisnotlabouring;anyhumanbeings，exemptfrombearingtheirshareofthenecessarylaboursofhumanlife，exceptthoseunabletolabour，orwhohavefairlyearnedrestbyprevioustoil。Solong，however，asthegreatsocialevilexistsofanon—labouringclass，labourersalsoconstituteaclass，andmaybespokenof，thoughonlyprovisionally，inthatcharacter。
Consideredinitsmoralandsocialaspect，thestateofthelabouringpeoplehaslatterlybeenasubjectofmuchmorespeculationanddiscussionthanformerly;andtheopinionthatitisnotnowwhatitoughttobe，hasbecomeverygeneral。Thesuggestionswhichhavebeenpromulgated，andthecontroversieswhichhavebeenexcited，ondetachedpointsratherthanonthefoundationsofthesubject，haveputinevidencetheexistenceoftwoconflictingtheories，respectingthesocialpositiondesirableformanuallabourers。Theonemaybecalledthetheoryofdependenceandprotection，theotherthatofself—dependence。
Accordingtotheformertheory，thelotofthepoor，inallthingswhichaffectthemcollectively，shouldberegulatedforthem，notbythem。Theyshouldnotberequiredorencouragedtothinkforthemselves，orgivetotheirownreflectionorforecastaninfluentialvoiceinthedeterminationoftheirdestiny。Itissupposedtobethedutyofthehigherclassestothinkforthem，andtotaketheresponsibilityoftheirlot，asthecommanderandofficersofanarmytakethatofthesoldierscomposingit。Thisfunction，itiscontended，thehigherclassesshouldpreparethemselvestoperformconscientiously，andtheirwholedemeanourshouldimpressthepoorwitharelianceonit，inorderthat，whileyieldingpassiveandactiveobediencetotherulesprescribedforthem，theymayresignthemselvesinallotherrespectstoatrustfulinsouciance，andreposeundertheshadowoftheirprotectors。Therelationbetweenrichandpoor，accordingtothistheory（atheoryalsoappliedtotherelationbetweenmenandwomen）shouldbeonlypartlyauthoritative;itshouldbeamiable，moral，andsentimental:affectionatetutelageontheoneside，respectfulandgratefuldeferenceontheother。
Therichshouldbeinlocoparentistothepoor，guidingandrestrainingthemlikechildren。Ofspontaneousactionontheirpartthereshouldbenoneed。Theyshouldbecalledonfornothingbuttodotheirday’swork，andtobemoralandreligious。Theirmoralityandreligionshouldbeprovidedforthembytheirsuperiors，whoshouldseethemproperlytaughtit，andshoulddoallthatisnecessarytoensuretheirbeing，inreturnforlabourandattachment，properlyfed，clothed，housed，spirituallyedified，andinnocentlyamused。
Thisistheidealofthefuture，inthemindsofthosewhosedissatisfactionwiththepresentassumestheformofaffectionandregrettowardsthepast。Likeotherideals，itexercisesanunconsciousinfluenceontheopinionsandsentimentsofnumberswhoneverconsciouslyguidethemselvesbyanyideal。Ithasalsothisincommonwithotherideals，thatithasneverbeenhistoricallyrealized。Itmakesitsappealtoourimaginativesympathiesinthecharacterofarestorationofthegoodtimesofourforefathers。Butnotimescanbepointedoutinwhichthehigherclassesofthisoranyothercountryperformedapartevendistantlyresemblingtheoneassignedtotheminthistheory。Itisanidealization，groundedontheconductandcharacterofhereandthereanindividual。Allprivilegedandpowerfulclasses，assuch，haveusedtheirpowerintheinterestoftheirownselfishness，andhaveindulgedtheirself。importanceindespising，andnotinlovinglycaringfor，thosewhowere，intheirestimation，degradedbybeingunderthenecessityofworkingfortheirbenefit。Idonotaffirmthatwhathasalwaysbeenmustalwaysbe，orthathumanimprovementhasnotendencytocorrecttheintenselyselfishfillingsengenderedbypower;butthoughtheevilmaybelessened，itcannotbeeradicated，untilthepoweritselfiswithdrawn。This，atleast，seemstomeundeniable，thatlongbeforethesuperiorclassescouldbesufficientlyimprovedtogoverninthetutelarymannersupposed，theinferiorclasseswouldbetoomuchimprovedtobesogoverned。
Iamquitesensibleofallthatisseductiveinthepictureofsocietywhichthistheorypresents。Thoughthefactsofithavenoprototypeinthepast，thefeelingshave。Inthemliesallthatthereisofrealityintheconception。Astheideaisessentiallyrepulsiveofasocietyonlyheldtogetherbytherelationsandfeelingsarisingoutofpecuniaryinterests，sothereissomethingnaturallyattractiveinaformofsocietyaboundinginstrongpersonalattachmentsanddisinterestedself。devotion。Ofsuchfeelingsitmustbeadmittedthattherelationofprotectorandprotectedhashithertobeentherichestsource。Thestrongestattachmentsofhumanbeingsingeneral，aretowardsthethingsorthepersonsthatstandbetweenthemandsomedreadedevil。Hence，inanageoflawlessviolenceandinsecurity，andgeneralhardnessandroughnessofmanners，inwhichlifeisbesetwithdangersandsufferingsateverystep，tothosewhohaveneitheracommandingpositionoftheirown，noraclaimontheprotectionofsomeonewhohas——agenerousgivingofprotection，andagratefulreceivingofit，arethestrongesttieswhichconnecthumanbeings;thefeelingsarisingfromthatrelationaretheirwarmestfeelings;alltheenthusiasmandtendernessofthemostsensitivenaturesgatherroundit;loyaltyontheonepartandchivalryontheotherareprinciplesexaltedintopassions。Idonotdesiretodepreciatethesequalities。Theerrorliesinnotperceiving，thatthesevirtuesandsentiments，liketheclanshipandthehospitalityofthewanderingArab，belongemphaticallytoarudeandimperfectstateofthesocialunion;andthatthefeelingsbetweenprotectorandprotected，whetherbetweenkingsandsubjects，richandpoor，ormenandwomen，cannolongerhavethisbeautifulandendearingcharacter，wheretherearenolongeranyseriousdangersfromwhichtoprotect。Whatisthereinthepresentstateofsocietytomakeitnaturalthathumanbeings，ofordinarystrengthandcourage，shouldglowwiththewarmestgratitudeanddevotioninreturnforprotection？Thelawsprotectthem，whereverthelawsdonotcriminallyfailintheirduty。Tobeunderthepowerofsomeone，insteadofbeingasformerlythesoleconditionofsafety，isnow，speakinggenerally，theonlysituationwhichexposestogrievouswrong。Theso—calledprotectorsarenowtheonlypersonsagainstwhom，inanyordinarycircumstances，protectionisneeded。Thebrutalityandtyrannywithwhicheverypolicereportisfilled，arethoseofhusbandstowives，ofparentstochildren。Thatthelawdoesnotpreventtheseatrocities，thatitisonlynowmakingafirsttimidattempttorepressandpunishthem，isnomatterofnecessity，butthedeepdisgraceofthosebywhomthelawsaremadeandadministered。Nomanorwomanwhoeitherpossessesorisabletoearnanindependentlivelihood，requiresanyotherprotectionthanthatwhichthelawcouldandoughttogive。Thisbeingthecase，itarguesgreatignoranceofhumannaturetocontinuetakingforgrantedthatrelationsfoundedonprotectionmustalwayssubsist，andnottoseethattheassumptionofthepartofprotector，andofthepowerwhichbelongstoit，withoutanyofthenecessitieswhichjustifyit，mustengenderfeelingsoppositetoloyalty。
Oftheworkingmen，atleastinthemoreadvancedcountriesofEurope，itmaybepronouncedcertain，thatthepatriarchalorpaternalsystemofgovernmentisonetowhichtheywillnotagainbesubject。Thatquestionwasdecided，whentheyweretaughttoread，andallowedaccesstonewspapersandpoliticaltracts;whendissentingpreachersweresufferedtogoamongthem，andappealtotheirfacultiesandfeelingsinoppositiontothecreedsprofessedandcountenancedbytheirsuperiors;whentheywerebroughttogetherinnumbers，toworksociallyunderthesameroof;whenrailwaysenabledthemtoshiftfromplacetoplace，andchangetheirpatronsandemployersaseasilyastheircoats;
whentheywereencouragedtoseekashareinthegovernment，bymeansoftheelectoralfranchise。Theworkingclasseshavetakentheirinterestsintotheirownhands，andareperpetuallyshowingthattheythinktheinterestsoftheiremployersnotidenticalwiththeirown，butoppositetothem。Someamongthehigherclassesflatterthemselvesthatthesetendenciesmaybecounteractedbymoralandreligiouseducation:buttheyhaveletthetimegobyforgivinganeducationwhichcanservetheirpurpose。TheprinciplesoftheReformationhavereachedaslowdowninsocietyasreadingandwriting，andthepoorwillnotmuchlongeracceptmoralsandreligionofotherpeople’sprescribing。Ispeakmoreparticularlyofthiscountry，especiallythetownpopulation，andthedistrictsofthemostscientificagricultureorthehighestwages，ScotlandandthenorthofEngland。Amongthemoreinertandlessmodernizedagriculturalpopulationofthesoutherncounties，itmightbepossibleforthegentrytoretain，forsometimelonger，somethingoftheancientdeferenceandsubmissionofthepoor，bybribingthemwithhighwagesandconstantemployment;byinsuringthemsupport，andneverrequiringthemtodoanythingwhichtheydonotlike。Butthesearetwoconditionswhichneverhavebeencombined，andnevercanbe，forlongtogether。Aguaranteeofsubsistencecanonlybepracticallykeptup，whenworkisenforcedandsuperfluousmultiplicationrestrainedbyatleastamoralcompulsion。Itisthen，thatthewould—bereviversofoldtimeswhichtheydonotunderstand，wouldfeelpracticallyinhowhopelessatasktheywereengaged。Thewholefabricofpatriarchalorseignorialinfluence，attemptedtoberaisedonthefoundationofcaressingthepoor，wouldbeshatteredagainstthenecessityofenforcingastringentPoor—law。
2。Itisonafarotherbasisthatthewell—beingandwell—doingofthelabouringpeoplemusthenceforthrest。Thepoorhavecomeoutofleading。strings，andcannotanylongerbegovernedortreatedlikechildren。Totheirownqualitiesmustnowbecommendedthecareoftheirdestiny。Modernnationswillhavetolearnthelesson，thatthewell—beingofapeoplemustexistbymeansofthejusticeandself—government，theandoftheindividualcitizens。Thetheoryofdependenceattemptstodispensewiththenecessityofthesequalitiesinthedependentclasses。Butnow，wheneveninpositiontheyarebecominglessandlessdependent，andtheirmindslessandlessacquiescentinthedegreeofdependencewhichremains，thevirtuesofindependencearethosewhichtheystandinneedof。Whateveradvice，exhortationorguidanceisheldouttothelabouringclasses，musthenceforthbetenderedtothemasequalsandacceptedbythemwiththeireyesopen。Theprospectofthefuturedependsonthedegreeinwhichtheycanbemaderationalbeings。
Thereisnoreasontobelievethatprospectotherthanhopeful。Theprogressindeedhashithertobeen，andstillis，slow。Butthereisaspontaneouseducationgoingoninthemindsofthemultitude，whichmaybegreatlyacceleratedandimprovedbyartificialaids。Theinstructionobtainedfromnewspapersandpoliticaltractsmaynotbethemostsolidkindofinstruction，butitisanimmenseimprovementuponnoneatall。Whatitdoesforapeople，hasbeenadmirablyexemplifiedduringthecottoncrisis，inthecaseoftheLancashirespinnersandweavers，whohaveactedwiththeconsistentgoodsenseandforbearancesojustlyapplauded，simplybecause，beingreadersofnewspapers，theyunderstoodthecausesofthecalamitywhichhadbefallenthem，andknewthatitwasinnowayimputableeithertotheiremployersortotheGovernment。Itisnotcertainthattheirconductwouldhavebeenasrationalandexemplary，ifthedistresshadprecededthesalutarymeasureoffiscalemancipationwhichgaveexistencetothepennypress。Theinstitutionsforlecturesanddiscussion，thecollectivedeliberationsonquestionsofcommoninterest，thetradesunions，thepoliticalagitation，allservetoawakenpublicspirit，todiffusevarietyofideasamongthemass，andtoexcitethoughtandreflectioninthemoreintelligent。Althoughthetooearlyattainmentofpoliticalfranchisesbytheleasteducatedclassmightretard，insteadofpromoting，theirimprovement，therecanbelittledoubtthatithasbeengreatlystiPulatedbytheattempttoacquirethem。Inthemeantime，theworkingclassesarenowpartofthepublic;inalldiscussionsonmattersofgeneralinterestthey，oraportionofthem，arenowpartakers;allwhousethepressasaninstrumentmay，ifitsohappens，havethemforanaudience;theavenuesofinstructionthroughwhichthemiddleclassesacquiresuchideasastheyhave，areaccessibleto，atleast，theoperativesinthetowns。Withtheseresources，itcannotbedoubtedthattheywillincreaseinintelligence，evenbytheirownunaidedefforts;whilethereisreasontohopethatgreatimprovementsbothinthequalityandquantityofschooleducationwillbeeffectedbytheexertionseitherofgovernmentorofindividuals，andthattheprogressofthemassofthepeopleinmentalcultivation，andinthevirtueswhicharedependentonit，willtakeplacemorerapidly，andwithfewerintermittencesandaberrations，thaniflefttoitself。
Fromthisincreaseofintelligence，severaleffectsmaybeconfidentlyanticipated。First:thattheywillbecomeevenlesswillingthanatpresenttobeledandgoverned，anddirectedintothewaytheyshouldgo，bythemereauthorityandprestigeofsuperiors。Iftheyhavenotnow，stilllesswilltheyhavehereafter，anydeferentialawe，orreligiousprincipleofobedience，holdingtheminmentalsubjectiontoaclassabovethem。Thetheoryofdependenceandprotectionwillbemoreandmoreintolerabletothem，andtheywillrequirethattheirconductandconditionshallbeessentiallyself—governed。Itis，atthesametime，quitepossiblethattheymaydemand，inmanycases，theinterventionofthelegislatureintheiraffairs，andtheregulationbylawofvariousthingswhichconcernthem，oftenunderverymistakenideasandsuggestions，towhichtheywilldemandthateffectshouldbegiven，andnotruleslaiddownforthembyotherpeople。Itisquiteconsistentwiththis，thattheyshouldfeelrespectforsuperiorityofintellectandknowledge，anddefermuchtotheopinions，onanysubject，ofthosewhomtheythinkwellacquaintedwithit。Suchdeferenceisdeeplygroundedinhumannature;buttheywilljudgeforthemselvesofthepersonswhoareandarenotentitledtoit。
3。Itappearstomeimpossiblebutthattheincreaseofintelligence，ofeducation，andoftheloveofindependenceamongtheworkingclasses，mustbeattendedwithacorrespondinggrowthofthegoodsensewhichmanifestsitselfinprovidenthabitsofconduct，andthatpopulation，therefore，willbearagraduallydiminishingratiotocapitalandemployment。Thismostdesirableresultwouldbemuchacceleratedbyanotherchange，whichliesinthedirectlineofthebesttendenciesofthetime;theopeningofindustrialoccupationsfreelytobothsexes。Thesamereasonswhichmakeitnolongernecessarythatthepoorshoulddependontherich，makeitequallyunnecessarythatwomenshoulddependonmen;andtheleastwhichjusticerequiresisthatlawandcustomshouldnotenforcedependence（whenthecorrelativeprotectionhasbecomesuperfluous）byordainingthatawoman，whodoesnothappentohaveaprovisionbyinheritance，shallhavescarcelyanymeansopentoherofgainingalivelihood，exceptasawifeandmother。Letwomenwhopreferthatoccupation，adoptit;butthatthereshouldbenooption，noothercareerpossibleforthegreatmajorityofwomen，exceptinthehumblerdepartmentsoflife，isaflagrantsocialinjustice。Theideasandinstitutionsbywhichtheaccidentofsexismadethegroundworkofaninequalityoflegalrights，andaforceddissimilarityofsocialfunctions，musterelongberecognizedasthegreatesthindrancetomoral，social，andevenintellectualimprovement。OnthepresentoccasionIshallonlyindicate，amongtheprobableconsequencesoftheindustrialandsocialindependenceofwomen，agreatdiminutionoftheevilofover—population。Itisbydevotingone—halfofthehumanspeciestothatexclusivefunction，bymakingitfilltheentirelifeofonesex，andinterweaveitselfwithalmostalltheobjectsoftheother，thattheanimalinstinctinquestionisnursedintothedisproportionatepreponderancewhichithashithertoexercisedinhumanlife。
4。Thepoliticalconsequencesoftheincreasingpowerandimportanceoftheoperativeclasses，andofthegrowingascendancyofnumbers，which，eveninEnglandandunderthepresentinstitutions，israpidlygivingtothewillofthemajorityatleastanegativevoiceintheactsofgovernment，aretoowideasubjecttobediscussedinthisplace。But，confiningourselvestoeconomicalconsiderations，andnotwithstandingtheeffectwhichimprovedintelligenceintheworkingclasses，togetherwithjustlaws，mayhaveinalteringthedistributionoftheproducetotheiradvantage，Icannotthinkthattheywillbepermanentlycontentedwiththeconditionoflabouringforwagesastheirultimatestate。Theymaybewillingtopassthroughtheclassofservantsintheirwaytothatofemployers;butnottoremaininitalltheirlives。Tobeginashiredlabourers，thenafterafewyearstoworkontheirownaccount，andfinallyemployothers，isthenormalconditionoflabourersinanewcountry，rapidlyincreasinginwealthandpopulation，likeAmericaorAustralia。Butinanoldandfullypeopledcountry，thosewhobeginlifeaslabourersforhire，asageneralrule，continuesuchtotheend，unlesstheysinkintothestilllowergradeofrecipientsofpubliccharity。Inthepresentstageofhumanprogress，whenideasofequalityaredailyspreadingmorewidelyamongthepoorerclasses，andcannolongerbecheckedbyanythingshortoftheentiresuppressionofprinteddiscussionandevenoffreedomofspeech，itisnottobeexpectedthatthedivisionofthehumanraceintotwohereditaryclasses，employersandemployed，canbepermanentlymaintained。Therelationisnearlyasunsatisfactorytothepayerofwagesastothereceiver。Iftherichregardthepooras，byakindofnaturallaw，theirservantsanddependents，therichintheirturnareregardedasamerepreyandpastureforthepoor;thesubjectofdemandsandexpectationswhollyindefinite，increasinginextentwitheveryconcessionmadetothem。Thetotalabsenceofregardforjusticeorfairnessintherelationsbetweenthetwo，isasmarkedonthesideoftheemployedasonthatoftheemployers。
Welookinvainamongtheworkingclassesingeneralforthejustpridewhichwillchoosetogivegoodworkforgoodwages;forthemostpart，theirsoleendeavouristoreceiveasmuch，andreturnaslittleintheshapeofservice，aspossible。Itwillsoonerorlaterbecomeinsupportabletotheemployingclasses，toliveincloseandhourlycontactwithpersonswhoseinterestsandfeelingsareinhostilitytothem。Capitalistsarealmostasmuchinterestedaslabourersinplacingtheoperationsofindustryonsuchafooting，thatthosewholabourforthemmayfeelthesameinterestinthework，whichisfeltbythosewholabourontheirownaccount。
Theopinionexpressedinaformerpartofthistreatiserespect。ingsmalllandedpropertiesandpeasantproprietors，mayhavemadethereaderanticipatethatawidediffusionofpropertyinlandistheresourceonwhichIrelyforexemptingatleasttheagriculturallabourersfromexclusivedependenceonlabourforhire。Such，however，isnotmyopinion。Iindeeddeemthatformofagriculturaleconomytobemostgroundlesslycrieddown，andtobegreatlypreferable，initsaggregateeffectsonhumanhappiness，tohiredlabourinanyforminwhichitexistsatpresent;becausetheprudentialchecktopopulationactsmoredirectly，andisshownbyexperiencetobemoreefficacious;andbecause，inpointofsecurity，ofindependence，ofexerciseofanyotherthantheanimalfaculties，thestateofapeasantproprietorisfarsuperiortothatofanagriculturallabourerinthisoranyotheroldcountry。Wheretheformersystemalreadyexists，andworksonthewholesatisfactorily，Ishouldregret，inthepresentstateofhumanintelligence，toseeitabolishedinordertomakewayfortheother，underapedanticnotionofagriculturalimprovementasathingnecessarilythesameineverydiversityofcircumstances。Inabackwardstateofindustrialimprovement，asinIreland，Ishouldurgeitsintroduction，inpreferencetoanexclusivesystemofhiredlabour;asamorepowerfulinstrumentforraisingapopulationfromsemi—savagelistlessnessandrecklessness，toperseveringindustryandprudentcalculation。