[Footnote37:Dion，l。xxviii。p。1335。]
Seleucia，onthewesternbankoftheTigris，aboutforty—fivemilestothenorthofancientBabylon，wasthecapitaloftheMacedonianconquestsinUpperAsia。^38Manyagesafterthefalloftheirempire，SeleuciaretainedthegenuinecharactersofaGreciancolony，arts，militaryvirtue，andtheloveoffreedom。Theindependentrepublicwasgovernedbyasenateofthreehundrednobles；thepeopleconsistedofsixhundredthousandcitizens；thewallswerestrong，andaslongasconcordprevailedamongtheseveralordersofthestate，theyviewedwithcontemptthepoweroftheParthian:butthemadnessoffactionwassometimesprovokedtoimplorethedangerousaidofthecommonenemy，whowaspostedalmostatthegatesofthecolony。^39TheParthianmonarchs，liketheMogulsovereignsofHindostan，delightedinthepastorallifeoftheirScythianancestors；andtheImperialcampwasfrequentlypitchedintheplainofCtesiphon，ontheeasternbankoftheTigris，atthedistanceofonlythreemilesfromSeleucia。^40Theinnumerableattendantsonluxuryanddespotismresortedtothecourt，andthelittlevillageofCtesiphoninsensiblyswelledintoagreatcity。
^41UnderthereignofMarcus，theRomangeneralspenetratedasfarasCtesiphonandSeleucia。TheywerereceivedasfriendsbytheGreekcolony；theyattackedasenemiestheseatoftheParthiankings；yetbothcitiesexperiencedthesametreatment。
ThesackandconflagrationofSeleucia，withthemassacreofthreehundredthousandoftheinhabitants，tarnishedthegloryoftheRomantriumph。^42Seleucia，alreadyexhaustedbytheneighborhoodofatoopowerfulrival，sunkunderthefatalblow；
butCtesiphon，inaboutthirty—threeyears，hadsufficientlyrecovereditsstrengthtomaintainanobstinatesiegeagainsttheemperorSeverus。Thecitywas，however，takenbyassault；theking，whodefendeditinperson，escapedwithprecipitation；ahundredthousandcaptives，andarichbooty，rewardedthefatiguesoftheRomansoldiers。^43Notwithstandingthesemisfortunes，CtesiphonsucceededtoBabylonandtoSeleucia，asoneofthegreatcapitalsoftheEast。Insummer，themonarchofPersiaenjoyedatEcbatanathecoolbreezesofthemountainsofMedia；butthemildnessoftheclimateengagedhimtopreferCtesiphonforhiswinterresidence。
[Footnote38:FortheprecisesituationofBabylon，Seleucia，Ctesiphon，Moiain，andBagdad，citiesoftenconfoundedwitheachother，seeanexcellentGeographicalTractofM。d\'Anville，inMem。del\'Academie，tom。xxx。]
[Footnote39:Tacit。Annal。xi。42。Plin。Hist。Nat。vi。26。]
[Footnote40:ThismaybeinferredfromStrabo，l。xvi。p。743。]
[Footnote41:Thatmostcurioustraveller，Bernier，whofollowedthecampofAurengzebefromDelhitoCashmir，describeswithgreataccuracytheimmensemovingcity。Theguardofcavalryconsistedof35，000men，thatofinfantryof10，000。Itwascomputedthatthecampcontained150，000horses，mules，andelephants；50，000camels，50，000oxen，andbetween300，000and400，000persons。AlmostallDelhifollowedthecourt，whosemagnificencesupporteditsindustry。]
[Footnote42:Dion，l。lxxi。p。1178。Hist。August。p。38。
Eutrop。viii。10Euseb。inChronic。QuadratusquotedintheAugustanHistoryattemptedtovindicatetheRomansbyallegingthatthecitizensofSeleuciahadfirstviolatedtheirfaith。]
[Footnote43:Dion，l。lxxv。p。1263。Herodian，l。iii。p。120。
Hist。August。p。70。]
FromthesesuccessfulinroadstheRomansderivednorealorlastingbenefit；nordidtheyattempttopreservesuchdistantconquests，separatedfromtheprovincesoftheempirebyalargetractofintermediatedesert。ThereductionofthekingdomofOsrhoenewasanacquisitionoflesssplendorindeed，butofafarmoresolidadvantage。ThatlittlestateoccupiedthenorthernandmostfertilepartofMesopotamia，betweentheEuphratesandtheTigris。Edessa，itscapital，wassituatedabouttwentymilesbeyondtheformerofthoserivers；andtheinhabitants，sincethetimeofAlexander，wereamixedraceofGreeks，Arabs，Syrians，andArmenians。^44ThefeeblesovereignsofOsrhoene，placedonthedangerousvergeoftwocontendingempires，wereattachedfrominclinationtotheParthiancause；butthesuperiorpowerofRomeexactedfromthemareluctanthomage，whichisstillattestedbytheirmedals。AftertheconclusionoftheParthianwarunderMarcus，itwasjudgedprudenttosecuresomesubstantia，pledgesoftheirdoubtfulfidelity。Fortswereconstructedinseveralpartsofthecountry，andaRomangarrisonwasfixedinthestrongtownofNisibis。DuringthetroublesthatfollowedthedeathofCommodus，theprincesofOsrhoeneattemptedtoshakeofftheyoke；butthesternpolicyofSeverusconfirmedtheirdependence，^45andtheperfidyofCaracallacompletedtheeasyconquest。Abgarus，thelastkingofEdessa，wassentinchainstoRome，hisdominionsreducedintoaprovince，andhiscapitaldignifiedwiththerankofcolony；andthustheRomans，abouttenyearsbeforethefalloftheParthianmonarchy，obtainedafirmandpermanentestablishmentbeyondtheEuphrates。^46
[Footnote44:ThepolishedcitizensofAntiochcalledthoseofEdessamixedbarbarians。Itwas，however，somepraise，thatofthethreedialectsoftheSyriac，thepurestandmosteleganttheAramaeanwasspokenatEdessa。ThisremarkM。BayerHist。
Edess。p5hasborrowedfromGeorgeofMalatia，aSyrianwriter。]
[Footnote45:Dion，l。lxxv。p。1248，1249，1250。M。Bayerhasneglectedtousethismostimportantpassage。]
[Footnote46:Thiskingdom，fromOsrhoes，whogaveanewnametothecountry，tothelastAbgarus，hadlasted353years。SeethelearnedworkofM。Bayer，HistoriaOsrhoenaetEdessena。]
PrudenceaswellasglorymighthavejustifiedawaronthesideofArtaxerxes，hadhisviewsbeenconfinedtothedefenceoracquisitionofausefulfrontier。buttheambitiousPersianopenlyavowedafarmoreextensivedesignofconquest；andhethoughthimselfabletosupporthisloftypretensionsbythearmsofreasonaswellasbythoseofpower。Cyrus，healleged，hadfirstsubdued，andhissuccessorshadforalongtimepossessed，thewholeextentofAsia，asfarasthePropontisandtheAegeanSea；theprovincesofCariaandIonia，undertheirempire，hadbeengovernedbyPersiansatraps，andallEgypt，totheconfinesofAethiopia，hadacknowledgedtheirsovereignty。^47Theirrightshadbeensuspended，butnotdestroyed，byalongusurpation；andassoonashereceivedthePersiandiadem，whichbirthandsuccessfulvalorhadplaceduponhishead，thefirstgreatdutyofhisstationcalleduponhimtorestoretheancientlimitsandsplendorofthemonarchy。TheGreatKing，therefore，suchwasthehaughtystyleofhisembassiestotheemperorAlexander，commandedtheRomansinstantlytodepartfromalltheprovincesofhisancestors，and，yieldingtothePersianstheempireofAsia，tocontentthemselveswiththeundisturbedpossessionofEurope。ThishaughtymandatewasdeliveredbyfourhundredofthetallestandmostbeautifulofthePersians；who，bytheirfinehorses，splendidarms，andrichapparel，displayedtheprideandgreatnessoftheirmaster。^48Suchanembassywasmuchlessanofferofnegotiationthanadeclarationofwar。
BothAlexanderSeverusandArtaxerxes，collectingthemilitaryforceoftheRomanandPersianmonarchies，resolvedinthisimportantcontesttoleadtheirarmiesinperson。
[Footnote47:Xenophon，intheprefacetotheCyropaedia，givesaclearandmagnificentideaoftheextentoftheempireofCyrus。
Herodotusl。iii。c。79，&c。entersintoacuriousandparticulardescriptionofthetwentygreatSatrapiesintowhichthePersianempirewasdividedbyDariusHystaspes。]
[Footnote48:Herodian，vi。209，212。]
Ifwecreditwhatshouldseemthemostauthenticofallrecords，anoration，stillextant，anddeliveredbytheemperorhimselftothesenate，wemustallowthatthevictoryofAlexanderSeveruswasnotinferiortoanyofthoseformerlyobtainedoverthePersiansbythesonofPhilip。ThearmyoftheGreatKingconsistedofonehundredandtwentythousandhorse，clothedincompletearmorofsteel；ofsevenhundredelephants，withtowersfilledwitharchersontheirbacks，andofeighteenhundredchariotsarmedwithscythes。Thisformidablehost，thelikeofwhichisnottobefoundineasternhistory，andhasscarcelybeenimaginedineasternromance，^49wasdiscomfitedinagreatbattle，inwhichtheRomanAlexanderprovedhimselfanintrepidsoldierandaskilfulgeneral。TheGreatKingfledbeforehisvalor；animmensebooty，andtheconquestofMesopotamia，weretheimmediatefruitsofthissignalvictory。
Sucharethecircumstancesofthisostentatiousandimprobablerelation，dictated，asittooplainlyappears，bythevanityofthemonarch，adornedbytheunblushingservilityofhisflatterers，andreceivedwithoutcontradictionbyadistantandobsequioussenate。^50FarfrombeinginclinedtobelievethatthearmsofAlexanderobtainedanymemorableadvantageoverthePersians，weareinducedtosuspectthatallthisblazeofimaginaryglorywasdesignedtoconcealsomerealdisgrace。
[Footnote49:ThereweretwohundredscythedchariotsatthebattleofArbela，inthehostofDarius。InthevastarmyofTigranes，whichwasvanquishedbyLucullus，seventeenthousandhorseonlywerecompletelyarmed。Antiochusbroughtfifty—fourelephantsintothefieldagainsttheRomans:byhisfrequentwarsandnegotiationswiththeprincesofIndia，hehadoncecollectedahundredandfiftyofthosegreatanimals；butitmaybequestionedwhetherthemostpowerfulmonarchofHindostanevciformedalineofbattleofsevenhundredelephants。Insteadofthreeorfourthousandelephants，whichtheGreatMogulwassupposedtopossess，TavernierVoyages，partii。l。i。p。198
discovered，byamoreaccurateinquiry，thathehadonlyfivehundredforhisbaggage，andeightyorninetyfortheserviceofwar。TheGreekshavevariedwithregardtothenumberwhichPorusbroughtintothefield；butQuintusCurtius，viii。13，inthisinstancejudiciousandmoderate，iscontentedwitheighty—fiveelephants，distinguishedbytheirsizeandstrength。
InSiam，wheretheseanimalsarethemostnumerousandthemostesteemed，eighteenelephantsareallowedasasufficientproportionforeachoftheninebrigadesintowhichajustarmyisdivided。Thewholenumber，ofonehundredandsixty—twoelephantsofwar，maysometimesbedoubled。Hist。desVoyages，tom。ix。p。260。
Note:CompareGibbon\'snote10toch。lvii—M。]
[Footnote50:Hist。August。p。133。
Note:SeeM。Guizot\'snote，p。267。AccordingtothePersianauthoritiesArdeschirextendedhisconqueststotheEuphrates。Malcolmi。71。—M。]
Oursuspiciousareconfirmedbytheauthorityofacontemporaryhistorian，whomentionsthevirtuesofAlexanderwithrespect，andhisfaultswithcandor。Hedescribesthejudiciousplanwhichhadbeenformedfortheconductofthewar。
ThreeRomanarmiesweredestinedtoinvadePersiaatthesametime，andbydifferentroads。Buttheoperationsofthecampaign，thoughwiselyconcerted，werenotexecutedeitherwithabilityorsuccess。Thefirstofthesearmies，assoonasithadenteredthemarshyplainsofBabylon，towardstheartificialconfluxoftheEuphratesandtheTigris，^51wasencompassedbythesuperiornumbers，anddestroyedbythearrowsoftheenemy。
TheallianceofChosroes，kingofArmenia，^52andthelongtractofmountainouscountry，inwhichthePersiancavalrywasoflittleservice，openedasecureentranceintotheheartofMedia，tothesecondoftheRomanarmies。Thesebravetroopslaidwastetheadjacentprovinces，andbyseveralsuccessfulactionsagainstArtaxerxes，gaveafaintcolortotheemperor\'svanity。Buttheretreatofthisvictoriousarmywasimprudent，oratleastunfortunate。Inrepassingthemountains，greatnumbersofsoldiersperishedbythebadnessoftheroads，andtheseverityofthewinterseason。Ithadbeenresolved，thatwhilstthesetwogreatdetachmentspenetratedintotheoppositeextremesofthePersiandominions，themainbody，underthecommandofAlexanderhimself，shouldsupporttheirattack，byinvadingthecentreofthekingdom。Buttheunexperiencedyouth，influencedbyhismother\'scounsels，andperhapsbyhisownfears，desertedthebravesttroops，andthefairestprospectofvictory；andafterconsuminginMesopotamiaaninactiveandinglorioussummer，heledbacktoAntiochanarmydiminishedbysickness，andprovokedbydisappointment。ThebehaviorofArtaxerxeshadbeenverydifferent。FlyingwithrapidityfromthehillsofMediatothemarshesoftheEuphrates，hehadeverywhereopposedtheinvadersinperson；andineitherfortunehadunitedwiththeablestconductthemostundauntedresolution。ButinseveralobstinateengagementsagainsttheveteranlegionsofRome，thePersianmonarchhadlosttheflowerofhistroops。Evenhisvictorieshadweakenedhispower。ThefavorableopportunitiesoftheabsenceofAlexander，andoftheconfusionsthatfollowedthatemperor\'sdeath，presentedthemselvesinvaintohisambition。InsteadofexpellingtheRomans，ashepretended，fromthecontinentofAsia，hefoundhimselfunabletowrestfromtheirhandsthelittleprovinceofMesopotamia。^53
[Footnote51:M。deTillemonthasalreadyobserved，thatHerodian\'sgeographyissomewhatconfused。]
[Footnote52:MosesofChoreneHist。Armen。l。ii。c。71
illustratesthisinvasionofMedia，byassertingthatChosroes，kingofArmenia，defeatedArtaxerxes，andpursuedhimtotheconfinesofIndia。TheexploitsofChosroeshavebeenmagnified；
andheactedasadependentallytotheRomans。]
[Footnote53:Fortheaccountofthiswar，seeHerodian，l。vi。
p。209，212。TheoldabbreviatorsandmoderncompilershaveblindlyfollowedtheAugustanHistory。]
ThereignofArtaxerxes，which，fromthelastdefeatoftheParthians，lastedonlyfourteenyears，formsamemorableaerainthehistoryoftheEast，andeveninthatofRome。Hischaracterseemstohavebeenmarkedbythoseboldandcommandingfeatures，thatgenerallydistinguishtheprinceswhoconquer，fromthosewhoinheritanempire。TillthelastperiodofthePersianmonarchy，hiscodeoflawswasrespectedasthegroundworkoftheircivilandreligiouspolicy。^54Severalofhissayingsarepreserved。Oneoftheminparticulardiscoversadeepinsightintotheconstitutionofgovernment。\"Theauthorityoftheprince，\"saidArtaxerxes，\"mustbedefendedbyamilitaryforce；
thatforcecanonlybemaintainedbytaxes；alltaxesmust，atlast，falluponagriculture；andagriculturecanneverflourishexceptundertheprotectionofjusticeandmoderation。\"^55
Artaxerxesbequeathedhisnewempire，andhisambitiousdesignsagainsttheRomans，toSapor，asonnotunworthyofhisgreatfather；butthosedesignsweretooextensiveforthepowerofPersia，andservedonlytoinvolvebothnationsinalongseriesofdestructivewarsandreciprocalcalamities。
[Footnote54:Eutychius，tom。ii。p。180，vers。Pocock。ThegreatChosroesNoushirwansentthecodeofArtaxerxestoallhissatraps，astheinvariableruleoftheirconduct。]
[Footnote55:D\'Herbelot，BibliothequeOrientale，aumotArdshir。
Wemayobserve，thatafteranancientperiodoffables，andalongintervalofdarkness，themodernhistoriesofPersiabegintoassumeanairoftruthwiththedynastyofSassanides。
[CompareMalcolm，i。79。—M。]
ThePersians，longsincecivilizedandcorrupted，wereveryfarfrompossessingthemartialindependence，andtheintrepidhardiness，bothofmindandbody，whichhaverenderedthenorthernbarbariansmastersoftheworld。Thescienceofwar，thatconstitutedthemorerationalforceofGreeceandRome，asitnowdoesofEurope，nevermadeanyconsiderableprogressintheEast。Thosedisciplinedevolutionswhichharmonizeandanimateaconfusedmultitude，wereunknowntothePersians。Theywereequallyunskilledintheartsofconstructing，besieging，ordefendingregularfortifications。Theytrustedmoretotheirnumbersthantotheircourage；moretotheircouragethantotheirdiscipline。Theinfantrywasahalf—armed，spiritlesscrowdofpeasants，leviedinhastebytheallurementsofplunder，andaseasilydispersedbyavictoryasbyadefeat。Themonarchandhisnoblestransportedintothecamptheprideandluxuryoftheseraglio。Theirmilitaryoperationswereimpededbyauselesstrainofwomen，eunuchs，horses，andcamels；andinthemidstofasuccessfulcampaign，thePersianhostwasoftenseparatedordestroyedbyanunexpectedfamine。^56
[Footnote56:Herodian，l。vi。p。214。AmmianusMarcellinus，l。
xxiii。c。6。Somedifferencesmaybeobservedbetweenthetwohistorians，thenaturaleffectsofthechangesproducedbyacenturyandahalf。]
ButthenoblesofPersia，inthebosomofluxuryanddespotism，preservedastrongsenseofpersonalgallantryandnationalhonor。Fromtheageofsevenyearstheyweretaughttospeaktruth，toshootwiththebow，andtoride；anditwasuniversallyconfessed，thatinthetwolastofthesearts，theyhadmadeamorethancommonproficiency。^57Themostdistinguishedyouthwereeducatedunderthemonarch\'seye，practisedtheirexercisesinthegateofhispalace，andwereseverelytraineduptothehabitsoftemperanceandobedience，intheirlongandlaboriouspartiesofhunting。Ineveryprovince，thesatrapmaintainedalikeschoolofmilitaryvirtue。ThePersiannoblessonaturalistheideaoffeudaltenures
receivedfromtheking\'sbountylandsandhouses，ontheconditionoftheirserviceinwar。Theywerereadyonthefirstsummonstomountonhorseback，withamartialandsplendidtrainoffollowers，andtojointhenumerousbodiesofguards，whowerecarefullyselectedfromamongthemostrobustslaves，andthebravestadventuresofAsia。Thesearmies，bothoflightandofheavycavalry，equallyformidablebytheimpetuosityoftheirchargeandtherapidityoftheirmotions，threatened，asanimpendingcloud，theeasternprovincesofthedecliningempireofRome。^58
[Footnote57:ThePersiansarestillthemostskilfulhorsemen，andtheirhorsesthefinestintheEast。]
[Footnote58:FromHerodotus，Xenophon，Herodian，Ammianus，Chardin，&c。，IhaveextractedsuchprobableaccountsofthePersiannobility，asseemeithercommontoeveryage，orparticulartothatoftheSassanides。]
ChapterIX:StateOfGermanyUntilTheBarbarians。
PartI。
TheStateOfGermanyTillTheInvasionOfTheBarbariansInTheTimeOfTheEmperorDecius。
ThegovernmentandreligionofPersiahavedeservedsomenotice，fromtheirconnectionwiththedeclineandfalloftheRomanempire。WeshalloccasionallymentiontheScythianorSarmatiantribes，which，withtheirarmsandhorses，theirflocksandherds，theirwivesandfamilies，wanderedovertheimmenseplainswhichspreadthemselvesfromtheCaspianSeatotheVistula，fromtheconfinesofPersiatothoseofGermany。
ButthewarlikeGermans，whofirstresisted，theninvaded，andatlengthoverturnedtheWesternmonarchyofRome，willoccupyamuchmoreimportantplaceinthishistory，andpossessastronger，and，ifwemayusetheexpression，amoredomestic，claimtoourattentionandregard。ThemostcivilizednationsofmodernEuropeissuedfromthewoodsofGermany；andintherudeinstitutionsofthosebarbarianswemaystilldistinguishtheoriginalprinciplesofourpresentlawsandmanners。Intheirprimitivestateofsimplicityandindependence，theGermansweresurveyedbythediscerningeye，anddelineatedbythemasterlypencil，ofTacitus，thefirstofhistorianswhoappliedthescienceofphilosophytothestudyoffacts。Theexpressiveconcisenessofhisdescriptionshasservedtoexercisethediligenceofinnumerableantiquarians，andtoexcitethegeniusandpenetrationofthephilosophichistoriansofourowntimes。