ChapterLII:MoreConquestsByTheArabs。
PartI。
TheTwoSiegesOfConstantinopleByTheArabs。—TheirInvasionOfFrance，AndDefeatByCharlesMartel。—CivilWarOfTheOmmiadesAndAbbassides。—LearningOfTheArabs。—LuxuryOfTheCaliphs。—NavalEnterprisesOnCrete，Sicily，AndRome。—
DecayAndDivisionOfTheEmpireOfTheCaliphs。—DefeatsAndVictoriesOfTheGreekEmperors。
WhentheArabsfirstissuedfromthedesert，theymusthavebeensurprisedattheeaseandrapidityoftheirownsuccess。
ButwhentheyadvancedinthecareerofvictorytothebanksoftheIndusandthesummitofthePyrenees；whentheyhadrepeatedlytriedtheedgeoftheircimetersandtheenergyoftheirfaith，theymightbeequallyastonishedthatanynationcouldresisttheirinvinciblearms；thatanyboundaryshouldconfinethedominionofthesuccessoroftheprophet。Theconfidenceofsoldiersandfanaticsmayindeedbeexcused，sincethecalmhistorianofthepresenthour，whostrivestofollowtherapidcourseoftheSaracens，muststudytoexplainbywhatmeansthechurchandstateweresavedfromthisimpending，and，asitshouldseem，fromthisinevitable，danger。ThedesertsofScythiaandSarmatiamightbeguardedbytheirextent，theirclimate，theirpoverty，andthecourageofthenorthernshepherds；Chinawasremoteandinaccessible；butthegreatestpartofthetemperatezonewassubjecttotheMahometanconquerors，theGreekswereexhaustedbythecalamitiesofwarandthelossoftheirfairestprovinces，andtheBarbariansofEuropemightjustlytrembleattheprecipitatefalloftheGothicmonarchy。InthisinquiryIshallunfoldtheeventsthatrescuedourancestorsofBritain，andourneighborsofGaul，fromthecivilandreligiousyokeoftheKoran；thatprotectedthemajestyofRome，anddelayedtheservitudeofConstantinople；thatinvigoratedthedefenceoftheChristians，andscatteredamongtheirenemiestheseedsofdivisionanddecay。
Forty—sixyearsaftertheflightofMahometfromMecca，hisdisciplesappearedinarmsunderthewallsofConstantinople。^1
Theywereanimatedbyagenuineorfictitioussayingoftheprophet，that，tothefirstarmywhichbesiegedthecityoftheCaesars，theirsinswereforgiven:thelongseriesofRomantriumphswouldbemeritoriouslytransferredtotheconquerorsofNewRome；andthewealthofnationswasdepositedinthiswell—chosenseatofroyaltyandcommerce。NosoonerhadthecaliphMoawiyahsuppressedhisrivalsandestablishedhisthrone，thanheaspiredtoexpiatetheguiltofcivilblood，bythesuccessandgloryofthisholyexpedition；^2hispreparationsbyseaandlandwereadequatetotheimportanceoftheobject；hisstandardwasintrustedtoSophian，aveteranwarrior，butthetroopswereencouragedbytheexampleandpresenceofYezid，thesonandpresumptiveheirofthecommanderofthefaithful。TheGreekshadlittletohope，norhadtheirenemiesanyreasonoffear，fromthecourageandvigilanceofthereigningemperor，whodisgracedthenameofConstantine，andimitatedonlytheingloriousyearsofhisgrandfatherHeraclius。Withoutdelayoropposition，thenavalforcesoftheSaracenspassedthroughtheunguardedchanneloftheHellespont，whichevennow，underthefeebleanddisorderlygovernmentoftheTurks，ismaintainedasthenaturalbulwarkofthecapital。^3TheArabianfleetcastanchor，andthetroopsweredisembarkednearthepalaceofHebdomon，sevenmilesfromthecity。Duringmanydays，fromthedawnoflighttotheevening，thelineofassaultwasextendedfromthegoldengatetotheeasternpromontoryandtheforemostwarriorswereimpelledbytheweightandeffortofthesucceedingcolumns。ButthebesiegershadformedaninsufficientestimateofthestrengthandresourcesofConstantinople。Thesolidandloftywallswereguardedbynumbersanddiscipline:thespiritoftheRomanswasrekindledbythelastdangeroftheirreligionandempire:thefugitivesfromtheconqueredprovincesmoresuccessfullyrenewedthedefenceofDamascusandAlexandria；andtheSaracensweredismayedbythestrangeandprodigiouseffectsofartificialfire。ThisfirmandeffectualresistancedivertedtheirarmstothemoreeasyattemptofplunderingtheEuropeanandAsiaticcoastsofthePropontis；and，afterkeepingtheseafromthemonthofApriltothatofSeptember，ontheapproachofwintertheyretreatedfourscoremilesfromthecapital，totheIsleofCyzicus，inwhichtheyhadestablishedtheirmagazineofspoilandprovisions。Sopatientwastheirperseverance，orsolanguidweretheiroperations，thattheyrepeatedinthesixfollowingsummersthesameattackandretreat，withagradualabatementofhopeandvigor，tillthemischancesofshipwreckanddisease，oftheswordandoffire，compelledthemtorelinquishthefruitlessenterprise。Theymightbewailtheloss，orcommemoratethemartyrdom，ofthirtythousandMoslems，whofellinthesiegeofConstantinople；andthesolemnfuneralofAbuAyub，orJob，excitedthecuriosityoftheChristiansthemselves。
ThatvenerableArab，oneofthelastofthecompanionsofMahomet，wasnumberedamongtheansars，orauxiliaries，ofMedina，whoshelteredtheheadoftheflyingprophet。Inhisyouthhefought，atBederandOhud，undertheholystandard:inhismatureagehewasthefriendandfollowerofAli；andthelastremnantofhisstrengthandlifewasconsumedinadistantanddangerouswaragainsttheenemiesoftheKoran。Hismemorywasrevered；buttheplaceofhisburialwasneglectedandunknown，duringaperiodofsevenhundredandeightyyears，tilltheconquestofConstantinoplebyMahomettheSecond。A
seasonablevisionforsucharethemanufactureofeveryreligionrevealedtheholyspotatthefootofthewallsandthebottomoftheharbor；andthemoschofAyubhasbeendeservedlychosenforthesimpleandmartialinaugurationoftheTurkishsultans。^4
[Footnote1:TheophanesplacesthesevenyearsofthesiegeofConstantinopleintheyearofourChristianaera，673oftheAlexandrian665，Sept。1，andthepeaceoftheSaracens，fouryearsafterwards；aglaringinconsistency!whichPetavius，Goar，andPagi，Critica，tom。iv。p。63，64，havestruggledtoremove。OftheArabians，theHegira52A。D。672，January8isassignedbyElmacin，theyear48A。D。688，Feb。20byAbulfeda，whosetestimonyIesteemthemostconvenientandcredible。]
[Footnote2:ForthisfirstsiegeofConstantinople，seeNicephorus，Breviar。p。21，22；Theophanes，Chronograph。p。
294；Cedrenus，Compend。p。437；Zonaras，Hist。tom。ii。l。
xiv。p。89；Elmacin，Hist。Saracen。p。56，57；Abulfeda，Annal。Moslem。p。107，108，vers。Reiske；D\'Herbelot，Bibliot。
Orient。Constantinah；Ockley\'sHistoryoftheSaracens，vol。ii。
p。127，128。]
[Footnote3:ThestateanddefenceoftheDardanellesisexposedintheMemoirsoftheBarondeTott，tom。iii。p。39—97，whowassenttofortifythemagainsttheRussians。Fromaprincipalactor，Ishouldhaveexpectedmoreaccuratedetails；butheseemstowritefortheamusement，ratherthantheinstruction，ofhisreader。Perhaps，ontheapproachoftheenemy，theministerofConstantinewasoccupied，likethatofMustapha，infindingtwoCanarybirdswhoshouldsingpreciselythesamenote。]
[Footnote4:DemetriusCantemir\'sHist。oftheOthmanEmpire，p。
105，106。Rycaut\'sStateoftheOttomanEmpire，p。10，11。
VoyagesofThevenot，parti。p。189。TheChristians，whosupposethatthemartyrAbuAyubisvulgarlyconfoundedwiththepatriarchJob，betraytheirownignoranceratherthanthatoftheTurks。]
Theeventofthesiegerevived，bothintheEastandWest，thereputationoftheRomanarms，andcastamomentaryshadeoverthegloriesoftheSaracens。TheGreekambassadorwasfavorablyreceivedatDamascus，ageneralcounciloftheemirsorKoreish:
apeace，ortruce，ofthirtyyearswasratifiedbetweenthetwoempires；andthestipulationofanannualtribute，fiftyhorsesofanoblebreed，fiftyslaves，andthreethousandpiecesofgold，degradedthemajestyofthecommanderofthefaithful。^5
Theagedcaliphwasdesirousofpossessinghisdominions，andendinghisdaysintranquillityandrepose:whiletheMoorsandIndianstrembledathisname，hispalaceandcityofDamascuswasinsultedbytheMardaites，orMaronites，ofMountLibanus，thefirmestbarrieroftheempire，tilltheyweredisarmedandtransplantedbythesuspiciouspolicyoftheGreeks。^6AftertherevoltofArabiaandPersia，thehouseofOmmiyahwasreducedtothekingdomsofSyriaandEgypt:theirdistressandfearenforcedtheircompliancewiththepressingdemandsoftheChristians；andthetributewasincreasedtoaslave，ahorse，andathousandpiecesofgold，foreachofthethreehundredandsixty—fivedaysofthesolaryear。ButassoonastheempirewasagainunitedbythearmsandpolicyofAbdalmalek，hedisclaimedabadgeofservitudenotlessinjurioustohisconsciencethantohispride；
hediscontinuedthepaymentofthetribute；andtheresentmentoftheGreekswasdisabledfromactionbythemadtyrannyofthesecondJustinian，thejustrebellionofhissubjects，andthefrequentchangeofhisantagonistsandsuccessors。TillthereignofAbdalmalek，theSaracenshadbeencontentwiththefreepossessionofthePersianandRomantreasures，inthecoinsofChosroesandCaesar。Bythecommandofthatcaliph，anationalmintwasestablished，bothforsilverandgold，andtheinscriptionoftheDinar，thoughitmightbecensuredbysometimorouscasuists，proclaimedtheunityoftheGodofMahomet。^8
UnderthereignofthecaliphWalid，theGreeklanguageandcharacterswereexcludedfromtheaccountsofthepublicrevenue。
^9Ifthischangewasproductiveoftheinventionorfamiliaruseofourpresentnumerals，theArabicorIndianciphers，astheyarecommonlystyled，aregulationofofficehaspromotedthemostimportantdiscoveriesofarithmetic，algebra，andthemathematicalsciences。^10
[Footnote5:Theophanes，thoughaGreek，deservescreditforthesetributes，Chronograph。p。295，296，300，301，whichareconfirmed，withsomevariation，bytheArabicHistoryofAbulpharagius，Dynast。p。128，vers。Pocock。]
[Footnote6:ThecensureofTheophanesisjustandpointed，Chronograph。p。302，303。TheseriesoftheseeventsmaybetracedintheAnnalsofTheophanes，andintheAbridgmentofthepatriarchNicephorus，p。22，24。]
[Footnote7:Thesedomesticrevolutionsarerelatedinaclearandnaturalstyle，inthesecondvolumeofOckley\'sHistoryoftheSaracens，p。253—370。Besidesourprintedauthors，hedrawshismaterialsfromtheArabicMss。ofOxford，whichhewouldhavemoredeeplysearchedhadhebeenconfinedtotheBodleianlibraryinsteadofthecityjailafatehowunworthyofthemanandofhiscountry!]
[Footnote8:Elmacin，whodatesthefirstcoinageA。H。76，A。D。
695，fiveorsixyearslaterthantheGreekhistorians，hascomparedtheweightofthebestorcommongolddinartothedrachmordirhemofEgypt，p。77，whichmaybeequaltotwopennies48grainsofourTroyweight，Hooper\'sInquiryintoAncientMeasures，p。24—36，andequivalenttoeightshillingsofoursterlingmoney。FromthesameElmacinandtheArabianphysicians，somedinarsashighastwodirhems，aslowashalfadirhem，maybededuced。Thepieceofsilverwasthedirhem，bothinvalueandweight；butanold，thoughfaircoin，struckatWaset，A。H。88，andpreservedintheBodleianlibrary，wantsfourgrainsoftheCairostandard，seetheModernUniversalHistory，tom。i。p。548oftheFrenchtranslation。
Note:UptothistimetheArabshadusedtheRomanorthePersiancoinsorhadmintedotherswhichresembledthem。
Nevertheless，ithasbeenadmittedoflateyears，thattheArabians，beforethisepoch，hadcausedcointobeminted，onwhich，preservingtheRomanorthePersiandies，theyaddedArabiannamesorinscriptions。Someoftheseexistindifferentcollections。WelearnfromMakrizi，anArabianauthorofgreatlearningandjudgment，thatintheyear18oftheHegira，underthecaliphateofOmar，theArabshadcoinedmoneyofthisdescription。ThesameauthorinformsusthatthecaliphAbdalmalekcausedcoinstobestruckrepresentinghimselfwithaswordbyhisside。Thesetypes，socontrarytothenotionsoftheArabs，weredisapprovedbythemostinfluentialpersonsofthetime，andthecaliphsubstitutedforthem，aftertheyear76
oftheHegira，theMahometancoinswithwhichweareacquainted。
Consult，onthequestionofArabicnumismatics，theworksofAdler，ofFraehn，ofCastiglione，andofMarsden，whohavetreatedatlengththisinterestingpointofhistoricantiquities。
See，also，intheJournalAsiatique，tom。ii。p。257，etseq。，apaperofM。SilvestredeSacy，entitledDesMonnaiesdesKhalifesavantl\'An75del\'Hegire。See，alsothetranslationofaGermanpaperontheArabicmedalsoftheChosroes，byM。Fraehn。inthesameJournalAsiatiquetom。iv。p。331—347。St。Martin，vol。
xii。p。19—M。]
[Footnote9:Theophan。Chronograph。p。314。Thisdefect，ifitreallyexisted，musthavestimulatedtheingenuityoftheArabstoinventorborrow。]
[Footnote10:Accordingtoanew，thoughprobable，notion，maintainedbyMdeVilloison，AnecdotaGraeca，tom。ii。p。152—
157，ourciphersarenotofIndianorArabicinvention。TheywereusedbytheGreekandLatinarithmeticianslongbeforetheageofBoethius。AftertheextinctionofscienceintheWest，theywereadoptedbytheArabicversionsfromtheoriginalMss。，andrestoredtotheLatinsaboutthexithcentury。
Note:Compare，ontheIntroductionoftheArabicnumerals，Hallam\'sIntroductiontotheLiteratureofEurope，p。150，note，andtheauthorsquotedtherein。—M。]
WhilstthecaliphWalidsatidleonthethroneofDamascus，whilsthislieutenantsachievedtheconquestofTransoxianaandSpain，athirdarmyofSaracensoverspreadtheprovincesofAsiaMinor，andapproachedthebordersoftheByzantinecapital。ButtheattemptanddisgraceofthesecondsiegewasreservedforhisbrotherSoliman，whoseambitionappearstohavebeenquickenedbyamoreactiveandmartialspirit。IntherevolutionsoftheGreekempire，afterthetyrantJustinianhadbeenpunishedandavenged，anhumblesecretary，AnastasiusorArtemius，waspromotedbychanceormerittothevacantpurple。Hewasalarmedbythesoundofwar；andhisambassadorreturnedfromDamascuswiththetremendousnews，thattheSaracenswerepreparinganarmamentbyseaandland，suchaswouldtranscendtheexperienceofthepast，orthebeliefofthepresentage。TheprecautionsofAnastasiuswerenotunworthyofhisstation，oroftheimpendingdanger。Heissuedaperemptorymandate，thatallpersonswhowerenotprovidedwiththemeansofsubsistenceforathreeyears\'siegeshouldevacuatethecity:thepublicgranariesandarsenalswereabundantlyreplenished；thewallswererestoredandstrengthened；andtheenginesforcastingstones，ordarts，orfire，werestationedalongtheramparts，orinthebrigantinesofwar，ofwhichanadditionalnumberwashastilyconstructed。Topreventissafer，aswellasmorehonorable，thantorepel，anattack；andadesignwasmeditated，abovetheusualspiritoftheGreeks，ofburningthenavalstoresoftheenemy，thecypresstimberthathadbeenhewninMountLibanus，andwaspiledalongthesea—shoreofPhoenicia，fortheserviceoftheEgyptianfleet。Thisgenerousenterprisewasdefeatedbythecowardiceortreacheryofthetroops，who，inthenewlanguageoftheempire，werestyledoftheObsequianTheme。^11Theymurderedtheirchief，desertedtheirstandardintheIsleofRhodes，dispersedthemselvesovertheadjacentcontinent，anddeservedpardonorrewardbyinvestingwiththepurpleasimpleofficeroftherevenue。ThenameofTheodosiusmightrecommendhimtothesenateandpeople；but，aftersomemonths，hesunkintoacloister，andresigned，tothefirmerhandofLeotheIsaurian，theurgentdefenceofthecapitalandempire。ThemostformidableoftheSaracens，Moslemah，thebrotherofthecaliph，wasadvancingattheheadofonehundredandtwentythousandArabsandPersians，thegreaterpartmountedonhorsesorcamels；
andthesuccessfulsiegesofTyana，Amorium，andPergamus，wereofsufficientdurationtoexercisetheirskillandtoelevatetheirhopes。Atthewell—knownpassageofAbydus，ontheHellespont，theMahometanarmsweretransported，forthefirsttime，fromAsiatoEurope。Fromthence，wheelingroundtheThraciancitiesofthePropontis，MoslemahinvestedConstantinopleonthelandside，surroundedhiscampwithaditchandrampart，preparedandplantedhisenginesofassault，anddeclared，bywordsandactions，apatientresolutionofexpectingthereturnofseed—timeandharvest，shouldtheobstinacyofthebesiegedproveequaltohisown。^!TheGreekswouldgladlyhaveransomedtheirreligionandempire，byafineorassessmentofapieceofgoldontheheadofeachinhabitantofthecity；buttheliberalofferwasrejectedwithdisdain，andthepresumptionofMoslemahwasexaltedbythespeedyapproachandinvincibleforceofthenativesofEgyptandSyria。Theyaresaidtohaveamountedtoeighteenhundredships:thenumberbetraystheirinconsiderablesize；andofthetwentystoutandcapaciousvessels，whosemagnitudeimpededtheirprogress，eachwasmannedwithnomorethanonehundredheavy—armedsoldiers。Thishugearmadaproceededonasmoothsea，andwithagentlegale，towardsthemouthoftheBosphorus；thesurfaceofthestraitwasovershadowed，inthelanguageoftheGreeks，withamovingforest，andthesamefatalnighthadbeenfixedbytheSaracenchiefforageneralassaultbyseaandland。Toalluretheconfidenceoftheenemy，theemperorhadthrownasidethechainthatusuallyguardedtheentranceoftheharbor；butwhiletheyhesitatedwhethertheyshouldseizetheopportunity，orapprehendthesnare，theministersofdestructionwereathand。Thefire—shipsoftheGreekswerelaunchedagainstthem；theArabs，theirarms，andvessels，wereinvolvedinthesameflames；thedisorderlyfugitivesweredashedagainsteachotheroroverwhelmedinthewaves；andInolongerfindavestigeofthefleet，thathadthreatenedtoextirpatetheRomanname。AstillmorefatalandirreparablelosswasthatofthecaliphSoliman，whodiedofanindigestion，^12inhiscampnearKinnisrinorChalcisinSyria，ashewaspreparingtoleadagainstConstantinopletheremainingforcesoftheEast。ThebrotherofMoslemahwassucceededbyakinsmanandanenemy；andthethroneofanactiveandableprincewasdegradedbytheuselessandperniciousvirtuesofabigot。^!!Whilehestartedandsatisfiedthescruplesofablindconscience，thesiegewascontinuedthroughthewinterbytheneglect，ratherthanbytheresolutionofthecaliphOmar。^13Thewinterproveduncommonlyrigorous:
aboveahundreddaysthegroundwascoveredwithdeepsnow，andthenativesofthesultryclimesofEgyptandArabialaytorpidandalmostlifelessintheirfrozencamp。Theyrevivedonthereturnofspring；asecondefforthadbeenmadeintheirfavor；
andtheirdistresswasrelievedbythearrivaloftwonumerousfleets，ladenwithcorn，andarms，andsoldiers；thefirstfromAlexandria，offourhundredtransportsandgalleys；thesecondofthreehundredandsixtyvesselsfromtheportsofAfrica。ButtheGreekfireswereagainkindled；andifthedestructionwaslesscomplete，itwasowingtotheexperiencewhichhadtaughttheMoslemstoremainatasafedistance，ortotheperfidyoftheEgyptianmariners，whodesertedwiththeirshipstotheemperoroftheChristians。Thetradeandnavigationofthecapitalwererestored；andtheproduceofthefisheriessuppliedthewants，andeventheluxury，oftheinhabitants。ButthecalamitiesoffamineanddiseaseweresoonfeltbythetroopsofMoslemah，andastheformerwasmiserablyassuaged，sothelatterwasdreadfullypropagated，bytheperniciousnutrimentwhichhungercompelledthemtoextractfromthemostuncleanorunnaturalfood。Thespiritofconquest，andevenofenthusiasm，wasextinct:theSaracenscouldnolongerstruggle，beyondtheirlines，eithersingleorinsmallparties，withoutexposingthemselvestothemercilessretaliationoftheThracianpeasants。
AnarmyofBulgarianswasattractedfromtheDanubebythegiftsandpromisesofLeo；andthesesavageauxiliariesmadesomeatonementfortheevilswhichtheyhadinflictedontheempire，bythedefeatandslaughteroftwenty—twothousandAsiatics。A