specioustheoryisconfutedbythisfreeandperfectexperiment，whichdemonstrates，thatthelibertyofdivorcedoesnotcontributetohappinessandvirtue。Thefacilityofseparationwoulddestroyallmutualconfidence，andinflameeverytriflingdispute:theminutedifferencebetweenahusbandandastranger，whichmightsoeasilyberemoved，mightstillmoreeasilybeforgotten；andthematron，whoinfiveyearscansubmittotheembracesofeighthusbands，mustceasetoreverencethechastityofherownperson。^125
[Footnote123:AccordingtoPlutarch，p。57，Romulusallowedonlythreegroundsofadivorce—drunkenness，adultery，andfalsekeys。Otherwise，thehusbandwhoabusedhissupremacyforfeitedhalfhisgoodstothewife，andhalftothegoddessCeres，andofferedasacrificewiththeremainder?totheterrestrialdeities。Thisstrangelawwaseitherimaginaryortransient。]
[Footnote*:MontesquieurelatesandexplainsthisfactinadifferentmarnesEspritdesLoix，l。xvi。c。16。—G。]
[Footnote124:IntheyearofRome523，SpuriusCarviliusRugarepudiatedafair，agood，butabarren，wife，DionysiusHal。l。
ii。p。93。Plutarch，inNuma，p。141；ValeriusMaximus，l。ii。
c。1；AulusGellius，iv。3。Hewasquestionedbythecensors，andhatedbythepeople；buthisdivorcestoodunimpeachedinlaw。]
[Footnote125:—SicfiuntoctomaritiQuinqueperautumnos。
Juvenal，Satir。vi。20。
Arapidsuccession，whichmayyetbecredible，aswellasthenonconsulumnumero，sedmaritorumannossuoscomputant，ofSeneca，deBeneficiis，iii。16。JeromsawatRomeatriumphanthusbandburyhistwenty—firstwife，whohadinterredtwenty—twoofhislesssturdypredecessors，Opp。tom。i。p。90，adGerontiam。ButthetenhusbandsinamonthofthepoetMartial，isanextravaganthyperbole，l。71。epigram7。]
Insufficientremediesfollowedwithdistantandtardystepstherapidprogressoftheevil。TheancientworshipoftheRomansaffordedapeculiargoddesstohearandreconcilethecomplaintsofamarriedlife；butherepithetofViriplaca，^126
theappeaserofhusbands，tooclearlyindicatesonwhichsidesubmissionandrepentancewerealwaysexpected。Everyactofacitizenwassubjecttothejudgmentofthecensors；thefirstwhousedtheprivilegeofdivorceassigned，attheircommand，themotivesofhisconduct；^127andasenatorwasexpelledfordismissinghisvirginspousewithouttheknowledgeoradviceofhisfriends。Wheneveranactionwasinstitutedfortherecoveryofamarriageportion，theproetor，astheguardianofequity，examinedthecauseandthecharacters，andgentlyinclinedthescaleinfavoroftheguiltlessandinjuredparty。Augustus，whounitedthepowersofbothmagistrates，adoptedtheirdifferentmodesofrepressingorchastisingthelicenseofdivorce。^128
ThepresenceofsevenRomanwitnesseswasrequiredforthevalidityofthissolemnanddeliberateact:ifanyadequateprovocationhadbeengivenbythehusband，insteadofthedelayoftwoyears，hewascompelledtorefundimmediately，orinthespaceofsixmonths；butifhecouldarraignthemannersofhiswife，herguiltorlevitywasexpiatedbythelossofthesixthoreighthpartofhermarriageportion。TheChristianprinceswerethefirstwhospecifiedthejustcausesofaprivatedivorce；theirinstitutions，fromConstantinetoJustinian，appeartofluctuatebetweenthecustomoftheempireandthewishesofthechurch，^129andtheauthoroftheNovelstoofrequentlyreformsthejurisprudenceoftheCodeandPandects。Inthemostrigorouslaws，awifewascondemnedtosupportagamester，adrunkard，oralibertine，unlesshewereguiltyofhomicide，poison，orsacrilege，inwhichcasesthemarriage，asitshouldseem，mighthavebeendissolvedbythehandoftheexecutioner。Butthesacredrightofthehusbandwasinvariablymaintained，todeliverhisnameandfamilyfromthedisgraceofadultery:thelistofmortalsins，eithermaleorfemale，wascurtailedandenlargedbysuccessiveregulations，andtheobstaclesofincurableimpotence，longabsence，andmonasticprofession，wereallowedtorescindthematrimonialobligation。
Whoevertransgressedthepermissionofthelaw，wassubjecttovariousandheavypenalties。Thewomanwasstrippedofherwealthandornaments，withoutexceptingthebodkinofherhair:
ifthemanintroducedanewbrideintohisbed，herfortunemightbelawfullyseizedbythevengeanceofhisexiledwife。
Forfeiturewassometimescommutedtoafine；thefinewassometimesaggravatedbytransportationtoanisland，orimprisonmentinamonastery；theinjuredpartywasreleasedfromthebondsofmarriage；buttheoffender，duringlife，oratermofyears，wasdisabledfromtherepetitionofnuptials。ThesuccessorofJustinianyieldedtotheprayersofhisunhappysubjects，andrestoredthelibertyofdivorcebymutualconsent:
thecivilianswereunanimous，^130thetheologiansweredivided，^131andtheambiguousword，whichcontainsthepreceptofChrist，isflexibletoanyinterpretationthatthewisdomofalegislatorcandemand。
[Footnote126:SacellumViriplacae，ValeriusMaximus，l。ii。c。
1，inthePalatineregion，appearsinthetimeofTheodosius，inthedescriptionofRomebyPubliusVictor。]
[Footnote127:ValeriusMaximus，l。ii。c。9。Withsomeproprietyhejudgesdivorcemorecriminalthancelibacy:illonamqueconjugaliasacrespretatantum，hocetiaminjuriosetractata。]
[Footnote128:SeethelawsofAugustusandhissuccessors，inHeineccius，adLegemPapiam—Poppaeam，c。19，inOpp。tom。vi。P。
i。p。323—333。]
[Footnote129:AliaesuntlegesCaesarum，aliaeChristi；aliudPapinianus，aliudPaulusnocterpraecipit，Jerom。tom。i。p。
198。Selden，UxorEbraical。iii。c。31p。847—853。]
[Footnote130:TheInstitutesaresilent；butwemayconsulttheCodesofTheodosiusl。iii。tit。xvi。，withGodefroy\'sCommentary，tom。i。p。310—315andJustinian，l。v。tit。
xvii。，thePandectsl。xxiv。tit。ii。andtheNovels，xxii。
cxvii。cxxvii。cxxxiv。cxl。Justinianfluctuatedtothelastbetweencivilandecclesiasticallaw。]
[Footnote131:InpureGreek，itisnotacommonword；norcanthepropermeaning，fornication，bestrictlyappliedtomatrimonialsin。Inafigurativesense，howfar，andtowhatoffences，mayitbeextended?DidChristspeaktheRabbinicalorSyriactongue?Ofwhatoriginalwordisthetranslation?HowvariouslyisthatGreekwordtranslatedintheversionsancientandmodern!TherearetwoMark，x。11，Luke，xvi。18tooneMatthew，xix。9thatsuchgroundofdivorcewasnotexceptedbyJesus。Somecriticshavepresumedtothink，byanevasiveanswer，heavoidedthegivingoffenceeithertotheschoolofSammaiortothatofHillel，Selden，UxorEbraica，l。iii。c。18—22，28，31。
Note:Butthesehadnothingtodowiththequestionofadivorcemadebyjudicialauthority。—Hugo。]
ThefreedomofloveandmarriagewasrestrainedamongtheRomansbynaturalandcivilimpediments。Aninstinct，almostinnateanduniversal，appearstoprohibittheincestuouscommerce^132ofparentsandchildrenintheinfiniteseriesofascendinganddescendinggenerations。Concerningtheobliqueandcollateralbranches，natureisindifferent，reasonmute，andcustomvariousandarbitrary。InEgypt，themarriageofbrothersandsisterswasadmittedwithoutscrupleorexception:aSpartanmightespousethedaughterofhisfather，anAthenian，thatofhismother；andthenuptialsofanunclewithhisniecewereapplaudedatAthensasahappyunionofthedearestrelations。
TheprofanelawgiversofRomewerenevertemptedbyinterestorsuperstitiontomultiplytheforbiddendegrees:buttheyinflexiblycondemnedthemarriageofsistersandbrothers，hesitatedwhetherfirstcousinsshouldbetouchedbythesameinterdict；reveredtheparentalcharacterofauntsanduncles，
andtreatedaffinityandadoptionasajustimitationofthetiesofblood。Accordingtotheproudmaximsoftherepublic，alegalmarriagecouldonlybecontractedbyfreecitizens；anhonorable，atleastaningenuousbirth，wasrequiredforthespouseofasenator:butthebloodofkingscouldnevermingleinlegitimatenuptialswiththebloodofaRoman；andthenameofStrangerdegradedCleopatraandBerenice，^133tolivetheconcubinesofMarkAntonyandTitus。^134Thisappellation，indeed，soinjurioustothemajesty，cannotwithoutindulgencebeappliedtothemanners，oftheseOrientalqueens。Aconcubine，inthestrictsenseofthecivilians，wasawomanofservileorplebeianextraction，thesoleandfaithfulcompanionofaRomancitizen，whocontinuedinastateofcelibacy。Hermodeststation，belowthehonorsofawife，abovetheinfamyofaprostitute，wasacknowledgedandapprovedbythelaws:fromtheageofAugustustothetenthcentury，theuseofthissecondarymarriageprevailedbothintheWestandEast；andthehumblevirtuesofaconcubinewereoftenpreferredtothepompandinsolenceofanoblematron。Inthisconnection，thetwoAntonines，thebestofprincesandofmen，enjoyedthecomfortsofdomesticlove:theexamplewasimitatedbymanycitizensimpatientofcelibacy，butregardfuloftheirfamilies。Ifatanytimetheydesiredtolegitimatetheirnaturalchildren，theconversionwasinstantlyperformedbythecelebrationoftheirnuptialswithapartnerwhosefaithfulnessandfidelitytheyhadalreadytried。Bythisepithetofnatural，theoffspringoftheconcubineweredistinguishedfromthespuriousbroodofadultery，prostitution，andincest，towhomJustinianreluctantlygrantsthenecessaryalimentsoflife；andthesenaturalchildrenalonewerecapableofsucceedingtoasixthpartoftheinheritanceoftheirreputedfather。Accordingtotherigoroflaw，bastardswereentitledonlytothenameandconditionoftheirmother，fromwhomtheymightderivethecharacterofaslave，astranger，oracitizen。
Theoutcastsofeveryfamilywereadoptedwithoutreproachasthechildrenofthestate。^135^!
[Footnote132:TheprinciplesoftheRomanjurisprudenceareexposedbyJustinian，Institut。t。i。tit。x。；andthelawsandmannersofthedifferentnationsofantiquityconcerningforbiddendegrees，&c。，arecopiouslyexplainedbyDr。TaylorinhisElementsofCivilLaw，p。108，314—339，aworkofamusing，thoughvariousreading；butwhichcannotbepraisedforphilosophicalprecision。]
[Footnote*:Accordingtotheearlierlaw，GaiiInstit。p。27，
amanmightmarryhisnieceonthebrother\'s，notonthesister\'s，side。TheemperorClaudiussettheexampleoftheformer。IntheInstitutes，thisdistinctionwasabolishedandbothdeclaredillegal。—M。]
[Footnote133:WhenherfatherAgrippadied，A。D。44，Berenicewassixteenyearsofage，Joseph。tom。i。Antiquit。Judaic。l。
xix。c。9，p。952，edit。Havercamp。ShewasthereforeabovefiftyyearsoldwhenTitusA。D。79invitusinvitaminvisit。
ThisdatewouldnothaveadornedthetragedyorpastoralofthetenderRacine。]
[Footnote134:TheAegyptiaconjuxofVirgilAeneid，viii。688
seemstobenumberedamongthemonsterswhowarredwithMarkAntonyagainstAugustus，thesenate，andthegodsofItaly。]
[Footnote*:TheEdictofConstantinefirstconferredthisright；
forAugustushadprohibitedthetakingasaconcubineawomanwhomightbetakenasawife；andifmarriagetookplaceafterwards，thismarriagemadenochangeintherightsofthechildrenbornbeforeit；recoursewasthenhadtoadoption，properlycalledarrogation。—G。]
[Footnote135:ThehumblebutlegalrightsofconcubinesandnaturalchildrenarestatedintheInstitutes，l。i。tit。x。，
thePandects，l。i。tit。vii。，theCode，l。v。tit。xxv。，andtheNovels，lxxiv。lxxxix。TheresearchesofHeinecciusandGiannone，adLegemJuliametPapiam—Poppaeam，c。iv。p。164—
175。OperePosthume，p。108—158illustratethisinterestinganddomesticsubject。]
[Footnote!:See，however，thetwofragmentsoflawsinthenewlydiscoveredextractsfromtheTheodosianCode，publishedbyM。A。
Peyron，atTurin。BythefirstlawofConstantine，thelegitimateoffspringcouldaloneinherit；wheretherewerenonearlegitimaterelatives，theinheritancewenttothefiscus。
ThesonofacertainLicinianus，whohadinheritedhisfather\'spropertyunderthesuppositionthathewaslegitimate，andhadbeenpromotedtoaplaceofdignity，wastobedegraded，hispropertyconfiscated，himselfpunishedwithstripesandimprisonment。Bythesecond，allpersons，evenofthehighestrank，senators，perfectissimi，decemvirs，weretobedeclaredinfamous，andoutoftheprotectionoftheRomanlaw，ifbornexancilla，velancillaefilia，velliberta，vellibertaefilia，siveRomanafacta，seuLatina，velscaenicaefilia，velextabernaria，velextabernariaefilia，velhumilivelabjecta，vellenonis，autarenariifilia，velquaemercimoniispublicispraefuit。Whateverafondfatherhadconferredonsuchchildrenwasrevoked，andeitherrestoredtothelegitimatechildren，orconfiscatedtothestate；themothers，whowereguilyofthuspoisoningthemindsofthefathers，weretobeputtothetorturetormentissubicijubemus。TheunfortunatesonofLicinianus，itappearsfromthissecondlaw，havingfled，hadbeentaken，andwasorderedtobekeptinchainstoworkintheGynaeceumatCarthage。Cod。Theodorab。A。Person，87—90。—M。]
ChapterXLIV:IdeaOfTheRomanJurisprudence。
PartV。
Therelationofguardianandward，orinRomanwordsoftutorandpupil，whichcoverssomanytitlesoftheInstitutesandPandects，^136isofaverysimpleanduniformnature。Thepersonandpropertyofanorphanmustalwaysbetrustedtothecustodyofsomediscreetfriend。Ifthedeceasedfatherhadnotsignifiedhischoice，theagnats，orpaternalkindredofthenearestdegree，werecompelledtoactasthenaturalguardians:
theAthenianswereapprehensiveofexposingtheinfanttothepowerofthosemostinterestedinhisdeath；butanaxiomofRomanjurisprudencehaspronounced，thatthechargeoftutelageshouldconstantlyattendtheemolumentofsuccession。Ifthechoiceofthefather，andthelineofconsanguinity，affordednoefficientguardian，thefailurewassuppliedbythenominationofthepraetorofthecity，orthepresidentoftheprovince。Butthepersonwhomtheynamedtothispublicofficemightbelegallyexcusedbyinsanityorblindness，byignoranceorinability，bypreviousenmityoradverseinterest，bythenumberofchildrenorguardianshipswithwhichhewasalreadyburdened，andbytheimmunitieswhichweregrantedtotheusefullaborsofmagistrates，lawyers，physicians，andprofessors。Tilltheinfantcouldspeak，andthink，hewasrepresentedbythetutor，whoseauthoritywasfinallydeterminedbytheageofpuberty。
Withouthisconsent，noactofthepupilcouldbindhimselftohisownprejudice，thoughitmightobligeothersforhispersonalbenefit。Itisneedlesstoobserve，thatthetutoroftengavesecurity，andalwaysrenderedanaccount，andthatthewantofdiligenceorintegrityexposedhimtoacivilandalmostcriminalactionfortheviolationofhissacredtrust。Theageofpubertyhadbeenrashlyfixedbytheciviliansatfourteen；butasthefaculitiesofthemindripenmoreslowlythanthoseofthebody，acuratorwasinterposedtoguardthefortunesofaRomanyouthfromhisowninexperienceandheadstrongpassions。Suchatrusteehadbeenfirstinstitutedbythepraetor，tosaveafamilyfromtheblindhavocofaprodigalormadman；andtheminorwascompelled，bythelaws，tosolicitthesameprotection，togivevaliditytohisactstillheaccomplishedthefullperiodoftwenty—fiveyears。Womenwerecondemnedtotheperpetualtutelageofparents，husbands，orguardians；asexcreatedtopleaseandobeywasneversupposedtohaveattainedtheageofreasonandexperience。Such，atleast，wasthesternandhaughtyspiritoftheancientlaw，whichhadbeeninsensiblymollifiedbeforethetimeofJustinian。
[Footnote136:SeethearticleofguardiansandwardsintheInstitutes，l。i。tit。xiii。—xxvi。，thePandects，l。xxvi。
xxvii。，andtheCode，l。v。tit。xxviii。—lxx。]
[Footnote*:Gibbonaccusestheciviliansofhaving\"rashlyfixedtheageofpubertyattwelveorfourteenyears。\"Itwasnotso；
beforeJustinian，nolawexistedonthissubject。Ulpianrelatesthediscussionswhichtookplaceonthispointamongthedifferentsectsofcivilians。SeetheInstitutes，l。i。tit。22，andthefragmentsofUlpian。Norwasthecuratorshipobligatoryforallminors。—W。]
II。Theoriginalrightofpropertycanonlybejustifiedbytheaccidentormeritofprioroccupancy；andonthisfoundationitiswiselyestablishedbythephilosophyofthecivilians。^137