8。Anotherkindoflabour，usuallyclassedasmental，but
conducingtotheultimateproductasdirectly，thoughnotso
immediately，asmanuallabouritself，isthelabourofthe
inventorsofindustrialprocesses。Isay，usuallyclassedas
mental，becauseinrealityitisnotexclusivelyso。Allhuman
exertioniscompoundedofsomementalandsomebodilyelements。
Thestupidesthodman，whorepeatsfromdaytodaythemechanical
actofclimbingaladder，performsafunctionpartly
intellectual;somuchso，indeed，thatthemostintelligentdog
orelephantcouldnot，probably，betaughttodoit。Thedullest
humanbeing，instructedbeforehand，iscapableofturningamill;
butahorsecannotturnitwithoutsomebodytodriveandwatch
him。Ontheotherhand，thereissomebodilyingredientinthe
labourmostpurelymental，whenitgeneratesanyexternalresult。
NewtoncouldnothaveproducedthePrincipiawithoutthebodily
exertioneitherofpenmanshiporofdictation;andhemusthave
drawnmanydiagrams，andwrittenoutmanycalculationsand
demonstrations，whilehewaspreparingitinhismind。Inventors，
besidesthelabouroftheirbrains，generallygothroughmuch
labourwiththeirhands，inthemodelswhichtheyconstructand
theexperimentstheyhavetomakebeforetheirideacanrealize
itselfsuccessfullyinact。Whethermental，however，orbodily，
theirlabourisapartofthatbywhichtheproductionisbrought
about。ThelabourofWattincontrivingthesteam—enginewasas
essentialapartofproductionasthatofthemechanicswhobuild
ortheengineerswhoworktheinstrument;andwasundergone，no
lessthantheirs，intheprospectofaremunerationfromthe
produce。Thelabourofinventionisoftenestimatedandpaidon
theverysameplanasthatofexecution。Manymanufacturersof
ornamentalgoodshaveinventorsintheiremployment，whoreceive
wagesorsalariesfordesigningpatterns，exactlyasothersdo
forcopyingthem。Allthisisstrictlypartofthelabourof
production;asthelabouroftheauthorofabookisequallya
partofitsproductionwiththatoftheprinterandbinder。
Inanational，oruniversalpointofview，thelabourofthe
savant，orspeculativethinker，isasmuchapartofproduction
intheverynarrowestsense，asthatoftheinventorofa
practicalart;manysuchinventionshavingbeenthedirect
consequencesoftheoreticdiscoveries，andeveryextensionof
knowledgeofthepowersofnaturebeingfruitfulofapplications
tothepurposesofoutwardlife。Theelectro—magnetictelegraph
wasthewonderfulandmostunexpectedconsequenceofthe
experimentsofOErstedandthemathematicalinvestigationsof
Amp鑢e:andthemodernartofnavigationisanunforeseen
emanationfromthepurelyspeculativeandapparentlymerely
curiousenquiry，bythemathematiciansofAlexandria，intothe
propertiesofthreecurvesformedbytheintersectionofaplane
surfaceandacone。Nolimitcanbesettotheimportance，even
inapurelyproductiveandmaterialpointofview，ofmere
thought。Inasmuch，however，asthesematerialfruits，thoughthe
result，areseldomthedirectpurposeofthepursuitsofsavants，
noristheirremunerationingeneralderivedfromtheincreased
productionwhichmaybecausedincidentally，andmostlyaftera
longinterval，bytheirdiscoveries;thisultimateinfluencedoes
not，formostofthepurposesofpoliticaleconomy，requiretobe
takenintoconsideration;aregenerallyclassedastheproducers
onlyofbooks，orotheruseableorsaleablearticles，which
directlyemanatefromthem。Butwhen（asinpoliticaleconomyone
shouldalwaysbepreparedtodo）weshiftourpointofview，and
considernotindividualacts，andthemotivesbywhichtheyare
determined，hutnationalanduniversalresults，intellectual
speculationmustbelookeduponasamostinfluentialpartofthe
productivelabourofsociety，andtheportionofitsresources
employedincarryingonandinremuneratingsuchlabour，asa
highlyproductivepartofitsexpenditure。
9。Intheforegoingsurveyofthemodesofemployinglabour
infurtheranceofproduction，Ihavemadelittleuseofthe
populardistinctionofindustryintoagricultural，manufacturing，
andcommercial。For，intruth，thisdivisionfulfilsverybadly
thepurposesofaclassification。Manygreatbranchesof
productiveindustryfindnoplaceinit，ornotwithoutmuch
straining;forexample（nottospeakofhuntersorfishers）the
miner，theroad—maker，andthesailor。Thelimit，too，between
agriculturalandmanufacturingindustrycannotbeprecisely
drawn。Themiller，forinstance，andthebaker—aretheytobe
reckonedamongagriculturists，oramongmanufacturers？Their
occupationisinitsnaturemanufacturing;thefoodhasfinally
partedcompanywiththesoilbeforeitishandedovertothem:
this，however，mightbesaidwithequaltruthofthethresher，
thewinnower，themakersofbutterandcheese;operationsalways
countedasagricultural，probablybecauseitisthecustomfor
themtobeperformedbypersonsresidentonthefarm，andunder
thesamesuperintendenceastillage。Formanypurposesallthese
persons，themillerandbakerinclusive，mustbeplacedinthe
sameclasswithploughmenandreapers。Theyareallconcernedin
producingfood，anddependfortheirremunerationonthefood
produced;whentheoneclassaboundsandflourishes，theothers
dosotoo;theyformcollectivelythe\"agriculturalinterest;\"
theyrenderbutoneservicetothecommunitybytheirunited
labours，andarepaidfromonecommonsource。Eventhetillersof
thesoil，again，whentheproduceisnotfood，butthematerials
ofwhatarecommonlytermedmanufactures，belonginmanyrespects
tothesamedivisionintheeconomyofsocietyasmanufacturers。
Thecotton—planterofCarolina，andthewool—growerofAustralia，
havemoreinterestsincommonwiththespinnerandweaverthan
withthecorngrower。But，ontheotherhand，theindustrywhich
operatesimmediatelyuponthesoilhas，asweshallsee
hereafter，somepropertiesonwhichmanyimportantconsequences
depend，andwhichdistinguishitfromallthesubsequentstages
ofproduction，whethercarriedonbythesamepersonornot;from
theindustryofthethresherandwinnower，asmuchasfromthat
ofthecotton—spinner。WhenIspeak，therefore，ofagricultural
labour，Ishallgenerallymeanthis，andthisexclusively，unless
thecontraryiseitherstatedorimpliedinthecontext。Theterm
manufacturingistoovaguetobeofmuchusewhenprecisionis
required，andwhenIemployit，Iwishtobeunderstoodas
intendingtospeakpopularlyratherthanscientifically。
NOTES:
1。Theableandfriendlyreviewerofthistreatiseinthe
EdinburghReview（October1848）conceivesthedistinctionbetween
materialsandimplementsratherdifferently;proposingto
considerasmaterials\"allthingswhich，afterhavingundergone
thechangeimpliedinproduction，arethemselvesmatterof
exchange，\"andasimplements（orinstruments）\"thethingswhich
areemployedinproducingthatchange，butdonotthemselves
becomepartoftheexchangeableresult。\"Accordingtothese
definitions，thefuelconsumedinamanufactorywouldbe
considered，notasamaterial，butasaninstrument。Thisuseof
thetermsaccordsbetterthatthatproposedinthetext，withthe
primitivephysicalmeaningoftheword\"material\";butthe
distinctiononwhichitisgroundedisonealmostirrelevantto
politicaleconomy。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter3
OfUnproductiveLabour
1。Labourisindispensabletoproduction，buthasnotalways
productionforitseffect。Thereismuchlabour，andofahigh
orderofusefulness，ofwhichproductionisnottheobject。
LabourhasaccordinglybeendistinguishedintoProductiveand
Unproductive。Therehasbeennotalittlecontroversyamong
politicaleconomistsonthequestion，whatkindsoflabourshould
bereputedtobeunproductive;andtheyhavenotalways
perceived，thattherewasinrealitynomatteroffactindispute
betweenthem。
Manywritershavebeenunwillingtoclassanylabouras
productive，unlessitsresultispalpableinsomematerial
object，capableofbeingtransferredfromonepersontoanother。
Thereareothers（amongwhomareMr。M’CullochandM。Say）who
lookinguponthewordunproductiveasatermofdisparagement，
remonstrateagainstimposingituponanylabourwhichisregarded
asuseful—whichproducesabenefitorapleasureworththecost。
Thelabourofofficersofgovernment，ofthearmyandnavy，of
physicians，lawyers，teachers，musicians，dancers，actors，
domesticservants，&c。，whentheyreallyaccomplishwhattheyare
paidfor，andarenotmorenumerousthanisrequiredforits
performance，oughtnot，saythesewriters，tobe\"stigmatized\"as
unproductive，anexpressionwhichtheyappeartoregardas
synonymouswithwastefulorworthless。Butthisseemstobea
misunderstandingofthematterindispute。Productionnotbeing
thesoleendofhumanexistence，thetermunproductivedoesnot
necessarilyimplyanystigma;norwaseverintendedtodosoin
thepresentcase。Thequestionisoneofmerelanguageand
classification。Differencesoflanguage，however，arebynomeans
unimportant，evenwhennotgroundedondifferencesofopinion;
forthougheitheroftwoexpressionsmaybeconsistentwiththe
wholetruth，theygenerallytendtofixattentionupondifferent
partsofit。Wemustthereforeenteralittleintothe
considerationofthevariousmeaningswhichmayattachtothe
wordsproductiveandunproductivewhenappliedtolabour。
Inthefirstplace，eveninwhatiscalledtheproductionof
materialobjects，itmustberememberedthatwhatisproducedis
notthemattercomposingthem。Allthelabourofallthehuman
beingsintheworldcouldnotproduceoneparticleofmatter。To
weavebroadclothisbuttorearrange，inapeculiarmanner，the
particlesofwool;togrowcornisonlytoputaportionof
mattercalledaseed，intoasituationwhereitcandrawtogether
particlesofmatterfromtheearthandair，toformthenew
combinationcalledaplant。Thoughwecannotcreatematter，we
cancauseittoassumeproperties，bywhich，fromhavingbeen
uselesstous，itbecomesuseful。Whatweproduce，ordesireto
produce，isalways，asM。Sayrightlytermsit，anutility。
Labourisnotcreativeofobjects，butofutilities。Neither，
again，doweconsumeanddestroytheobjectsthemselves;the
matterofwhichtheywerecomposedremains，moreorlessaltered
inform:whathasreallybeenconsumedisonlythequalitiesby
whichtheywerefittedforthepurposetheyhavebeenappliedto。
Itis，therefore，pertinentlyaskedbyM。Sayandothers—since，
whenwearesaidtoproduceobjects，weonlyproduceutility，why
shouldnotalllabourwhichproducesutilitybeaccounted
productive？Whyrefusethattitletothesurgeonwhosetsalimb，
thejudgeorlegislatorwhoconferssecurity，andgiveittothe
lapidarywhocutsandpolishesadiamond？Whydenyittothe
teacherfromwhomIlearnanartbywhichIcangainmybread，
andaccordittotheconfectionerwhomakesbonbonsforthe
momentarypleasureofasenseoftaste。
Itisquitetruethatallthesekindsoflabourare
productiveofutility;anthequestionwhichnowoccupiesus
couldnothavebeenaquestionatall，iftheproductionof
utilitywereenoughtosatisfythenotionwhichmankindhave
usuallyformedofproductivelabour。Production，andproductive，
areofcourseellipticalexpressions，involvingtheideaofa
somethingproduced;butthissomething，incommonapprehension，I
conceivetobe，notutility，butWealth。Productivelabourmeans
labourproductiveofwealth。Wearerecalled，therefore，tothe
questiontoucheduponinourfirstchapter，whatWealthis，and
whetheronlymaterialproducts，orallusefulproducts，aretobe
includedinit。
2。Nowtheutilitiesproducedbylabourareofthreekinds。
Theyare，
First，utilitiesfixedandembodiedinoutwardobjects;by
labouremployedininvestingexternalmaterialthingswith
propertieswhichrenderthemserviceabletohumanbeings。Thisis
thecommoncase，andrequiresnoillustration。
Secondly，utilitiesfixedandembodiedinhumanbeings;the
labourbeinginthiscaseemployedinconferringonhumanbeings，
qualitieswhichrenderthemserviceabletothemselvesandothers。
Tothisclassbelongsthelabourofallconcernedineducation;
notonlyschoolmasters，tutors，andprofessors，butgovernments，
sofarastheyaimsuccessfullyattheimprovementofthepeople;
moralists，andclergymen，asfarasproductiveofbenefit;the
labourofphysicians，asfarasinstrumentalinpreservinglife
andphysicalormentalefficiency;oftheteachersofbodily
exercises，andofthevarioustrades，sciences，andarts，
togetherwiththelabourofthelearnersinacquiringthem;and
alllabourbestowedbyanypersons，throughoutlife，inimproving
theknowledgeorcultivatingthebodilyormentalfacultiesof
themselvesorothers。
Thirdlyandlastly，utilitiesnotfixedorembodiedinany
object，butconsistinginamereservicerendered;apleasure
given，aninconvenienceorapainaverted，duringalongerora
shortertime，butwithoutleavingapermanentacquisitioninthe
improvedqualitiesofanypersonorthing;thelabourbeing
employedinproducinganutilitydirectly，not（asinthetwo
formercases）infittingsomeotherthingtoaffordanutility。
Such，forexample，isthelabourofthemusicalperformer，the
actor，thepublicdeclaimerorreciter，andtheshowman。Some
goodmaynodoubtbeproduced，andmuchmoremightbeproduced，
beyondthemoment，uponthefeelingsanddisposition，orgeneral
stateofenjoymentofthespectators;orinsteadofgoodthere
maybeharm;butneithertheonenortheotheristheeffect
intended，istheresultforwhichtheexhibitorworksandthe
spectatorpays;nothingbuttheimmediatepleasure。Such，again，
isthelabourofthearmyandnavy;they，atthebest，preventa
countryfrombeingconquered，orfrombeinginjuredorinsulted，
whichisaservice，butinallotherrespectsleavethecountry
neitherimprovednordeteriorated。Such，too，isthelabourof
thelegislator，thejudge，theofficerofjustice，andallother
agentsofgovernment，intheirordinaryfunctions，apartfromany
influencetheymayexertontheimprovementofthenationalmind。
Theservicewhichtheyrender，istomaintainpeaceandsecurity;
thesecomposetheutilitywhichtheyproduce。Itmayappearto
some，thatcarriers，andmerchantsordealers，shouldbeplaced
inthissameclass，sincetheirlabourdoesnotaddany
propertiestoobjects:butIreplythatitdoes:itaddsthe
propertyofbeingintheplacewheretheyarewanted，insteadof
beinginsomeotherplace:whichisaveryusefulproperty，and
theutilityitconfersisembodiedinthethingsthemselves，
whichnowactuallyareintheplacewheretheyarerequiredfor
use，andinconsequenceofthatincreasedutilitycouldbesold
atanincreasedprice，proportionedtothelabourexpendedin
conferringit。Thislabour，therefore，doesnotbelongtothe
thirdclass，buttothefirst。
3。Wehavenowtoconsiderwhichofthesethreeclassesof
labourshouldbeaccountedproductiveofwealth，sincethatis
whatthetermproductive，whenusedbyitself，mustbeunderstood
toimport。Utilitiesofthethirdclass，consistinginpleasures
whichonlyexistwhilebeingenjoyed，andserviceswhichonly
existwhilebeingperformed，cannotbespokenofaswealth，
exceptbyanacknowledgedmetaphor。Itisessentialtotheidea
ofwealthtobesusceptibleofaccumulation:thingwhichcannot，
afterbeingproduced，bekeptforsometimebeforebeingused，
arenever，Ithink，regardedaswealth，sincehowevermuchof
themmaybeproducedandenjoyed，thepersonbenefitedbythemis
noricher，isnowiseimprovedincircumstances。Butthereisnot
sodistinctandpositiveaviolationofusageinconsideringas
wealthanyproductwhichisbothusefulandsusceptibleof
accumulation。Theskill，andtheenergyandperseverance，ofthe
artisansofacountry，arereckonedpartofitswealth，noless
thantheirtoolsandmachinery。（1*）Accordingtothisdefinition，
weshouldregardalllabourasproductivewhichisemployedin
creatingpermanentutilities，whetherembodiedinhumanbeings，
orinanyotheranimateorinanimateobjects。ThisnomenclatureI
have，inaformerpublication，（2*）recommended，asmostconducive
totheendsofclassification;andIamstillofthatopinion。
Butinapplyingthetermwealthtotheindustrialcapacities
ofhumanbeing，thereseemsalways，inpopularapprehension，to
beatacitreferencetomaterialproducts。Theskillofan
artisanisaccountedwealth，onlyasbeingthemeansofacquiring
wealthinamaterialsense;andanyqualitiesnottendingvisibly
tothatobjectarescarcelysoregardedatall。Acountrywould
hardlybesaidtobericher，exceptbyametaphor，however
preciousapossessionitmighthaveinthegenius，thevirtues，
ortheaccomplishmentsofitsinhabitants;unlessindeedthese
werelookeduponasmarketablearticles，bywhichitcould
attractthematerialwealthofothercountries，astheGreeksof
old，andseveralmodernnationshavedone。While，therefore，I
shouldprefer，wereIconstructinganewtechnicallanguage，to
makethedistinctionturnuponthepermanenceratherthanupon
thematerialityoftheproduct，yetwhenemployingtermswhich
commonusagehastakencompletepossessionof，itseemsadvisable
sotoemploythemastodotheleastpossibleviolencetousage;
sinceanyimprovementinterminologyobtainedbystrainingthe
receivedmeaningofapopularphrase，isgenerallypurchased
beyonditsvalue，bytheobscurityarisingfromtheconflict
betweennewandoldassociations。
Ishall，therefore，inthistreatise，whenspeakingof
wealth，understandbyitonlywhatiscalledmaterialwealth，and
byproductivelabouronlythosekindsofexertionwhichproduce
utilitiesembodiedinmaterialobjects。Butinlimitingmyselfto
thissenseoftheword，Imeantoavailmyselfofthefullextent
ofthatrestrictedacceptation，andIshallnotrefusethe
appellationproductive，tolabourwhichyieldsnomaterial
productasitsdirectresult，providedthatanincreaseof
materialproductsisitsultimateconsequence。Thus，labour
expendedintheacquisitionofmanufacturingskill，Iclassas
productive，notinvirtueoftheskillitself，butofthe
manufacturedproductscreatedbytheskill，andtothecreation
ofwhichthelabouroflearningthetradeisessentially
conducive。Thelabourofofficersofgovernmentinaffordingthe
protectionwhich，affordedinsomemannerorother，is
indispensabletotheprosperityofindustry，mustbeclassedas
productiveevenofmaterialwealth，becausewithoutit，material
wealth，inanythinglikeitspresentabundance，couldnotexist。
Suchlabourmaybesaidtobeproductiveindirectlyormediately，
inoppositiontothelabouroftheploughmanandthe
cotton—spinner，whichareproductiveimmediately。Theyareall
alikeinthis，thattheyleavethecommunityricherinmaterial
productsthantheyfoundit;theyincrease，ortendtoincrease，
materialwealth。
4。ByUnproductiveLabour，onthecontrary，willbe
understoodlabourwhichdoesnotterminateinthecreationof
materialwealth;which，howeverlargelyorsuccessfully
practised，doesnotrenderthecommunity，andtheworldatlarge，
richerinmaterialproducts，butpoorerbyallthatisconsumed
bythelabourerswhilesoemployed。
Alllabouris，inthelanguageofpoliticaleconomy，
unproductive，whichendsinimmediateenjoyment，withoutany
increaseoftheaccumulatedstockofpermanentmeansof
enjoyment。Andalllabour，accordingtoourpresentdefinition，
mustbeclassedasunproductive，whichterminatesinapermanent
benefit，howeverimportant，providedthatanincreaseofmaterial
productsformsnopartofthatbenefit。Thelabourofsavinga
friend’slifeisnotproductive，unlessthefriendisa
productivelabourer，andproducesmorethanheconsumes。Toa
religiouspersonthesavingofasoulmustappearafarmore
importantservicethanthesavingofalife;buthewillnot
thereforecallamissionaryoraclergymanproductivelabourers，
unlesstheyteach，astheSouthSeaMissionarieshaveinsome
casesdone，theartsofcivilizationinadditiontothedoctrines
oftheirreligion。Itis，onthecontrary，evidentthatthe
greaternumberofmissionariesorclergymenanationmaintains，
thelessithastoexpendonotherthings;whilethemoreit
expendsjudiciouslyinkeepingagriculturistsandmanufacturers
atwork，themoreitwillhaveforeveryotherpurpose。Bythe
formeritdiminishes，caeterisparibus，itsstockofmaterial
products;bythelatter，itincreasesthem。
Unproductivemaybeasusefulasproductivelabour;itmaybe
moreuseful，eveninpointofpermanentadvantage;oritsusemay
consistonlyinpleasurablesensation，whichwhengoneleavesno
trace;oritmaynotaffordeventhis，butmaybeabsolutewaste。
Inanycasesocietyormankindgrownoricherbyit，butpoorer。
Allmaterialproductsconsumedbyanyonewhileheproduces
nothing，aresomuchsubtracted，forthetime，fromthematerial
productswhichsocietywouldotherwisehavepossessed。Butthough
societygrowsnoricherbyunproductivelabour，theindividual
may。Anunproductivelabourermayreceiveforhislabour，from
thosewhoderivepleasureorbenefitfromit，aremuneration
whichmaybetohimaconsiderablesourceofwealth;buthisgain
isbalancedbytheirloss;theymayhavereceivedafull
equivalentfortheirexpenditure，buttheyaresomuchpoorerby
it。Whenatailormakesacoatandsellsit，thereisatransfer
ofthepricefromthecustomertothetailor，andacoatbesides
whichdidnotpreviouslyexist;butwhatisgainedbyanactoris
ameretransferfromthespectator’sfundstohis，leavingno
articleofwealthforthespectator’sindemnification。Thusthe
communitycollectivelygainsnothingbytheactor’slabour;and
itloses，ofhisreceipts，allthatportionwhichheconsumes，
retainingonlythatwhichhelaysby。Acommunity，however，may
addtoitswealthbyunproductivelabour，attheexpenseofother
communities，asanindividualmayattheexpenseofother
individuals。ThegainsofItalianoperasingers，German
governesses，Frenchballetdancers，&c。，areasourceofwealth，
asfarastheygo，totheirrespectivecountries，iftheyreturn
thither。ThepettystatesofGreece，especiallytheruderand
morebackwardofthosestates，werenurseriesofsoldiers，who
hiredthemselvestotheprincesandsatrapsoftheEasttocarry
onuselessanddestructivewars，andreturnedwiththeirsavings
topasstheirdecliningyearsintheirowncountry……thesewere
unproductivelabourers，andthepaytheyreceived，togetherwith
theplundertheytook，wasanoutlaywithoutreturntothe
countrieswhichfurnishedit;but，thoughnogaintotheworld，
itwasagaintoGreece。Atalaterperiodthesamecountryand
itscoloniessuppliedtheRomanempirewithanotherclassof
adventurers，who，underthenameofphilosophersorof
rhetoricians，taughttotheyouthofthehigherclasseswhatwere
esteemedthemostvaluableaccomplishments:theseweremainly
unproductivelabourers，buttheiramplerecompensewasasource
ofwealthtotheirowncountry。Innoneofthesecaseswasthere
anyaccessionofwealthtotheworld。Theservicesofthe
labourers，ifuseful，wereobtainedatasacrificetotheworld
ofaportionofmaterialwealth;ifuseless，allthatthese
labourersconsumedwastotheworldwaste。
Tobewasted，however，isaliabilitynotconfinedto
unproductivelabour。Productivelabourmayequallybewasted，if
moreofitisexpendedthanreallyconducestoproduction。If
defectofskillinlabourers，orofjudgmentinthosewhodirect
them，causesamisapplicationofproductiveindustry;ifafarmer
persistsinploughingwiththreehorsesandtwomen，when
experiencehasshownthattwohorseandonemanaresufficient，
thesurpluslabour，thoughemployedforpurposesofproduction，
iswasted。Ifanewprocessisadoptedwhichprovesnobetter，or
notsogoodasthosebeforeinuse，thelabourexpendedin
perfectingtheinventionandincarryingitintopractice，though
employedforaproductivepurpose，iswasted。Productivelabour
mayrenderanationpoorer，ifthewealthitproduces，thatis，
theincreaseitmakesinthestockofusefuloragreeablethings，
beofakindnotimmediatelywanted:aswhenacommodityis
unsaleable，becauseproducedinaquantitybeyondthepresent
demand;orwhenspeculatorsbuilddocksandwarehousesbefore
thereisanytrade。SomeoftheStatesofNorthAmerica，by
makingprematurerailwaysandcanals，arethoughttohavemade
thiskindofmistake;anditwasforsometimedoubtfulwhether
England，inthedisproportionatedevelopmentofrailway
enterprise，hadnot，insomedegree，followedtheexample。Labour
sunkinexpectationofadistantreturn，whenthegreat
exigenciesorlimitedresourcesofthecommunityrequirethatthe
returnberapid，mayleavethecountrynotonlypoorerinthe
meanwhile，byallwhichthoselabourersconsume，butlessrich
evenultimatelythanifimmediatereturnshadbeensoughtinthe
firstinstance，andenterprisesfordistantprofitpostponed。
5。ThedistinctionofProductiveandUnproductiveis
applicabletoconsumptionaswellastolabour。Allthemembers
ofthecommunityarenotlabourers，hutallareconsumers，and
consumeeitherunproductivelyorproductively。Whoever
contributesnothingdirectlyorindirectlytoproduction，isan
unproductiveconsumer。Theonlyproductiveconsumersare
productivelabourers;thelabourofdirectionbeingofcourse
included，aswellasthatofexecution。Buttheconsumptioneven
ofproductivelabourersisnotallofitproductiveconsumption。
Thereisunproductiveconsumptionbyproductiveconsumers。What
theyconsumeinkeepinguporimprovingtheirhealth，strength，
andcapacitiesofwork，orinrearingotherproductivelabourers
tosucceedthem，isproductiveconsumption。Butconsumptionon
pleasuresorluxuries，whetherbytheidleorbytheindustrious，
sinceproductionisneitheritsobjectnorisinanywayadvanced
byit，mustbereckonedunproductive:withareservationperhaps
ofacertainquantumofenjoymentwhichmaybeclassedamong
necessaries，sinceanythingshortofitwouldnotbeconsistent
withthegreatestefficiencyoflabour。Thataloneisproductive
consumption，whichgoestomaintainandincreasetheproductive
powersofthecommunity;eitherthoseresidinginitssoil，in
itsmaterials，inthenumberandefficiencyofitsinstrumentsof
production，orinitspeople。
Therearenumerousproductswhichmaybesaidnottoadmitof
beingconsumedotherwisethanunproductively。Theannual
consumptionofgoldlace，pineapples，orchampagne，mustbe
reckonedunproductive，sincethesethingsgivenoassistanceto
production，noranysupporttolifeorstrength，butwhatwould
equallybegivenbythingsmuchlesscostly。Henceitmightbe
supposedthatthelabouremployedinproducingthemoughtnotto
beregardedasproductive，inthesenseinwhichthetermis
understoodbypoliticaleconomists。Igrantthatnolabourtends
tothepermanentenrichmentofsociety，whichisemployedin
producingthingsfortheuseofunproductiveconsumers。The
tailorwhomakesacoatforamanwhoproducesnothing，isa
productivelabourer;butinafewweeksormonthsthecoatis
wornout，whilethewearerhasnotproducedanythingtoreplace
it，andthecommunityisthennoricherbythelabourofthe
tailor，thanifthesamesumhadbeenpaidforastallatthe
opera。Nevertheless，societyhasbeenricherbythelabourwhile
thecoatlasted，thatis，untilsociety，throughoneofits
unproductivemembers，chosetoconsumetheproduceofthelabour
unproductively。Thecaseofthegoldlaceorthepineappleisno
furtherdifferent，thanthattheyarestillfurtherremovedthan
thecoatfromthecharacterofnecessaries。Thesethingsalsoare
wealthuntiltheyhavebeenconsumed。
6。Wesee，however，bythis，thatthereisadistinction，
moreimportanttothewealthofacommunitythaneventhat
betweenproductiveandunproductivelabour;thedistinction，
namely，betweenlabourforthesupplyofproductive，andforthe
supplyofunproductive，consumption;betweenlabouremployedin
keepinguporinaddingtotheproductiveresourcesofthe
country，andthatwhichisemployedotherwise。Oftheproduceof
thecountry，apartonlyisdestinedtobeconsumedproductively;
theremaindersuppliestheunproductiveconsumptionofproducers，
andtheentireconsumptionoftheunproductiveclasses。Suppose
thattheproportionoftheannualproduceappliedtothefirst
purposeamountstohalf;thenone—halftheproductivelabourers
ofthecountryareallthatareemployedintheoperationson
whichthepermanentwealthofthecountrydepends。Theotherhalf
areoccupiedfromyeartoyearandfromgenerationtogeneration
inproducingthingswhichareconsumedanddisappearwithout
return;andwhateverthishalfconsumeisascompletelylost，as
toanypermanenteffectonthenationalresources，asifitwere
consumedunproductively。Supposethatthissecondhalfofthe
labouringpopulationceasedtowork，andthatthegovernmentor
theirparishesmaintainedtheminidlenessforawholeyear:the
firsthalfwouldsufficetoproduce，astheyhaddonebefore，
theirownnecessariesandthenecessariesofthesecondhalf，and
tokeepthestockofmaterialsandimplementsundiminished:the
unproductiveclasses，indeed，wouldbeeitherstaredorobliged
toproducetheirownsubsistence，andthewholecommunitywould
bereducedduringayeartobarenecessaries;butthesourcesof
productionwouldbeunimpaired，andthenextyeartherewouldnot
necessarilybeasmallerproducethanifnosuchintervalof
inactivityhadoccurred;whileifthecasehadbeenreversed，if
thefirsthalfofthelabourershadsuspendedtheiraccustomed
occupations，andthesecondhalfhadcontinuedtheirs，the
countryattheendofthetwelvemonthwouldhavebeenentirely
impoverished。
Itwouldbeagreaterrortoregretthelargeproportionof
theannualproduce，whichinanopulentcountrygoestosupply
unproductiveconsumption。Itwouldbetolamentthatthe
communityhassomuchtosparefromitsnecessities，forits
pleasuresandforallhigheruses。Thisportionoftheproduceis
thefundfromwhichallthewantsofthecommunity，otherthan
thatofmereliving，areprovidedfor;themeasureofitsmeans
ofenjoyment，andofitspowerofaccomplishingallpurposesnot
productive。Thatsogreatasurplusshouldbeavailableforsuch
purposes，andthatitshouldbeappliedtothem，canonlybea
subjectofcongratulation。Thethingstoberegretted，andwhich
arenotincapableofbeingremedied，aretheprodigious
inequalitywithwhichthissurplusisdistributed，thelittle
worthoftheobjectstowhichthegreaterpartofitisdevoted，
andthelargesharewhichfallstothelotofpersonswhorender
noequivalentserviceinreturn。
NOTES:
1。Someauthoritieslookuponitasanessentialelementinthe
ideaofwealth，thatitshouldbecapablenotsolelyofbeing
accumulatedbutofbeingtransferred;andinasmuchasthe
valuablequalities，andeventheproductivecapacities，ofa
humanbeing，cannotbedetachedfromhimandpassedtosomeone
else，theydenytothesetheappellationofwealth，andtothe
labourexpendedinacquiringthemthenameofproductivelabour。
Itseemstome，however，thattheskillofanartisan（for
instance）beingbothadesirablepossession，andoneofacertain
durability（nottosayproductiveevenofnationalwealth），there
isnobetterreasonforrefusingtoitthetitleofwealth
becauseitisattachedtoaman，thantoacoalpitormanufactory
becausetheyareattachedtoaplace。Besides，iftheskill
itselfcannotbepartedwithtoapurchaser，theuseofitmay;
ifitcannotbesold，itcanbehired;anditmaybe，andis，
soldoutrightinallcountrieswhoselawspermitthattheman
himselfshouldbesoldalongwithit。Itsdefectof
transferabilitydoesnotresultfromanaturalbutfromalegal
andmoralobstacle。Thehumanbeinghimself（asformerly
observed）Idonotclassaswealth。Heisthepurposeforwhich
wealthexists。Buthisacquiredcapacities，whichexistonlyas
means，andhavebeencalledintoexistencebylabour，fall
rightly，asitseemstome，withinthatdesignation。
2。EssaysonsomeUnsettledQuestionsofPoliticalEconomy。Essay
III。OnthewordsProductiveandUnproductive。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter4
OfCapital
1。Ithasbeenseenintheprecedingchaptersthatbesides
theprimaryanduniversalrequisitesofproduction，labourand
naturalagents，thereisanotherrequisitewithoutwhichno
productiveoperations，beyondtherudeandscantybeginningsof
primitiveindustry，arepossible:namely，astock，previously
accumulated，oftheproductsofformerlabour。Thisaccumulated
stockoftheproduceoflabouristermedCapital。Thefunctionof
Capitalinproduction，itisoftheutmostimportancethoroughly
tounderstand，sinceanumberoftheerroneousnotionswithwhich
oursubjectisinfested，originateinanimperfectandconfused
apprehensionofthispoint。
Capital，bypersonswhollyunusedtoreflectonthesubject，
issupposedtobesynonymouswithmoney。Toexposethis
misapprehension，wouldbetorepeatwhathasbeensaidinthe
introductorychapter。Moneyisnomoresynonymouswithcapital
thanitiswithwealth。Moneycannotinitselfperformanypart
oftheofficeofcapital，sinceitcanaffordnoassistanceto
production。Todothis，itmustbeexchangedforotherthings;
andanything，whichissusceptibleofbeingexchangedforother
things，iscapableofcontributingtoproductioninthesame
degree。Whatcapitaldoesforproduction，istoaffordthe
shelter，protection，toolsandmaterialswhichtheworkrequires，
andtofeedandotherwisemaintainthelabourersduringthe
process。Thesearetheserviceswhichpresentlabourrequires
frompast，andfromtheproduceofpast，labour。Whateverthings
aredestinedforthisuse——destinedtosupplyproductivelabour
withthesevariousprerequisites——areCapital。
Tofamiliarizeourselveswiththeconception，letusconsider
whatisdonewiththecapitalinvestedinanyofthebranchesof
businesswhichcomposetheproductiveindustryofacountry。A
manufacturer，forexample，hasonepartofhiscapitalinthe
formofbuildings，fittedanddestinedforcarryingonhisbranch
ofmanufacture。Anotherparthehasintheformofmachinery。A
thirdconsists，ifhebeaspinner，ofrawcotton，flax，orwool;
ifaweaver，offlaxen，woollen，silk，orcotton，thread;andthe
like，accordingtothenatureofthemanufacture。Foodand
clothingforhisoperatives，itisnotthecustomofthepresent
agethatheshoulddirectlyprovide;andfewcapitalists，except
theproducersoffoodorclothing，haveanyportionworth
mentioningoftheircapitalinthatshape。Insteadofthis，each
capitalisthasmoney，whichhepaystohisworkpeople，andso
enablesthemtosupplythemselves:hehasalsofinishedgoodsin
hiswarehouses，bythesaleofwhichheobtainsmoremoney，to
employinthesamemanner，aswellastoreplenishhisstockof
materials，tokeephisbuildingsandmachineryinrepair，andto
replacethemwhenwornout。Hismoneyandfinishedgoods，
however，arenotwhollycapital，forhedoesnotwhollydevote
themtothesepurposes:heemploysapartoftheone，andofthe
proceedsoftheother，insupplyinghispersonalconsumptionand
thatofhisfamily，orinhiringgroomsandvalets，or
maintaininghuntersandhounds，orineducatinghischildren，or
inpayingtaxes，orincharity。Whatthenishiscapital？
Preciselythatpartofhispossessions，whateveritbe，whichis
toconstitutehisfundforcarryingonfreshproduction。Itisof
noconsequencethatapart，oreventhewholeofit，isinaform
inwhichitcannotdirectlysupplythewantsoflabourers。
Suppose，forinstance，thatthecapitalistisahardware
manufacturer，andthathisstockintrade，overandabovehis
machinery，consistsatpresentwhollyinirongoods。Irongoods
cannotfeedlabourers。Nevertheless，byamerechangeofthe
destinationoftheseirongoods，hecancauselabourerstobe
fed。Supposethatwithaportionoftheproceedsheintendedto
maintainapackofhounds，oranestablishmentofservants;and
thathechangeshisintention，andemploysitinhisbusiness，
payingitinwagestoadditionalworkpeople。Theseworkpeopleare
enabledtobuyandconsumethefoodwhichwouldotherwisehave
beenconsumedbythehoundsorbytheservants;andthuswithout
theemployer’shavingseenortouchedoneparticleofthefood，
hisconducthasdeterminedthatsomuchmoreofthefoodexisting
inthecountryhasbeendevotedtotheuseofproductive
labourers，andsomuchlessconsumedinamannerwholly
unproductive。Nowvarythehypothesis，andsupposethatwhatis
thuspaidinwageswouldotherwisehavebeenlaidoutnotin
feedingservantsorhounds，butinbuyingplateandjewels;and
inordertorendertheeffectperceptible，letussupposethat
thechangetakesplaceonaconsiderablescale，andthatalarge
sumisdivertedfrombuyingplateandjewelstoemploying
productivelabourers，whomweshallsupposetohavebeen
previously，liketheIrishpeasantry，onlyhalfemployedandhalf
fed。Thelabourers，onreceivingtheirincreasedwages，willnot
laythemoutinplateandjewels，butinfood。Thereisnot，
however，additionalfoodinthecountry;noranyunproductive
labourersoranimals，asintheformercase，whosefoodisset
freeforproductivepurposes。Foodwillthereforebeimportedif
possible;ifnotpossible，thelabourerswillremainforaseason
ontheirshortallowance:buttheconsequencesofthischangein
thedemandforcommodities，occasionedbythechangeinthe
expenditureofcapitalistsfromunproductivetoproductive，is
thatnextyearmorefoodwillbeproduced，andlessplateand
jewellery。Sothatagain，withouthavinghadanythingtodowith
thefoodofthelabourersdirectly，theconversionbyindividuals
ofaportionoftheirproperty，nomatterofwhatsort，froman
unproductivedestinationtoaproductive，hashadtheeffectof
causingmorefoodtobeappropriatedtotheconsumptionof
productivelabourers。Thedistinction，then，betweenCapitaland
Not—capital，doesnotlieinthekindofcommodities，butinthe
mindofthecapitalist——inhiswilltoemploythemforone
purposeratherthananother;andallproperty，howeverill
adaptedinitselffortheuseoflabourers，isapartofcapital，
sosoonasit，orthevaluetobereceivedfromit，issetapart
forproductivereinvestment。Thesumofallthevaluesso
destinedbytheirrespectivepossessors，composesthecapitalof
thecountry。Whetherallthosevaluesareinashapedirectly
applicabletoproductiveuses，makesnodifference。Theirshape，
whateveritmaybe，isatemporaryaccident:butoncedestined
forproduction，theydonotfailtofindawayoftransforming
themselvesintothingscapableofbeingappliedtoit。
2。Aswhateveroftheproduceofthecountryisdevotedto
productioniscapital，so，conversely，thewholeofthecapital
ofthecountryisdevotedtoproduction。Thissecondproposition，
however，mustbetakenwithsomelimitationsandexplanations。A
fundmaybeseekingforproductiveemployment，andfindnone，
adaptedtotheinclinationsofitspossessor:ittheniscapital
still，butunemployedcapital。Orthestockmayconsistofunsold
goods，notsusceptibleofdirectapplicationtoproductiveuses，
andnot，atthemoment，marketable:these，untilsold，areinthe
conditionofunemployedcapital。Again，artificialoraccidental
circumstancesmayrenderitnecessarytopossessalargerstock
inadvance，thatis，alargercapitalbeforeenteringon
production，thanisrequiredbythenatureofthings。Suppose
thatthegovernmentlaysataxontheproductioninoneofits
earlierstages，asforinstancebytaxingthematerial。The
manufacturerhastoadvancethetax，beforecommencingthe
manufacture，andisthereforeunderanecessityofhavinga
largeraccumulatedfundthanisrequiredfor，orisactually
employedin，theproductionwhichhecarrieson。Hemusthavea
largercapital，tomaintainthesamequantityofproductive
labour;or（whatisequivalent）withagivencapitalhemaintains
lesslabour。Thismodeoflevyingtaxes，therefore，limits
unnecessarilytheindustryofthecountry:aportionofthefund
destinedbyitsownersforproductionbeingdivertedfromits
purpose，andkeptinaconstantstateofadvancetothe
government。
Foranotherexample:afarmermayenteronhisfarmatsucha
timeoftheyea，thathemayberequiredtopayone，two，oreven
threequarters’rentbeforeobtaininganyreturnfromthe
produce。This，therefore，musthepaidoutofhiscapital。Now
rent，whenpaidforthelanditself，andnotforimprovements
madeinitbylabour，isnotaproductiveexpenditure。Itisnot
anoutlayforthesupportoflabour，orfortheprovisionof
implementsormaterialstheproduceoflabour。Itistheprice
paidfortheuseofanappropriatednaturalagent。Thisnatural
agentisindeedasindispensable（andevenmoreso）asany
implement:butthehavingtopayapriceforit，isnot。Inthe
caseoftheimplement（athingproducedbylabour）apriceof
somesortisthenecessaryconditionofitsexistence:butthe
landexistsbynature。Thepaymentforit，therefore，isnotone
oftheexpensesofproduction;andthenecessityofmakingthe
paymentoutofcapital，makesitrequisitethatthereshouldbea
greatercapital，agreaterantecedentaccumulationoftheproduce
ofpastlabour，thanisnaturallynecessary，orthanisneeded
wherelandisoccupiedonadifferentsystem。Thisextracapital，
thoughintendedbyitsownersforproduction，isinreality
employedunproductively，andannuallyreplaced，notfromany
produceofitsown，butfromtheproduceofthelaboursupported
bytheremainderofthefarmer’scapital。
Finally，thatlargeportionoftheproductivecapitalofa
countrywhichisemployedinpayingthewagesandsalariesof
labourers，evidentlyisnot，allofit，strictlyand
indispensablynecessaryforproduction。Asmuchofitasexceeds
theactualnecessariesoflifeandhealth（anexcesswhichinthe
caseofskilledlabourersisusuallyconsiderable）isnot
expendedinsupportinglabour，butinremuneratingit，andthe
labourerscouldwaitforthispartoftheirremunerationuntil
theproductioniscompleted;itneedsnotnecessarilypre—exist
ascapital:andiftheyunfortunatelyhadtoforegoit
altogether，thesameamountofproductionmighttakeplace。In
orderthatthewholeremunerationofthelabourersshouldbe
advancedtothemindailyorweeklypayments，theremustexistin
advance，andbeappropriatedtoproductiveuse，agreaterstock，
orcapital，thanwouldsufficetocarryontheexistingextentof
production:greater，bywhateveramountofremunerationthe
labourersreceive，beyondwhattheself—interestofaprudent
slave—masterwouldassigntohisslaves。Intruth，itisonly
afteranabundantcapitalhadalreadybeenaccumulated，thatthe
practiceofpayinginadvanceanyremunerationoflabourbeyonda
baresubsistence，couldpossiblyhavearisen:sincewhateveris
sopaid，isnotreallyappliedtoproduction，buttothe
unproductiveconsumptionofproductivelabourers，indicatinga
fundforproductionsufficientlyampletoadmitofhabitually
divertingapartofittoamereconvenience。
ItwillbeobservedthatIhaveassumed，thatthelabourers
arealwayssubsistedfromcapital:andthisisobviouslythe
fact，thoughthecapitalneedsnotnecessarilybefurnishedbya
personcalledacapitalist。Whenthelabourermaintainshimself
byfundsofhisown，aswhenapeasant—farmerorproprietorlives
ontheproduceofhisland，oranartisanworksonhisown
account，theyarestillsupportedbycapital，thatis，byfunds
providedinadvance。Thepeasantdoesnotsubsistthisyearon
theproduceofthisyear’sharvest，butonthatofthelast。The
artisanisnotlivingontheproceedsoftheworkhehasinhand，
butonthoseofworkpreviouslyexecutedanddisposedof。Eachis
supportedbyasmallcapitalofhisown，whichheperiodically
replacesfromtheproduceofhislabour。Thelargecapitalistis，
inlikemanner，maintainedfromfundsprovidedinadvance。Ifhe
personallyconductshisoperations，asmuchofhispersonalor
householdexpenditureasdoesnotexceedafairremunerationof
hislabouratthemarketprice，mustbeconsideredapartofhis
capital，expended，likeanyothercapital，forproduction:and
hispersonalconsumption，sofarasitconsistsofnecessaries，
isproductiveconsumption。
3。Attheriskofbeingtedious，Imustaddafewmore
illustrations，tobringoutintoastillclearerandstronger
lighttheideaofCapital。AsM。Saytrulyremarks，itisonthe
veryelementsofoursubjectthatillustrationismostusefully
bestowed，sincethegreatesterrorswhichprevailinitmaybe
tracedtothewantofathoroughmasteryovertheelementary
ideas。Noristhissurprising:abranchmaybediseasedandall
theresthealthy，butunsoundnessattherootdiffuses
unhealthinessthroughthewholetree。
Letusthereforeconsiderwhether，andinwhatcases，the
propertyofthosewholiveontheinterestofwhattheypossess，
withoutbeingpersonallyengagedinproduction，canberegarded
ascapital。Itissocalledincommonlanguage，and，with
referencetotheindividual，notimproperly。Allfundsfromwhich
thepossessorderivesanincome，whichincomehecanusewithout
sinkinganddissipatingthefunditself，aretohimequivalentto
capital。Buttotransferhastilyandinconsideratelytothe
generalpointofview，propositionswhicharetrueofthe
individual，hasbeenasourceofinnumerableerrorsinpolitical
economy。Inthepresentinstance，thatwhichisvirtuallycapital
totheindividual，isorisnotcapitaltothenation，according
asthefundwhichbythesuppositionhehasnotdissipated，has
orhasnotbeendissipatedbysomebodyelse。
Forexample，letpropertyofthevalueoftenthousandpounds
belongingtoA，belenttoB，afarmerormanufacturer，and
employedprofitablyinB’soccupation。Itisasmuchcapitalas
ifitbelongedtoB。Aisreallyafarmerormanufacturer，not
personally，butinrespectofhisproperty。Capitalworthten
thousandpoundsisemployedinproduction——inmaintaining
labourersandprovidingtoolsandmaterials;whichcapital
belongstoA，whileBtakesthetroubleofemployingit，and
receivesforhisremunerationthedifferencebetweentheprofit
whichityieldsandtheinteresthepaystoA。Thisisthe
simplestcase。