[Footnote102:SeethepatriapotestasintheInstitutes，l。i。
tit。ix。，thePandects，l。i。tit。vi。vii。，andtheCode，l。
viii。tit。xlvii。xlviii。xlix。JuspotestatisquodinliberoshabemuspropriumestciviumRomanorum。Nullienimaliisunthomines，quitaleminliberoshabeantpotestatemqualemnoshabemus。
Note:Thenewly—discoveredInstitutesofGaiusnameonenationinwhichthesamepowerwasvestedintheparent。NecmepraeteritGalatarumgentemcredere，inpotestateparentumliberosesse。GaiiInstit。edit。1824，p。257。—M。]
[Footnote103:DionysiusHal。l。ii。p。94，95。GravinaOpp。p。
286producesthewordsofthexii。tables。PapinianinCollationeLegumRomanetMosaicarum，tit。iv。p。204stylesthispatriapotestas，lexregia:UlpianadSabin。l。xxvi。inPandect。l。i。tit。vi。leg。8says，juspotestatismoribusreceptum；andfuriosusfiliuminpotestatehabebitHowsacred—
orrather，howabsurd!
Note:AllthisisinstrictaccordancewiththeRomancharacter。—W。]
[Footnote!!:ThisparentalpowerwasstrictlyconfinedtotheRomancitizen。Theforeigner，orhewhohadonlyjusLatii，didnotpossessit。IfaRomancitizenunknowinglymarriedaLatinoraforeignwife，hedidnotpossessthispoweroverhisson，becausetheson，followingthelegalconditionofthemother，wasnotaRomancitizen。Aman，however，allegingsufficientcauseforhisignorance，mightraisebothmotherandchildtotherightsofcitizenship。Gaius。p。30。—M。]
[Footnote104:Pandect。l。xlvii。tit。ii。leg。14，No。13，leg。
38，No。1。SuchwasthedecisionofUlpianandPaul。]
[Footnote105:ThetrinamancipatioismostclearlydefinedbyUlpian，Fragment。x。p。591，592，edit。Schulting；andbestillustratedintheAntiquitiesofHeineccius。
Note:Thesonofafamilysoldbyhisfatherdidnotbecomeineveryrespectaslave，hewasstatuliber；thatistosay，onpayingthepriceforwhichhewassold，hebecameentirelyfree。
SeeHugo，Hist。Section61—W。]
[Footnote106:ByJustinian，theoldlaw，thejusnecisoftheRomanfatherInstitut。l。iv。tit。ix。No。7isreportedandreprobated。SomelegalvestigesareleftinthePandectsl。
xliii。tit。xxix。leg。3，No。4andtheCollatioLegumRomanarumetMosaicarum，tit。ii。No。3，p。189。]
[Footnote107:Exceptonpublicoccasions，andintheactualexerciseofhisoffice。Inpublicislocisatquemuneribus，atqueactionibuspatrum，juracumfiliorumquiinmagistratusuntpotestatibuscollatainterquiescerepaullulumetconnivere，&c。，Aul。Gellius，NoctesAtticae，ii。2。TheLessonsofthephilosopherTauruswerejustifiedbytheoldandmemorableexampleofFabius；andwemaycontemplatethesamestoryinthestyleofLivyxxiv。44andthehomelyidiomofClaudiusQuadrigariustheannalist。]
ThefirstlimitationofpaternalpowerisascribedtothejusticeandhumanityofNuma；andthemaidwho，withhisfather\'sconsent，hadespousedafreeman，wasprotectedfromthedisgraceofbecomingthewifeofaslave。Inthefirstages，whenthecitywaspressed，andoftenfamished，byherLatinandTuscanneighbors，thesaleofchildrenmightbeafrequentpractice；butasaRomancouldnotlegallypurchasethelibertyofhisfellow—citizen，themarketmustgraduallyfail，andthetradewouldbedestroyedbytheconquestsoftherepublic。Animperfectrightofpropertywasatlengthcommunicatedtosons；
andthethreefolddistinctionofprofectitious，adventitious，andprofessionalwasascertainedbythejurisprudenceoftheCodeandPandects。^108Ofallthatproceededfromthefather，heimpartedonlytheuse，andreservedtheabsolutedominion；yetifhisgoodsweresold，thefilialportionwasexcepted，byafavorableinterpretation，fromthedemandsofthecreditors。Inwhateveraccruedbymarriage，gift，orcollateralsuccession，thepropertywassecuredtotheson；butthefather，unlesshehadbeenspeciallyexcluded，enjoyedtheusufructduringhislife。Asajustandprudentrewardofmilitaryvirtue，thespoilsoftheenemywereacquired，possessed，andbequeathedbythesoldieralone；andthefairanalogywasextendedtotheemolumentsofanyliberalprofession，thesalaryofpublicservice，andthesacredliberalityoftheemperororempress。Thelifeofacitizenwaslessexposedthanhisfortunetotheabuseofpaternalpower。
Yethislifemightbeadversetotheinterestorpassionsofanunworthyfather:thesamecrimesthatflowedfromthecorruption，weremoresensiblyfeltbythehumanity，oftheAugustanage；andthecruelErixo，whowhippedhissontillheexpired，wassavedbytheemperorfromthejustfuryofthemultitude。^109TheRomanfather，fromthelicenseofserviledominion，wasreducedtothegravityandmoderationofajudge。ThepresenceandopinionofAugustusconfirmedthesentenceofexilepronouncedagainstanintentionalparricidebythedomestictribunalofArius。Adriantransportedtoanislandthejealousparent，who，likearobber，hadseizedtheopportunityofhunting，toassassinateayouth，theincestuousloverofhisstep—mother。
^110Aprivatejurisdictionisrepugnanttothespiritofmonarchy；theparentwasagainreducedfromajudgetoanaccuser；andthemagistrateswereenjoinedbySeverusAlexandertohearhiscomplaintsandexecutehissentence。Hecouldnolongertakethelifeofasonwithoutincurringtheguiltandpunishmentofmurder；andthepainsofparricide，fromwhichhehadbeenexceptedbythePompeianlaw，werefinallyinflictedbythejusticeofConstantine。^111Thesameprotectionwasduetoeveryperiodofexistence；andreasonmustapplaudthehumanityofPaulus，forimputingthecrimeofmurdertothefatherwhostrangles，orstarves，orabandonshisnew—borninfant；orexposeshiminapublicplacetofindthemercywhichhehimselfhaddenied。Buttheexpositionofchildrenwastheprevailingandstubbornviceofantiquity:itwassometimesprescribed，oftenpermitted，almostalwayspractisedwithimpunity，bythenationswhoneverentertainedtheRomanideasofpaternalpower；
andthedramaticpoets，whoappealtothehumanheart，representwithindifferenceapopularcustomwhichwaspalliatedbythemotivesofeconomyandcompassion。^112Ifthefathercouldsubduehisownfeelings，hemightescape，thoughnotthecensure，atleastthechastisement，ofthelaws；andtheRomanempirewasstainedwiththebloodofinfants，tillsuchmurderswereincluded，byValentinianandhiscolleagues，intheletterandspiritoftheCornelianlaw。Thelessonsofjurisprudence^113
andChristianityhadbeeninsufficienttoeradicatethisinhumanpractice，tilltheirgentleinfluencewasfortifiedbytheterrorsofcapitalpunishment。^114
[Footnote108:SeethegradualenlargementandsecurityofthefilialpeculiumintheInstitutes，l。ii。tit。ix。，thePandects，l。xv。tit。i。l。xli。tit。i。，andtheCode，l。iv。
tit。xxvi。xxvii。]
[Footnote109:TheexamplesofErixoandAriusarerelatedbySeneca，deClementia，i。14，15，theformerwithhorror，thelatterwithapplause。]
[Footnote110:Quodlatronismagisquampatrisjureeuminterfecit，nampatriapotestasinpietatedebetnoninatrocitateconsistere，Marcian。Institut。l。xix。inPandect。l。
xlviii。tit。ix。leg。5。]
[Footnote111:ThePompeianandCornelianlawsdesicariisandparricidisarerepeated，orratherabridged，withthelastsupplementsofAlexanderSeverus，Constantine，andValentinian，inthePandectsl。xlviii。tit。viiiix，andCode，l。ix。tit。
xvi。xvii。SeelikewisetheTheodosianCode，l。ix。tit。xiv。
xv。，withGodefroy\'sCommentary，tom。iii。p。84—113whopoursafloodofancientandmodernlearningoverthesepenallaws。]
[Footnote112:WhentheChremesofTerencereproacheshiswifefornotobeyinghisordersandexposingtheirinfant，hespeakslikeafatherandamaster，andsilencesthescruplesofafoolishwoman。SeeApuleius，Metamorph。l。x。p。337，edit。
Delphin。]
[Footnote113:Theopinionofthelawyers，andthediscretionofthemagistrates，hadintroduced，inthetimeofTacitus，somelegalrestraints，whichmightsupporthiscontrastofthebonimoresoftheGermanstothebonaelegesalibi—thatistosay，atRome，deMoribusGermanorum，c。19。TertullianadNationes，l。i。c。15refuteshisowncharges，andthoseofhisbrethren，againsttheheathenjurisprudence。]
[Footnote114:ThewiseandhumanesentenceofthecivilianPaull。ii。SententiaruminPandect，1。xxv。tit。iii。leg。4isrepresentedasameremoralpreceptbyGerardNoodt，Opp。tom。
i。inJuliusPaulus，p。567—558，andAmicaResponsio，p。591—
606，whomaintainstheopinionofJustusLipsius，Opp。tom。ii。
p。409，adBelgas。cent。i。epist。85，andasapositivebindinglawbyBynkershoek，deJureoccidendiLiberos，Opp。tom。i。p。
318—340。CuraeSecundae，p。391—427。Inalearnedoutangrycontroversy，thetwofriendsdeviatedintotheoppositeextremes。]
Experiencehasproved，thatsavagesarethetyrantsofthefemalesex，andthattheconditionofwomenisusuallysoftenedbytherefinementsofsociallife。Inthehopeofarobustprogeny，Lycurgushaddelayedtheseasonofmarriage:itwasfixedbyNumaatthetenderageoftwelveyears，thattheRomanhusbandmighteducatetohiswillapureandobedientvirgin。
^115Accordingtothecustomofantiquity，heboughthisbrideofherparents，andshefulfilledthecoemptionbypurchasing，withthreepiecesofcopper，ajustintroductiontohishouseandhouseholddeities。Asacrificeoffruitswasofferedbythepontiffsinthepresenceoftenwitnesses；thecontractingpartieswereseatedonthesamesheep—skin；theytastedasaltcakeoffarorrice；andthisconfarreation，^116whichdenotedtheancientfoodofItaly，servedasanemblemoftheirmysticunionofmindandbody。Butthisuniononthesideofthewomanwasrigorousandunequal；andsherenouncedthenameandworshipofherfather\'shouse，toembraceanewservitude，decoratedonlybythetitleofadoption，afictionofthelaw，neitherrationalnorelegant，bestowedonthemotherofafamily^117herproperappellationthestrangecharactersofsistertoherownchildren，andofdaughtertoherhusbandormaster，whowasinvestedwiththeplenitudeofpaternalpower。Byhisjudgmentorcapriceherbehaviorwasapproved，orcensured，orchastised；
heexercisedthejurisdictionoflifeanddeath；anditwasallowed，thatinthecasesofadulteryordrunkenness，^118thesentencemightbeproperlyinflicted。Sheacquiredandinheritedforthesoleprofitofherlord；andsoclearlywaswomandefined，notasaperson，butasathing，that，iftheoriginaltitleweredeficient，shemightbeclaimed，likeothermovables，bytheuseandpossessionofanentireyear。TheinclinationoftheRomanhusbanddischargedorwithheldtheconjugaldebt，soscrupulouslyexactedbytheAthenianandJewishlaws:^119butaspolygamywasunknown，hecouldneveradmittohisbedafaireroramorefavoredpartner。
[Footnote115:Dionys。Hal。l。ii。p。92，93。Plutarch，inNuma，p。140—141。]
[Footnote116:Amongthewinterfrunenta，thetriticum，orbeardedwheat；thesiligo，ortheunbearded；thefar，adorea，oryza，whosedescriptionperfectlytallieswiththericeofSpainandItaly。IadoptthisidentityonthecreditofM。PauctoninhisusefulandlaboriousMetrologie，p。517—529。]
[Footnote117:AulusGelliusNoctesAtticae，xviii。6givesaridiculousdefinitionofAeliusMelissus，Matrona，quaesemelmaterfamiliasquaesaepiuspeperit，asporcetraandscrophainthesowkind。Hethenaddsthegenuinemeaning，quaeinmatrimoniumvelinmanumconvenerat。]
[Footnote118:Itwasenoughtohavetastedwine，ortohavestolenthekeyofthecellar，Plin。Hist。Nat。xiv。14。]
[Footnote119:Solonrequiresthreepaymentspermonth。BytheMisna，adailydebtwasimposedonanidle，vigorous，younghusband；twiceaweekonacitizen；onceonapeasant；onceinthirtydaysonacamel—driver；onceinsixmonthsonaseaman。
Butthestudentordoctorwasfreefromtribute；andnowife，ifshereceivedaweeklysustenance，couldsueforadivorce；foroneweekavowofabstinencewasallowed。Polygamydivided，withoutmultiplying，thedutiesofthehusband，Selden，UxorEbraica，l。iii。c6，inhisworks，volii。p。717—720。]
AfterthePunictriumphs，thematronsofRomeaspiredtothecommonbenefitsofafreeandopulentrepublic:theirwishesweregratifiedbytheindulgenceoffathersandlovers，andtheirambitionwasunsuccessfullyresistedbythegravityofCatotheCensor。^120Theydeclinedthesolemnitiesoftheoldnuptiais；
defeatedtheannualprescriptionbyanabsenceofthreedays；
and，withoutlosingtheirnameorindependence，subscribedtheliberalanddefinitetermsofamarriagecontract。Oftheirprivatefortunes，theycommunicatedtheuse，andsecuredtheproperty:theestatesofawifecouldneitherbealienatednormortgagedbyaprodigalhusband；theirmutualgiftswereprohibitedbythejealousyofthelaws；andthemisconductofeitherpartymightafford，underanothername，afuturesubjectforanactionoftheft。Tothislooseandvoluntarycompact，religiousandcivilrightswerenolongeressential；and，betweenpersonsofasimilarrank，theapparentcommunityoflifewasallowedassufficientevidenceoftheirnuptials。ThedignityofmarriagewasrestoredbytheChristians，whoderivedallspiritualgracefromtheprayersofthefaithfulandthebenedictionofthepriestorbishop。Theorigin，validity，anddutiesoftheholyinstitutionwereregulatedbythetraditionofthesynagogue，thepreceptsofthegospel，andthecanonsofgeneralorprovincialsynods；^121andtheconscienceoftheChristianswasawedbythedecreesandcensuresoftheirecclesiasticalrulers。YetthemagistratesofJustinianwerenotsubjecttotheauthorityofthechurch:theemperorconsultedtheunbelievingciviliansofantiquity，andthechoiceofmatrimoniallawsintheCodeandPandects，isdirectedbytheearthlymotivesofjustice，policy，andthenaturalfreedomofbothsexes。^122
[Footnote120:OntheOppianlawwemayhearthemitigatingspeechofVaeriusFlaccus，andtheseverecensorialorationoftheelderCato，Liv。xxxiv。l—8。Butweshallratherhearthepolishedhistorianoftheeighth，thantheroughoratorsofthesixth，centuryofRome。Theprinciples，andeventhestyle，ofCatoaremoreaccuratelypreservedbyAulusGellius，x。23。]
[Footnote121:ForthesystemofJewishandCatholicmatrimony，seeSelden，UxorEbraica，Opp。vol。ii。p。529—860，Bingham，ChristianAntiquities，l。xxii。，andChardon，Hist。desSacremens，tom。vi。]
[Footnote122:ThecivillawsofmarriageareexposedintheInstitutes，l。i。tit。x。，thePandects，l。xxiii。xxiv。
xxv。，andtheCode，l。v。；butasthetitlederitunuptiarumisyetimperfect，weareobligedtoexplorethefragmentsofUlpiantit。ix。p。590，591，andtheCollatioLegumMosaicarum，tit。xvi。p。790，791，withthenotesofPithaeusandSchulting。TheyfindintheCommentaryofServiusonthe1stGeorgiaandthe4thAeneidtwocuriouspassages。]
Besidestheagreementoftheparties，theessenceofeveryrationalcontract，theRomanmarriagerequiredthepreviousapprobationoftheparents。Afathermightbeforcedbysomerecentlawstosupplythewantsofamaturedaughter；butevenhisinsanitywasnotgraduallyallowedtosupersedethenecessityofhisconsent。ThecausesofthedissolutionofmatrimonyhavevariedamongtheRomans；^123butthemostsolemnsacrament，theconfarreationitself，mightalwaysbedoneawaybyritesofacontrarytendency。Inthefirstages，thefatherofafamilymightsellhischildren，andhiswifewasreckonedinthenumberofhischildren:thedomesticjudgemightpronouncethedeathoftheoffender，orhismercymightexpelherfromhisbedandhouse；buttheslaveryofthewretchedfemalewashopelessandperpetual，unlessheassertedforhisownconveniencethemanlyprerogativeofdivorce。ThewarmestapplausehasbeenlavishedonthevirtueoftheRomans，whoabstainedfromtheexerciseofthistemptingprivilegeabovefivehundredyears:^124butthesamefactevincestheunequaltermsofaconnectioninwhichtheslavewasunabletorenouncehertyrant，andthetyrantwasunwillingtorelinquishhisslave。WhentheRomanmatronsbecametheequalandvoluntarycompanionsoftheirlords，anewjurisprudencewasintroduced，thatmarriage，likeotherpartnerships，mightbedissolvedbytheabdicationofoneoftheassociates。Inthreecenturiesofprosperityandcorruption，thisprinciplewasenlargedtofrequentpracticeandperniciousabuse。
Passion，interest，orcaprice，suggesteddailymotivesforthedissolutionofmarriage；aword，asign，amessage，aletter，themandateofafreedman，declaredtheseparation；themosttenderofhumanconnectionswasdegradedtoatransientsocietyofprofitorpleasure。Accordingtothevariousconditionsoflife，bothsexesalternatelyfeltthedisgraceandinjury:aninconstantspousetransferredherwealthtoanewfamily，abandoninganumerous，perhapsaspurious，progenytothepaternalauthorityandcareofherlatehusband；abeautifulvirginmightbedismissedtotheworld，old，indigent，andfriendless；butthereluctanceoftheRomans，whentheywerepressedtomarriagebyAugustus，sufficientlymarks，thattheprevailinginstitutionswereleastfavorabletothemales。A