Thecircumstancewhichmostcontributedtosecuretheindependenceofprivatepersonsinaristocraticages，was，thatthesupremepowerdidnotaffecttotakeuponitselfalonethegovernmentandadministrationofthecommunity;thosefunctionswerenecessarilypartiallylefttothemembersofthearistocracy:sothatasthesupremepowerwasalwaysdivided，itneverweighedwithitswholeweightandinthesamemanneroneachindividual。Notonlydidthegovernmentnotperformeverythingbyitsimmediateagency;butasmostoftheagentswhodischargeditsdutiesderivedtheirpowernotfromtheState，butfromthecircumstanceoftheirbirth，theywerenotperpetuallyunderitscontrol。Thegovernmentcouldnotmakeorunmaketheminaninstant，atpleasure，norbendtheminstrictuniformitytoitsslightestcaprice—thiswasanadditionalguaranteeofprivateindependence。Ireadilyadmitthatrecoursecannotbehadtothesamemeansatthepresenttime:butIdiscovercertaindemocraticexpedientswhichmaybesubstitutedforthem。Insteadofvestinginthegovernmentalonealltheadministrativepowersofwhichcorporationsandnobleshavebeendeprived，aportionofthemmaybeentrustedtosecondarypublicbodies，temporarilycomposedofprivatecitizens:thusthelibertyofprivatepersonswillbemoresecure，andtheirequalitywillnotbediminished。
TheAmericans，whocarelessforwordsthantheFrench，stilldesignatebythenameof\"county\"thelargestoftheiradministrativedistricts:butthedutiesofthecountorlord—
lieutenantareinpartperformedbyaprovincialassembly。Ataperiodofequalitylikeourownitwouldbeunjustandunreasonabletoinstitutehereditaryofficers;butthereisnothingtopreventusfromsubstitutingelectivepublicofficerstoacertainextent。Electionisademocraticexpedientwhichinsurestheindependenceofthepublicofficerinrelationtothegovernment，asmuchandevenmorethanhereditaryrankcaninsureitamongstaristocraticnations。Aristocraticcountriesaboundinwealthyandinfluentialpersonswhoarecompetenttoprovideforthemselves，andwhocannotbeeasilyorsecretlyoppressed:
suchpersonsrestrainagovernmentwithingeneralhabitsofmoderationandreserve。Iamverywellawarethatdemocraticcountriescontainnosuchpersonsnaturally;butsomethinganalogoustothemmaybecreatedbyartificialmeans。Ifirmlybelievethatanaristocracycannotagainbefoundedintheworld;
butIthinkthatprivatecitizens，bycombiningtogether，mayconstitutebodiesofgreatwealth，influence，andstrength，correspondingtothepersonsofanaristocracy。Bythismeansmanyofthegreatestpoliticaladvantagesofaristocracywouldbeobtainedwithoutitsinjusticeoritsdangers。Anassociationforpolitical，commercial，ormanufacturingpurposes，orevenforthoseofscienceandliterature，isapowerfulandenlightenedmemberofthecommunity，whichcannotbedisposedofatpleasure，oroppressedwithoutremonstrance;andwhich，bydefendingitsownrightsagainsttheencroachmentsofthegovernment，savesthecommonlibertiesofthecountry。
Inperiodsofaristocracyeverymanisalwaysboundsocloselytomanyofhisfellow—citizens，thathecannotbeassailedwithouttheircomingtohisassistance。Inagesofequalityeverymannaturallystandsalone;hehasnohereditaryfriendswhoseco—operationhemaydemand—noclassuponwhosesympathyhemayrely:heiseasilygotridof，andheistrampledonwithimpunity。Atthepresenttime，anoppressedmemberofthecommunityhasthereforeonlyonemethodofself—defence—hemayappealtothewholenation;andifthewholenationisdeaftohiscomplaint，hemayappealtomankind:theonlymeanshehasofmakingthisappealisbythepress。Thusthelibertyofthepressisinfinitelymorevaluableamongstdemocraticnationsthanamongstallothers;itistheonlycurefortheevilswhichequalitymayproduce。Equalitysetsmenapartandweakensthem;
butthepressplacesapowerfulweaponwithineveryman’sreach，whichtheweakestandloneliestofthemallmayuse。Equalitydeprivesamanofthesupportofhisconnections;butthepressenableshimtosummonallhisfellow—countrymenandallhisfellow—mentohisassistance。Printinghasacceleratedtheprogressofequality，anditisalsooneofitsbestcorrectives。
Ithinkthatmenlivinginaristocraciesmay，strictlyspeaking，dowithoutthelibertyofthepress:butsuchisnotthecasewiththosewholiveindemocraticcountries。ToprotecttheirpersonalindependenceItrustnottogreatpoliticalassemblies，toparliamentaryprivilege，ortotheassertionofpopularsovereignty。Allthesethingsmay，toacertainextent，bereconciledwithpersonalservitude—butthatservitudecannotbecompleteifthepressisfree:thepressisthechiefestdemocraticinstrumentoffreedom。
Somethinganalogousmaybesaidofthejudicialpower。Itisapartoftheessenceofjudicialpowertoattendtoprivateinterests，andtofixitselfwithpredilectiononminuteobjectssubmittedtoitsobservation;anotheressentialqualityofjudicialpowerisnevertovolunteeritsassistancetotheoppressed，butalwaystobeatthedisposalofthehumblestofthosewhosolicitit;theircomplaint，howeverfeebletheymaythemselvesbe，willforceitselfupontheearofjusticeandclaimredress，forthisisinherentintheveryconstitutionofthecourtsofjustice。Apowerofthiskindisthereforepeculiarlyadaptedtothewantsoffreedom，atatimewhentheeyeandfingerofthegovernmentareconstantlyintrudingintotheminutestdetailsofhumanactions，andwhenprivatepersonsareatoncetooweaktoprotectthemselves，andtoomuchisolatedforthemtoreckonupontheassistanceoftheirfellows。Thestrengthofthecourtsoflawhaseverbeenthegreatestsecuritywhichcanbeofferedtopersonalindependence;butthisismoreespeciallythecaseindemocraticages:privaterightsandinterestsareinconstantdanger，ifthejudicialpowerdoesnotgrowmoreextensiveandmorestrongtokeeppacewiththegrowingequalityofconditions。
Equalityawakensinmenseveralpropensitiesextremelydangeroustofreedom，towhichtheattentionofthelegislatoroughtconstantlytobedirected。Ishallonlyremindthereaderofthemostimportantamongstthem。Menlivingindemocraticagesdonotreadilycomprehendtheutilityofforms:theyfeelaninstinctivecontemptforthem—Ihaveelsewhereshownforwhatreasons。Formsexcitetheircontemptandoftentheirhatred;astheycommonlyaspiretononebuteasyandpresentgratifications，theyrushonwardstotheobjectoftheirdesires，andtheslightestdelayexasperatesthem。Thissametemper，carriedwiththemintopoliticallife，rendersthemhostiletoforms，whichperpetuallyretardorarresttheminsomeoftheirprojects。Yetthisobjectionwhichthemenofdemocraciesmaketoformsistheverythingwhichrendersformssousefultofreedom;fortheirchiefmeritistoserveasabarrierbetweenthestrongandtheweak，therulerandthepeople，toretardtheone，andgivetheothertimetolookabouthim。Formsbecomemorenecessaryinproportionasthegovernmentbecomesmoreactiveandmorepowerful，whilstprivatepersonsarebecomingmoreindolentandmorefeeble。Thusdemocraticnationsnaturallystandmoreinneedofformsthanothernations，andtheynaturallyrespectthemless。Thisdeservesmostseriousattention。Nothingismorepitifulthanthearrogantdisdainofmostofourcontemporariesforquestionsofform;forthesmallestquestionsofformhaveacquiredinourtimeanimportancewhichtheyneverhadbefore:
manyofthegreatestinterestsofmankinddependuponthem。I
thinkthatifthestatesmenofaristocraticagescouldsometimescontemnformswithimpunity，andfrequentlyriseabovethem，thestatesmentowhomthegovernmentofnationsisnowconfidedoughttotreattheveryleastamongthemwithrespect，andnotneglectthemwithoutimperiousnecessity。Inaristocraciestheobservanceofformswassuperstitious;amongstustheyoughttobekeptwithadeliberateandenlighteneddeference。
Anothertendency，whichisextremelynaturaltodemocraticnationsandextremelydangerous，isthatwhichleadsthemtadespiseandundervaluetherightsofprivatepersons。Theattachmentwhichmenfeeltoaright，andtherespectwhichtheydisplayforit，isgenerallyproportionedtoitsimportance，ortothelengthoftimeduringwhichtheyhaveenjoyedit。Therightsofprivatepersonsamongstdemocraticnationsarecommonlyofsmallimportance，ofrecentgrowth，andextremelyprecarious—
theconsequenceisthattheyareoftensacrificedwithoutregret，andalmostalwaysviolatedwithoutremorse。Butithappensthatatthesameperiodandamongstthesamenationsinwhichmenconceiveanaturalcontemptfortherightsofprivatepersons，therightsofsocietyatlargearenaturallyextendedandconsolidated:inotherwords，menbecomelessattachedtoprivaterightsattheverytimeatwhichitwouldbemostnecessarytoretainandtodefendwhatlittleremainsofthem。Itisthereforemostespeciallyinthepresentdemocraticages，thatthetruefriendsofthelibertyandthegreatnessofmanoughtconstantlytobeonthealerttopreventthepowerofgovernmentfromlightlysacrificingtheprivaterightsofindividualstothegeneralexecutionofitsdesigns。Atsuchtimesnocitizenissoobscurethatitisnotverydangeroustoallowhimtobeoppressed—noprivaterightsaresounimportantthattheycanbesurrenderedwithimpunitytothecapricesofagovernment。Thereasonisplain:—iftheprivaterightofanindividualisviolatedatatimewhenthehumanmindisfullyimpressedwiththeimportanceandthesanctityofsuchrights，theinjurydoneisconfinedtotheindividualwhoserightisinfringed;buttoviolatesucharight，atthepresentday，isdeeplytocorruptthemannersofthenationandtoputthewholecommunityinjeopardy，becausetheverynotionofthiskindofrightconstantlytendsamongstustobeimpairedandlost。
Therearecertainhabits，certainnotions，andcertainviceswhicharepeculiartoastateofrevolution，andwhichaprotractedrevolutioncannotfailtoengenderandtopropagate，whateverbe，inotherrespects，itscharacter，itspurpose，andthesceneonwhichittakesplace。Whenanynationhas，withinashortspaceoftime，repeatedlyvarieditsrulers，itsopinions，anditslaws，themenofwhomitiscomposedeventuallycontractatasteforchange，andgrowaccustomedtoseeallchangeseffectedbysuddenviolence。Thustheynaturallyconceiveacontemptforformswhichdailyproveineffectual;andtheydonotsupportwithoutimpatiencethedominionofruleswhichtheyhavesooftenseeninfringed。Astheordinarynotionsofequityandmoralitynolongersufficetoexplainandjustifyalltheinnovationsdailybegottenbyarevolution，theprincipleofpublicutilityiscalledin，thedoctrineofpoliticalnecessityisconjuredup，andmenaccustomthemselvestosacrificeprivateinterestswithoutscruple，andtotrampleontherightsofindividualsinordermorespeedilytoaccomplishanypublicpurpose。
Thesehabitsandnotions，whichIshallcallrevolutionary，becauseallrevolutionsproducethem，occurinaristocraciesjustasmuchasamongstdemocraticnations;butamongsttheformertheyareoftenlesspowerfulandalwayslesslasting，becausetheretheymeetwithhabits，notions，defects，andimpediments，whichcounteractthem:theyconsequentlydisappearassoonastherevolutionisterminated，andthenationrevertstoitsformerpoliticalcourses。Thisisnotalwaysthecaseindemocraticcountries，inwhichitisevertobefearedthatrevolutionarytendencies，becomingmoregentleandmoreregular，withoutentirelydisappearingfromsociety，willbegraduallytransformedintohabitsofsubjectiontotheadministrativeauthorityofthegovernment。Iknowofnocountriesinwhichrevolutionsremoredangerousthanindemocraticcountries;because，independentlyoftheaccidentalandtransientevilswhichmustalwaysattendthem，theymayalwayscreatesomeevilswhicharepermanentandunending。Ibelievethattherearesuchthingsasjustifiableresistanceandlegitimaterebellion:Idonotthereforeassert，asanabsoluteproposition，thatthemenofdemocraticagesoughtnevertomakerevolutions;butIthinkthattheyhaveespecialreasontohesitatebeforetheyembarkinthem，andthatitisfarbettertoenduremanygrievancesintheirpresentconditionthantohaverecoursetosoperilousaremedy。
Ishallconcludebyonegeneralidea，whichcomprisesnotonlyalltheparticularideaswhichhavebeenexpressedinthepresentchapter，butalsomostofthosewhichitistheobjectofthisbooktotreatof。Intheagesofaristocracywhichprecededourown，therewereprivatepersonsofgreatpower，andasocialauthorityofextremeweakness。Theoutlineofsocietyitselfwasnoteasilydiscernible，andconstantlyconfoundedwiththedifferentpowersbywhichthecommunitywasruled。Theprincipaleffortsofthemenofthosetimeswererequiredtostrengthen，aggrandize，andsecurethesupremepower;andontheotherhand，tocircumscribeindividualindependencewithinnarrowerlimits，andtosubjectprivateintereststotheinterestsofthepublic。
Otherperilsandothercaresawaitthemenofourage。Amongstthegreaterpartofmodernnations，thegovernment，whatevermaybeitsorigin，itsconstitution，oritsname，hasbecomealmostomnipotent，andprivatepersonsarefalling，moreandmore，intotheloweststageofweaknessanddependence。Inoldensocietyeverythingwasdifferent;unityanduniformitywerenowheretobemetwith。Inmodernsocietyeverythingthreatenstobecomesomuchalike，thatthepeculiarcharacteristicsofeachindividualwillsoonbeentirelylostinthegeneralaspectoftheworld。
Ourforefatherswereeverpronetomakeanimproperuseofthenotion，thatprivaterightsoughttoberespected;andwearenaturallyproneontheotherhandtoexaggeratetheideathattheinterestofaprivateindividualoughtalwaystobendtotheinterestofthemany。Thepoliticalworldismetamorphosed:newremediesmusthenceforthbesoughtfornewdisorders。Tolaydownextensive，butdistinctandsettledlimits，totheactionofthegovernment;toconfercertainrightsonprivatepersons，andtosecuretothemtheundisputedenjoymentofthoserights;toenableindividualmantomaintainwhateverindependence，strength，andoriginalpowerhestillpossesses;toraisehimbythesideofsocietyatlarge，andupholdhiminthatposition—
theseappeartomethemainobjectsoflegislatorsintheagesuponwhichwearenowentering。Itwouldseemasiftherulersofourtimesoughtonlytousemeninordertomakethingsgreat;
Iwishthattheywouldtryalittlemoretomakegreatmen;thattheywouldsetlessvalueonthework，andmoreupontheworkman;
thattheywouldneverforgetthatanationcannotlongremainstrongwheneverymanbelongingtoitisindividuallyweak，andthatnoformorcombinationofsocialpolityhasyetbeendevised，tomakeanenergeticpeopleoutofacommunityofpusillanimousandenfeebledcitizens。
Itraceamongstourcontemporariestwocontrarynotionswhichareequallyinjurious。Onesetofmencanperceivenothingintheprincipleofequalitybuttheanarchicaltendencieswhichitengenders:theydreadtheirownfreeagency—theyfearthemselves。Otherthinkers，lessnumerousbutmoreenlightened，takeadifferentview:besidesthattrackwhichstartsfromtheprincipleofequalitytoterminateinanarchy，theyhaveatlastdiscoveredtheroadwhichseemstoleadmentoinevitableservitude。Theyshapetheirsoulsbeforehandtothisnecessarycondition;and，despairingofremainingfree，theyalreadydoobeisanceintheirheartstothemasterwhoissoontoappear。
Theformerabandonfreedom，becausetheythinkitdangerous;thelatter，becausetheyholdittobeimpossible。IfIhadentertainedthelatterconviction，Ishouldnothavewrittenthisbook，butIshouldhaveconfinedmyselftodeploringinsecretthedestinyofmankind。Ihavesoughttopointoutthedangerstowhichtheprincipleofequalityexposestheindependenceofman，becauseIfirmlybelievethatthesedangersarethemostformidable，aswellastheleastforeseen，ofallthosewhichfuturityholdsinstore:butIdonotthinkthattheyareinsurmountable。Themenwholiveinthedemocraticagesuponwhichweareenteringhavenaturallyatasteforindependence:
theyarenaturallyimpatientofregulation，andtheyareweariedbythepermanenceevenoftheconditiontheythemselvesprefer。
Theyarefondofpower;buttheyarepronetodespiseandhatethosewhowieldit，andtheyeasilyeludeitsgraspbytheirownmobilityandinsignificance。Thesepropensitieswillalwaysmanifestthemselves，becausetheyoriginateinthegroundworkofsociety，whichwillundergonochange:foralongtimetheywillpreventtheestablishmentofanydespotism，andtheywillfurnishfreshweaponstoeachsucceedinggenerationwhichshallstruggleinfavorofthelibertyofmankind。Letusthenlookforwardtothefuturewiththatsalutaryfearwhichmakesmenkeepwatchandwardforfreedom，notwiththatfaintandidleterrorwhichdepressesandenervatestheheart。
BookFour—ChapterVIII
ChapterVIII:GeneralSurveyOfTheSubjectBeforeIcloseforeverthethemethathasdetainedmesolong，Iwouldfaintakeapartingsurveyofallthevariouscharacteristicsofmodernsociety，andappreciateatlastthegeneralinfluencetobeexercisedbytheprincipleofequalityuponthefateofmankind;butIamstoppedbythedifficultyofthetask，andinpresenceofsogreatanobjectmysightistroubled，andmyreasonfails。ThesocietyofthemodernworldwhichIhavesoughttodelineate，andwhichIseektojudge，hasbutjustcomeintoexistence。Timehasnotyetshapeditintoperfectform:thegreatrevolutionbywhichithasbeencreatedisnotyetover:andamidsttheoccurrencesofourtime，itisalmostimpossibletodiscernwhatwillpassawaywiththerevolutionitself，andwhatwillsurviveitsclose。Theworldwhichisrisingintoexistenceisstillhalfencumberedbytheremainsoftheworldwhichiswaningintodecay;andamidstthevastperplexityofhumanaffairs，nonecansayhowmuchofancientinstitutionsandformermannerswillremain，orhowmuchwillcompletelydisappear。Althoughtherevolutionwhichistakingplaceinthesocialcondition，thelaws，theopinions，andthefeelingsofmen，isstillveryfarfrombeingterminated，yetitsresultsalreadyadmitofnocomparisonwithanythingthattheworldhaseverbeforewitnessed。Igobackfromagetoageuptotheremotestantiquity;butIfindnoparalleltowhatisoccurringbeforemyeyes:asthepasthasceasedtothrowitslightuponthefuture，themindofmanwandersinobscurity。
Nevertheless，inthemidstofaprospectsowide，sonovelandsoconfused，someofthemoreprominentcharacteristicsmayalreadybediscernedandpointedout。Thegoodthingsandtheevilsoflifearemoreequallydistributedintheworld:greatwealthtendstodisappear，thenumberofsmallfortunestoincrease;desiresandgratificationsaremultiplied，butextraordinaryprosperityandirremediablepenuryarealikeunknown。Thesentimentofambitionisuniversal，butthescopeofambitionisseldomvast。Eachindividualstandsapartinsolitaryweakness;butsocietyatlargeisactive，provident，andpowerful:theperformancesofprivatepersonsareinsignificant，thoseoftheStateimmense。Thereislittleenergyofcharacter;
butmannersaremild，andlawshumane。Iftherebefewinstancesofexaltedheroismorofvirtuesofthehighest，brightest，andpuresttemper，men’shabitsareregular，violenceisrare，andcrueltyalmostunknown。Humanexistencebecomeslonger，andpropertymoresecure:lifeisnotadornedwithbrillianttrophies，butitisextremelyeasyandtranquil。Fewpleasuresareeitherveryrefinedorverycoarse;andhighlypolishedmannersareasuncommonasgreatbrutalityoftastes。Neithermenofgreatlearning，norextremelyignorantcommunities，aretobemetwith;geniusbecomesmorerare，informationmorediffused。
Thehumanmindisimpelledbythesmalleffortsofallmankindcombinedtogether，notbythestrenuousactivityofcertainmen。
Thereislessperfection，butmoreabundance，inalltheproductionsofthearts。Thetiesofrace，ofrank，andofcountryarerelaxed;thegreatbondofhumanityisstrengthened。
IfIendeavortofindoutthemostgeneralandthemostprominentofallthesedifferentcharacteristics，Ishallhaveoccasiontoperceive，thatwhatistakingplaceinmen’sfortunesmanifestsitselfunderathousandotherforms。Almostallextremesaresoftenedorblunted:allthatwasmostprominentissupersededbysomemeanterm，atoncelessloftyandlesslow，lessbrilliantandlessobscure，thanwhatbeforeexistedintheworld。
WhenIsurveythiscountlessmultitudeofbeings，shapedineachother’slikeness，amidstwhomnothingrisesandnothingfalls，thesightofsuchuniversaluniformitysaddensandchillsme，andIamtemptedtoregretthatstateofsocietywhichhasceasedtobe。Whentheworldwasfullofmenofgreatimportanceandextremeinsignificance，ofgreatwealthandextremepoverty，ofgreatlearningandextremeignorance，Iturnedasidefromthelattertofixmyobservationontheformeralone，whogratifiedmysympathies。ButIadmitthatthisgratificationarosefrommyownweakness:itisbecauseIamunabletoseeatonceallthatisaroundme，thatIamallowedthustoselectandseparatetheobjectsofmypredilectionfromamongsomanyothers。SuchisnotthecasewiththatalmightyandeternalBeingwhosegazenecessarilyincludesthewholeofcreatedthings，andwhosurveysdistinctly，thoughatonce，mankindandman。Wemaynaturallybelievethatitisnotthesingularprosperityofthefew，butthegreaterwell—beingofall，whichismostpleasinginthesightoftheCreatorandPreserverofmen。Whatappearstometobeman’sdecline，istoHiseyeadvancement;whatafflictsmeisacceptabletoHim。Astateofequalityisperhapslesselevated，butitismorejust;anditsjusticeconstitutesitsgreatnessanditsbeauty。Iwouldstrivethentoraisemyselftothispointofthedivinecontemplation，andthencetoviewandtojudgetheconcernsofmen。
Noman，upontheearth，canasyetaffirmabsolutelyandgenerally，thatthenewstateoftheworldisbetterthanitsformerone;butitisalreadyeasytoperceivethatthisstateisdifferent。Somevicesandsomevirtuesweresoinherentintheconstitutionofanaristocraticnation，andaresooppositetothecharacterofamodernpeople，thattheycanneverbeinfusedintoit;somegoodtendenciesandsomebadpropensitieswhichwereunknowntotheformer，arenaturaltothelatter;someideassuggestthemselvesspontaneouslytotheimaginationoftheone，whichareutterlyrepugnanttothemindoftheother。Theyareliketwodistinctordersofhumanbeings，eachofwhichhasitsownmeritsanddefects，itsownadvantagesanditsownevils。
Caremustthereforebetakennottojudgethestateofsociety，whichisnowcomingintoexistence，bynotionsderivedfromastateofsocietywhichnolongerexists;forasthesestatesofsocietyareexceedinglydifferentintheirstructure，theycannotbesubmittedtoajustorfaircomparison。Itwouldbescarcelymorereasonabletorequireofourowncontemporariesthepeculiarvirtueswhichoriginatedinthesocialconditionoftheirforefathers，sincethatsocialconditionisitselffallen，andhasdrawnintoonepromiscuousruinthegoodandevilwhichbelongedtoit。
Butasyetthesethingsareimperfectlyunderstood。Ifindthatagreatnumberofmycontemporariesundertaketomakeacertainselectionfromamongsttheinstitutions，theopinions，andtheideaswhichoriginatedinthearistocraticconstitutionofsocietyasitwas:aportionoftheseelementstheywouldwillinglyrelinquish，buttheywouldkeeptheremainderandtransplantthemintotheirnewworld。Iapprehendthatsuchmenarewastingtheirtimeandtheirstrengthinvirtuousbutunprofitableefforts。Theobjectisnottoretainthepeculiaradvantageswhichtheinequalityofconditionsbestowsuponmankind，buttosecurethenewbenefitswhichequalitymaysupply。Wehavenottoseektomakeourselveslikeourprogenitors，buttostrivetoworkoutthatspeciesofgreatnessandhappinesswhichisourown。Formyself，whonowlookbackfromthisextremelimitofmytask，anddiscoverfromafar，butatonce，thevariousobjectswhichhaveattractedmymoreattentiveinvestigationuponmyway，Iamfullofapprehensionsandofhopes。Iperceivemightydangerswhichitispossibletowardoff—mightyevilswhichmaybeavoidedoralleviated;andI
clingwithafirmerholdtothebelief，thatfordemocraticnationstobevirtuousandprosperoustheyrequirebuttowillit。Iamawarethatmanyofmycontemporariesmaintainthatnationsarenevertheirownmastersherebelow，andthattheynecessarilyobeysomeinsurmountableandunintelligentpower，arisingfromanteriorevents，fromtheirrace，orfromthesoilandclimateoftheircountry。Suchprinciplesarefalseandcowardly;suchprinciplescanneverproduceaughtbutfeeblemenandpusillanimousnations。Providencehasnotcreatedmankindentirelyindependentorentirelyfree。Itistruethataroundeverymanafatalcircleistraced，beyondwhichhecannotpass;
butwithinthewidevergeofthatcircleheispowerfulandfree:
asitiswithman，sowithcommunities。Thenationsofourtimecannotpreventtheconditionsofmenfrombecomingequal;butitdependsuponthemselveswhethertheprincipleofequalityistoleadthemtoservitudeorfreedom，toknowledgeorbarbarism，toprosperityortowretchedness。
PartI。
AppendixA
ForinformationconcerningallthecountriesoftheWestwhichhavenotbeenvisitedbyEuropeans，consulttheaccountoftwoexpeditionsundertakenattheexpenseofCongressbyMajorLong。Thistravellerparticularlymentions，onthesubjectofthegreatAmericandesert，thatalinemaybedrawnnearlyparalleltothe20thdegreeoflongitude*a（meridianofWashington），beginningfromtheRedRiverandendingattheRiverPlatte。FromthisimaginarylinetotheRockyMountains，whichboundthevalleyoftheMississippionthewest，lieimmenseplains，whicharealmostentirelycoveredwithsand，incapableofcultivation，orscatteredoverwithmassesofgranite。Insummer，theseplainsarequitedestituteofwater，andnothingistobeseenonthembutherdsofbuffaloesandwildhorses。SomehordesofIndiansarealsofoundthere，butinnogreatnumbers。MajorLongwastoldthatintravellingnorthwardsfromtheRiverPlatteyoufindthesamedesertlyingconstantlyontheleft;buthewasunabletoascertainthetruthofthisreport。HoweverworthyofconfidencemaybethenarrativeofMajorLong，itmustberememberedthatheonlypassedthroughthecountryofwhichhespeaks，withoutdeviatingwidelyfromthelinewhichhehadtracedoutforhisjourney。
[Footnotea:The20thdegreeoflongitude，accordingtothemeridianofWashington，agreesverynearlywiththe97thdegreeonthemeridianofGreenwich。]
AppendixB
SouthAmerica，intheregionbetweenthetropics，producesanincredibleprofusionofclimbingplants，ofwhichthefloraoftheAntillesalonepresentsuswithfortydifferentspecies。
Amongthemostgracefuloftheseshrubsisthepassion—flower，which，accordingtoDescourtiz，growswithsuchluxurianceintheAntilles，astoclimbtreesbymeansofthetendrilswithwhichitisprovided，andformmovingbowersofrichandelegantfestoons，decoratedwithblueandpurpleflowers，andfragrantwithperfume。TheMimosascandens（Acaciaagrandesgousses）isacreeperofenormousandrapidgrowth，whichclimbsfromtreetotree，andsometimescoversmorethanhalfaleague。
AppendixC
ThelanguageswhicharespokenbytheIndiansofAmerica，fromthePoletoCapeHorn，aresaidtobeallformeduponthesamemodel，andsubjecttothesamegrammaticalrules;whenceitmayfairlybeconcludedthatalltheIndiannationssprangfromthesamestock。EachtribeoftheAmericancontinentspeaksadifferentdialect;butthenumberoflanguages，properlysocalled，isverysmall，afactwhichtendstoprovethatthenationsoftheNewWorldhadnotaveryremoteorigin。Moreover，thelanguagesofAmericahaveagreatdegreeofregularity，fromwhichitseemsprobablethatthetribeswhichemploythemhadnotundergoneanygreatrevolutions，orbeenincorporatedvoluntarilyorbyconstraint，withforeignnations。Foritisgenerallytheunionofseverallanguagesintoonewhichproducesgrammaticalirregularities。ItisnotlongsincetheAmericanlanguages，especiallythoseoftheNorth，firstattractedtheseriousattentionofphilologists，whenthediscoverywasmadethatthisidiomofabarbarouspeoplewastheproductofacomplicatedsystemofideasandverylearnedcombinations。Theselanguageswerefoundtobeveryrich，andgreatpainshadbeentakenattheirformationtorenderthemagreeabletotheear。ThegrammaticalsystemoftheAmericansdiffersfromallothersinseveralpoints，butespeciallyinthefollowing:—
SomenationsofEurope，amongstotherstheGermans，havethepowerofcombiningatpleasuredifferentexpressions，andthusgivingacomplexsensetocertainwords。TheIndianshavegivenamostsurprisingextensiontothispower，soastoarriveatthemeansofconnectingagreatnumberofideaswithasingleterm。
ThiswillbeeasilyunderstoodwiththehelpofanexamplequotedbyMr。Duponceau，inthe\"MemoirsofthePhilosophicalSocietyofAmerica\":ADelawarewomanplayingwithacatorayoungdog，saysthiswriter，isheardtopronouncethewordkuligatschis，whichisthuscomposed:kisthesignofthesecondperson，andsignifies\"thou\"or\"thy\";uliisapartofthewordwulit，whichsignifies\"beautiful，\"\"pretty\";gatisanotherfragment，ofthewordwichgat，whichmeans\"paw\";and，lastly，schisisadiminutivegivingtheideaofsmallness。ThusinonewordtheIndianwomanhasexpressed\"Thyprettylittlepaw。\"TakeanotherexampleofthefelicitywithwhichthesavagesofAmericahavecomposedtheirwords。AyoungmanofDelawareiscalledpilape。
Thiswordisformedfrompilsit，\"chaste，\"\"innocent\";andlenape，\"man\";viz。，\"maninhispurityandinnocence。\"Thisfacilityofcombiningwordsismostremarkableinthestrangeformationoftheirverbs。Themostcomplexactionisoftenexpressedbyasingleverb，whichservestoconveyalltheshadesofanideabythemodificationofitsconstruction。Thosewhomaywishtoexaminemoreindetailthissubject，whichIhaveonlyglancedatsuperficially，shouldread:—
1。ThecorrespondenceofMr。DuponceauandtheRev。Mr。
HecwelderrelativetotheIndianlanguages，whichistobefoundinthefirstvolumeofthe\"MemoirsofthePhilosophicalSocietyofAmerica，\"publishedatPhiladelphia，1819，byAbrahamSmall;
vol。i。p。356—464。
2。The\"GrammaroftheDelawareortheLenapeLanguage，\"byGeiberger，andtheprefaceofMr。Duponceau。Alltheseareinthesamecollection，vol。iii。
3。Anexcellentaccountoftheseworks，whichisattheendofthesixthvolumeoftheAmericanEncyclopaedia。
AppendixD
SeeinCharlevoix，vol。i。p。235，thehistoryofthefirstwarwhichtheFrenchinhabitantsofCanadacarriedon，in1610，againsttheIroquois。Thelatter，armedwithbowsandarrows，offeredadesperateresistancetotheFrenchandtheirallies。
Charlevoixisnotagreatpainter，yetheexhibitsclearlyenough，inthisnarrative，thecontrastbetweentheEuropeanmannersandthoseofsavages，aswellasthedifferentwayinwhichthetworacesofmenunderstoodthesenseofhonor。WhentheFrench，sayshe，seizeduponthebeaver—skinswhichcoveredtheIndianswhohadfallen，theHurons，theirallies，weregreatlyoffendedatthisproceeding;butwithouthesitationtheysettoworkintheirusualmanner，inflictinghorridcrueltiesupontheprisoners，anddevouringoneofthosewhohadbeenkilled，whichmadetheFrenchmenshudder。Thebarbarianspridedthemselvesuponascrupulousnesswhichtheyweresurprisedatnotfindinginournation，andcouldnotunderstandthattherewaslesstoreprehendinthestrippingofdeadbodiesthaninthedevouringoftheirfleshlikewildbeasts。Charlevoix，inanotherplace（vol。i。p。230），thusdescribesthefirsttortureofwhichChamplainwasaneyewitness，andthereturnoftheHuronsintotheirownvillage。Havingproceededabouteightleagues，sayshe，ourallieshalted;andhavingsingledoutoneoftheircaptives，theyreproachedhimwithallthecrueltieswhichhehadpractiseduponthewarriorsoftheirnationwhohadfallenintohishands，andtoldhimthathemightexpecttobetreatedinlikemanner;adding，thatifhehadanyspirithewouldproveitbysinging。Heimmediatelychantedforthhisdeath—song，andthenhiswar—song，andallthesongsheknew，\"butinaverymournfulstrain，\"saysChamplain，whowasnotthenawarethatallsavagemusichasamelancholycharacter。Thetortureswhichsucceeded，accompaniedbyallthehorrorswhichweshallmentionhereafter，terrifiedtheFrench，whomadeeveryefforttoputastoptothem，butinvain。Thefollowingnight，oneoftheHuronshavingdreamtthattheywerepursued，theretreatwaschangedtoarealflight，andthesavagesneverstoppeduntiltheywereoutofthereachofdanger。Themomenttheyperceivedthecabinsoftheirownvillage，theycutthemselveslongsticks，towhichtheyfastenedthescalpswhichhadfallentotheirshare，andcarriedthemintriumph。Atthissight，thewomenswamtothecanoes，wheretheyreceivedthebloodyscalpsfromthehandsoftheirhusbands，andtiedthemroundtheirnecks。ThewarriorsofferedoneofthesehorribletrophiestoChamplain;theyalsopresentedhimwithsomebowsandarrows—theonlyspoilsoftheIroquoiswhichtheyhadventuredtoseize—entreatinghimtoshowthemtotheKingofFrance。