Gallienawasfirstcousintotheemperor。BydeliveringAfricafromtheusurperCelsus，shedeservedthetitleofAugusta。OnamedalintheFrenchking\'scollection，wereadasimilarinscriptionofFaustinaAugustaroundtheheadofMarcusAurelius。WithregardtotheUbiquePax，itiseasilyexplainedbythevanityofGallienus，whoseized，perhaps，theoccasionofsomemomentarycalm。SeeNouvellesdelaRepubliquedesLettres，Janvier，1700，p。21—34。]
[Footnote156:Thissingularcharacterhas，Ibelieve，beenfairlytransmittedtous。Thereignofhisimmediatesuccessorwasshortandbusy；andthehistorianswhowrotebeforetheelevationofthefamilyofConstantinecouldnothavethemostremoteinteresttomisrepresentthecharacterofGallienus。]
Atthetimewhenthereinsofgovernmentwereheldwithsolooseahand，itisnotsurprising，thatacrowdofusurpersshouldstartupineveryprovinceoftheempireagainstthesonofValerian。Itwasprobablysomeingeniousfancy，ofcomparingthethirtytyrantsofRomewiththethirtytyrantsofAthens，thatinducedthewritersoftheAugustanHistorytoselectthatcelebratednumber，whichhasbeengraduallyreceivedintoapopularappellation。^157Butineverylighttheparallelisidleanddefective。Whatresemblancecanwediscoverbetweenacouncilofthirtypersons，theunitedoppressorsofasinglecity，andanuncertainlistofindependentrivals，whoroseandfellinirregularsuccessionthroughtheextentofavastempire?Norcanthenumberofthirtybecompleted，unlessweincludeintheaccountthewomenandchildrenwhowerehonoredwiththeImperialtitle。ThereignofGallienus，distractedasitwas，producedonlynineteenpretenderstothethrone:Cyriades，Macrianus，Balista，Odenathus，andZenobia，intheEast；inGaul，andthewesternprovinces，Posthumus，Lollianus，Victorinus，andhismotherVictoria，Marius，andTetricus；inIllyricumandtheconfinesoftheDanube，Ingenuus，Regillianus，andAureolus；inPontus，^158Saturninus；inIsauria，Trebellianus；PisoinThessaly；ValensinAchaia；AemilianusinEgypt；andCelsusinAfrica。Toillustratetheobscuremonumentsofthelifeanddeathofeachindividual，wouldprovealaborioustask，alikebarrenofinstructionandofamusement。Wemaycontentourselveswithinvestigatingsomegeneralcharacters，thatmoststronglymarktheconditionofthetimes，andthemannersofthemen，theirpretensions，theirmotives，theirfate，andtheirdestructiveconsequencesoftheirusurpation。^159
[Footnote157:Pollioexpressesthemostminuteanxietytocompletethenumber。
Note:CompareadissertationofMansoonthethirtytyrantsattheendofhisLebenConstantiusdesGrossen。Breslau，1817。
—M。]
[Footnote158:Theplaceofhisreignissomewhatdoubtful；buttherewasatyrantinPontus，andweareacquaintedwiththeseatofalltheothers。]
[Footnote*:CaptainSmyth，inhis\"CatalogueofMedals，\"p。307，substitutestwonewnamestomakeupthenumberofnineteen，forthoseofOdenathusandZenobia。Hesubjoinsthislist:—
1。2。3。OfthosewhosecoinsThosewhosecoinsThoseofwhomnoareundoubtedlytrue。aresuspected。coinsareknown。Posthumus。Cyriades。
Valens。Laelianus，Lollianus，G。Ingenuus。
BalistaVictorinusCelsus。
Saturninus。Marius。PisoFrugi。
Trebellianus。Tetricus。
—M。1815Macrianus。
Quietus。
RegalianusRegillianus，G。
Alex。Aemilianus。
Aureolus。
SulpiciusAntoninus]
[Footnote159:Tillemont，tom。iii。p。1163，reckonsthemsomewhatdifferently。]
Itissufficientlyknown，thattheodiousappellationofTyrantwasoftenemployedbytheancientstoexpresstheillegalseizureofsupremepower，withoutanyreferencetotheabuseofit。Severalofthepretenders，whoraisedthestandardofrebellionagainsttheemperorGallienus，wereshiningmodelsofvirtue，andalmostallpossessedaconsiderableshareofvigorandability。TheirmerithadrecommendedthemtothefavorofValerian，andgraduallypromotedthemtothemostimportantcommandsoftheempire。Thegenerals，whoassumedthetitleofAugustus，wereeitherrespectedbytheirtroopsfortheirableconductandseverediscipline，oradmiredforvalorandsuccessinwar，orbelovedforfranknessandgenerosity。Thefieldofvictorywasoftenthesceneoftheirelection；andeventhearmorerMarius，themostcontemptibleofallthecandidatesforthepurple，wasdistinguished，howeverbyintrepidcourage，matchlessstrength，andblunthonesty。^160Hismeanandrecenttradecast，indeed，anairofridiculeonhiselevation；buthisbirthcouldnotbemoreobscurethanwasthatofthegreaterpartofhisrivals，whowerebornofpeasants，andenlistedinthearmyasprivatesoldiers。Intimesofconfusion，everyactivegeniusfindstheplaceassignedhimbynature:inageneralstateofwar，militarymeritistheroadtogloryandtogreatness。OfthenineteentyrantsTetricusonlywasasenator；
Pisoalonewasanoble。ThebloodofNuma，throughtwenty—eightsuccessivegenerations，ranintheveinsofCalphurniusPiso，^161who，byfemalealliances，claimedarightofexhibiting，inhishouse，theimagesofCrassusandofthegreatPompey。^162
Hisancestorshadbeenrepeatedlydignifiedwithallthehonorswhichthecommonwealthcouldbestow；andofalltheancientfamiliesofRome，theCalphurnianalonehadsurvivedthetyrannyoftheCaesars。ThepersonalqualitiesofPisoaddednewlustretohisrace。TheusurperValens，bywhoseorderhewaskilled，confessed，withdeepremorse，thatevenanenemyoughttohaverespectedthesanctityofPiso；andalthoughhediedinarmsagainstGallienus，thesenate，withtheemperor\'sgenerouspermission，decreedthetriumphalornamentstothememoryofsovirtuousarebel。^163
[SeeRomanCoins:FromTheBritishMuseum。NumberfourdepictsCrassus。]
[Footnote160:SeethespeechofMariusintheAugustanHistory，p。197。TheaccidentalidentityofnameswastheonlycircumstancethatcouldtemptPolliotoimitateSallust。]
[Footnote*:Mariuswaskilledbyasoldier，whohadformerlyservedasaworkmaninhisshop，andwhoexclaimed，ashestruck，\"Beholdtheswordwhichthyselfhastforged。\"Trobvita。—G。]
[Footnote161:\"Vos，OPompiliussanguis!\"isHorace\'saddresstothePisosSeeArt。Poet。v。292，withDacier\'sandSanadon\'snotes。]
[Footnote162:Tacit。Annal。xv。48。Hist。i。15。Intheformerofthesepassageswemayventuretochangepaternaintomaterna。
IneverygenerationfromAugustustoAlexanderSeverus，oneormorePisosappearasconsuls。APisowasdeemedworthyofthethronebyAugustus，Tacit。Annal。i。13；asecondheadedaformidableconspiracyagainstNero；andathirdwasadopted，anddeclaredCaesar，byGalba。]
[Footnote163:Hist。August。p。195。Thesenate，inamomentofenthusiasm，seemstohavepresumedontheapprobationofGallienus。]
ThelieutenantsofValerianweregratefultothefather，whomtheyesteemed。Theydisdainedtoservetheluxuriousindolenceofhisunworthyson。ThethroneoftheRomanworldwasunsupportedbyanyprincipleofloyalty；andtreasonagainstsuchaprincemighteasilybeconsideredaspatriotismtothestate。
Yetifweexaminewithcandortheconductoftheseusurpers，itwillappear，thattheyweremuchoftenerdrivenintorebellionbytheirfears，thanurgedtoitbytheirambition。TheydreadedthecruelsuspicionsofGallienus；theyequallydreadedthecapriciousviolenceoftheirtroops。Ifthedangerousfavorofthearmyhadimprudentlydeclaredthemdeservingofthepurple，theyweremarkedforsuredestruction；andevenprudencewouldcounselthemtosecureashortenjoymentofempire，andrathertotrythefortuneofwarthantoexpectthehandofanexecutioner。
Whentheclamorofthesoldiersinvestedthereluctantvictimswiththeensignsofsovereignauthority，theysometimesmournedinsecrettheirapproachingfate。\"Youhavelost，\"saidSaturninus，onthedayofhiselevation，\"youhavelostausefulcommander，andyouhavemadeaverywretchedemperor。\"^164
[Footnote164:Hist。Augustp。196。]
TheapprehensionsofSaturninuswerejustifiedbytherepeatedexperienceofrevolutions。OfthenineteentyrantswhostartedupunderthereignofGallienus，therewasnotonewhoenjoyedalifeofpeace，oranaturaldeath。Assoonastheywereinvestedwiththebloodypurple，theyinspiredtheiradherentswiththesamefearsandambitionwhichhadoccasionedtheirownrevolt。Encompassedwithdomesticconspiracy，militarysedition，andcivilwar，theytrembledontheedgeofprecipices，inwhich，afteralongerorshortertermofanxiety，theywereinevitablylost。Theseprecariousmonarchsreceived，however，suchhonorsastheflatteryoftheirrespectivearmiesandprovincescouldbestow；buttheirclaim，foundedonrebellion，couldneverobtainthesanctionoflaworhistory。Italy，Rome，andthesenate，constantlyadheredtothecauseofGallienus，andhealonewasconsideredasthesovereignoftheempire。Thatprincecondescended，indeed，toacknowledgethevictoriousarmsofOdenathus，whodeservedthehonorabledistinction，bytherespectfulconductwhichhealwaysmaintainedtowardsthesonofValerian。WiththegeneralapplauseoftheRomans，andtheconsentofGallienus，thesenateconferredthetitleofAugustusonthebravePalmyrenian；andseemedtointrusthimwiththegovernmentoftheEast，whichhealreadypossessed，insoindependentamanner，that，likeaprivatesuccession，hebequeathedittohisillustriouswidow，Zenobia。^165
[Footnote165:TheassociationofthebravePalmyrenianwasthemostpopularactofthewholereignofGallienus。Hist。August。
p。180。]
Therapidandperpetualtransitionsfromthecottagetothethrone，andfromthethronetothegrave，mighthaveamusedanindifferentphilosopher；wereitpossibleforaphilosophertoremainindifferentamidstthegeneralcalamitiesofhumankind。
Theelectionoftheseprecariousemperors，theirpowerandtheirdeath，wereequallydestructivetotheirsubjectsandadherents。
Thepriceoftheirfatalelevationwasinstantlydischargedtothetroopsbyanimmensedonative，drawnfromthebowelsoftheexhaustedpeople。Howevervirtuouswastheircharacter，howeverpuretheirintentions，theyfoundthemselvesreducedtothehardnecessityofsupportingtheirusurpationbyfrequentactsofrapineandcruelty。Whentheyfell，theyinvolvedarmiesandprovincesintheirfall。ThereisstillextantamostsavagemandatefromGallienustooneofhisministers，afterthesuppressionofIngenuus，whohadassumedthepurpleinIllyricum。
\"Itisnotenough，\"saysthatsoftbutinhumanprince，\"thatyouexterminatesuchashaveappearedinarms；thechanceofbattlemighthaveservedmeaseffectually。Themalesexofeveryagemustbeextirpated；providedthat，intheexecutionofthechildrenandoldmen，youcancontrivemeanstosaveourreputation。Leteveryonediewhohasdroppedanexpression，whohasentertainedathoughtagainstme，againstme，thesonofValerian，thefatherandbrotherofsomanyprinces。^166
RememberthatIngenuuswasmadeemperor:tear，kill，hewinpieces。Iwritetoyouwithmyownhand，andwouldinspireyouwithmyownfeelings。\"^167Whilstthepublicforcesofthestateweredissipatedinprivatequarrels，thedefencelessprovinceslayexposedtoeveryinvader。Thebravestusurperswerecompelled，bytheperplexityoftheirsituation，toconcludeignominioustreatieswiththecommonenemy，topurchasewithoppressivetributestheneutralityorservicesoftheBarbarians，andtointroducehostileandindependentnationsintotheheartoftheRomanmonarchy。^168
[Footnote166:GallienushadgiventhetitlesofCaesarandAugustustohissonSaloninus，slainatColognebytheusurperPosthumus。AsecondsonofGallienussucceededtothenameandrankofhiselderbrotherValerian，thebrotherofGallienus，wasalsoassociatedtotheempire:severalotherbrothers，sisters，nephews，andniecesoftheemperorformedaverynumerousroyalfamily。SeeTillemont，tomiii，andM。deBrequignyintheMemoiresdel\'Academie，tomxxxiip。262。]
[Footnote167:Hist。August。p。188。]
[Footnote168:RegillianushadsomebandsofRoxolaniinhisservice；PosthumusabodyofFranks。Itwas，perhaps，inthecharacterofauxiliariesthatthelatterintroducedthemselvesintoSpain。]
Suchwerethebarbarians，andsuchthetyrants，who，underthereignsofValerianandGallienus，dismemberedtheprovinces，andreducedtheempiretothelowestpitchofdisgraceandruin，fromwhenceitseemedimpossiblethatitshouldeveremerge。Asfarasthebarrennessofmaterialswouldpermit，wehaveattemptedtotrace，withorderandperspicuity，thegeneraleventsofthatcalamitousperiod。Therestillremainsomeparticularfacts；I。ThedisordersofSicily；II。ThetumultsofAlexandria；and，III。TherebellionoftheIsaurians，whichmayservetoreflectastronglightonthehorridpicture。
I。Whenevernumeroustroopsofbanditti，multipliedbysuccessandimpunity，publiclydefy，insteadofeludingthejusticeoftheircountry，wemaysafelyinfer，thattheexcessiveweaknessofthegovernmentisfeltandabusedbythelowestranksofthecommunity。ThesituationofSicilypreserveditfromtheBarbarians；norcouldthedisarmedprovincehavesupportedausurper。Thesufferingsofthatonceflourishingandstillfertileislandwereinflictedbybaserhands。Alicentiouscrowdofslavesandpeasantsreignedforawhileovertheplunderedcountry，andrenewedthememoryoftheservilewarsofmoreancienttimes。^169Devastations，ofwhichthehusbandmanwaseitherthevictimortheaccomplice，musthaveruinedtheagricultureofSicily；andastheprincipalestateswerethepropertyoftheopulentsenatorsofRome，whooftenenclosedwithinafarmtheterritoryofanoldrepublic，itisnotimprobable，thatthisprivateinjurymightaffectthecapitalmoredeeply，thanalltheconquestsoftheGothsorthePersians。
[Footnote169:TheAugustanHistory，p。177。SeeDiodor。Sicul。
l。xxxiv。]
II。ThefoundationofAlexandriawasanobledesign，atonceconceivedandexecutedbythesonofPhilip。Thebeautifulandregularformofthatgreatcity，secondonlytoRomeitself，comprehendedacircumferenceoffifteenmiles；^170itwaspeopledbythreehundredthousandfreeinhabitants，besidesatleastanequalnumberofslaves。^171ThelucrativetradeofArabiaandIndiaflowedthroughtheportofAlexandria，tothecapitalandprovincesoftheempire。Idlenesswasunknown。
Somewereemployedinblowingofglass，othersinweavingoflinen，othersagainmanufacturingthepapyrus。Eithersex，andeveryage，wasengagedinthepursuitsofindustry，nordideventheblindorthelamewantoccupationssuitedtotheircondition。
^172ButthepeopleofAlexandria，avariousmixtureofnations，unitedthevanityandinconstancyoftheGreekswiththesuperstitionandobstinacyoftheEgyptians。Themosttriflingoccasion，atransientscarcityoffleshorlentils，theneglectofanaccustomedsalutation，amistakeofprecedencyinthepublicbaths，orevenareligiousdispute，^173wereatanytimesufficienttokindleaseditionamongthatvastmultitude，whoseresentmentswerefuriousandimplacable。^174AfterthecaptivityofValerianandtheinsolenceofhissonhadrelaxedtheauthorityofthelaws，theAlexandriansabandonedthemselvestotheungovernedrageoftheirpassions，andtheirunhappycountrywasthetheatreofacivilwar，whichcontinuedwithafewshortandsuspicioustrucesabovetwelveyears。^175Allintercoursewascutoffbetweentheseveralquartersoftheafflictedcity，everystreetwaspollutedwithblood，everybuildingofstrengthconvertedintoacitadel；nordidthetumultssubsidetillaconsiderablepartofAlexandriawasirretrievablyruined。ThespaciousandmagnificentdistrictofBruchion，withitspalacesandmusaeum，theresidenceofthekingsandphilosophersofEgypt，isdescribedaboveacenturyafterwards，asalreadyreducedtoitspresentstateofdrearysolitude。^176
[Footnote170:Plin。Hist。Natur。v。10。]
[Footnote171:Diodor。Sicul。l。xvii。p。590，edit。Wesseling。]
[Footnote*:Berenice，orMyos—Hormos，ontheRedSea，receivedtheeasterncommodities。FromthencetheyweretransportedtotheNile，anddowntheNiletoAlexandria。—M。]
[Footnote172:SeeaverycuriousletterofHadrian，intheAugustanHistory，p。245。]
[Footnote173:Suchasthesacrilegiousmurderofadivinecat。
SeeDiodor。Sicul。l。i。
Note:ThehostilitybetweentheJewishandGrecianpartofthepopulationafterwardsbetweenthetwoformerandtheChristian，wereunfailingcausesoftumult，sedition，andmassacre。Innoplacewerethereligiousdisputes，aftertheestablishmentofChristianity，morefrequentormoresanguinary。
SeePhilo。deLegat。Hist。ofJews，ii。171，iii。111，198。
Gibbon，iiic。xxi。viii。c。xlvii。—M。]
[Footnote174:Hist。August。p。195。Thislongandterribleseditionwasfirstoccasionedbyadisputebetweenasoldierandatownsmanaboutapairofshoes。]
[Footnote175:Dionysiusapud。Euses。Hist。Eccles。vii。p。21。
Ammianxxii。16。]
[Footnote*:TheBruchionwasaquarterofAlexandriawhichextendedalongthelargestofthetwoports，andcontainedmanypalaces，inhabitedbythePtolemies。D\'Anv。Geogr。Anc。iii。10。
—G。]
[Footnote176:Scaliger。Animadver。adEuseb。Chron。p。258。
ThreedissertationsofM。Bonamy，intheMem。del\'Academie，tom。
ix。]
III。TheobscurerebellionofTrebellianus，whoassumedthepurpleinIsauria，apettyprovinceofAsiaMinor，wasattendedwithstrangeandmemorableconsequences。ThepageantofroyaltywassoondestroyedbyanofficerofGallienus；buthisfollowers，despairingofmercy，resolvedtoshakeofftheirallegiance，notonlytotheemperor，buttotheempire，andsuddenlyreturnedtothesavagemannersfromwhichtheyhadneverperfectlybeenreclaimed。Theircraggyrocks，abranchofthewide—extendedTaurus，protectedtheirinaccessibleretreat。Thetillageofsomefertilevalleys^177suppliedthemwithnecessaries，andahabitofrapinewiththeluxuriesoflife。IntheheartoftheRomanmonarchy，theIsaurianslongcontinuedanationofwildbarbarians。Succeedingprinces，unabletoreducethemtoobedience，eitherbyarmsorpolicy，werecompelledtoacknowledgetheirweakness，bysurroundingthehostileandindependentspotwithastrongchainoffortifications，^178
whichoftenprovedinsufficienttorestraintheincursionsofthesedomesticfoes。TheIsaurians，graduallyextendingtheirterritorytothesea—coast，subduedthewesternandmountainouspartofCilicia，formerlythenestofthosedaringpirates，againstwhomtherepublichadoncebeenobligedtoexertitsutmostforce，undertheconductofthegreatPompey。^179
[Footnote177:Strabo，l。xiii。p。569。]
[Footnote178:Hist。August。p。197。]
[Footnote179:SeeCellarius，GeogrAntiq。tom。ii。p。137，uponthelimitsofIsauria。]
Ourhabitsofthinkingsofondlyconnecttheorderoftheuniversewiththefateofman，thatthisgloomyperiodofhistoryhasbeendecoratedwithinundations，earthquakes，uncommonmeteors，preternaturaldarkness，andacrowdofprodigiesfictitiousorexaggerated。^180Butalongandgeneralfaminewasacalamityofamoreseriouskind。Itwastheinevitableconsequenceofrapineandoppression，whichextirpatedtheproduceofthepresent，andthehopeoffutureharvests。Famineisalmostalwaysfollowedbyepidemicaldiseases，theeffectofscantyandunwholesomefood。Othercausesmust，however，havecontributedtothefuriousplague，which，fromtheyeartwohundredandfiftytotheyeartwohundredandsixty—five，ragedwithoutinterruptionineveryprovince，everycity，andalmosteveryfamily，oftheRomanempire。DuringsometimefivethousandpersonsdieddailyinRome；andmanytowns，thathadescapedthehandsoftheBarbarians，wereentirelydepopulated。