[Footnote48:Hist。August。p。84。Spartianushasinsertedthiscuriousletteratfulllength。]
ThemilitarylaborsofSeverusseeminadequatetotheimportanceofhisconquests。Twoengagements，theoneneartheHellespont，theotherinthenarrowdefilesofCilicia，decidedthefateofhisSyriancompetitor；andthetroopsofEuropeassertedtheirusualascendantovertheeffeminatenativesofAsia。^49ThebattleofLyons，whereonehundredandfiftythousandRomans^50wereengaged，wasequallyfataltoAlbinus。
ThevaloroftheBritisharmymaintained，indeed，asharpanddoubtfulcontest，withthehardydisciplineoftheIllyrianlegions。ThefameandpersonofSeverusappeared，duringafewmoments，irrecoverablylost，tillthatwarlikeprinceralliedhisfaintingtroops，andledthemontoadecisivevictory。^51Thewarwasfinishedbythatmemorableday。
[Footnote*:Therewerethreeactions；onenearCyzicus，ontheHellespont，onenearNice，inBithynia，thethirdneartheIssus，inCilicia，whereAlexanderconqueredDarius。Dion，lxiv。c。6。
Herodian，iii。2，4。—WHerodianrepresentsthesecondbattleasoflessimportancethanDion—M。]
[Footnote49:ConsultthethirdbookofHerodian，andtheseventy—fourthbookofDionCassius。]
[Footnote50:Dion，l。lxxv。p。1260。]
[Footnote51:Dion，l。lxxv。p。1261。Herodian，l。iii。p。110。
Hist。August。p。68。ThebattlewasfoughtintheplainofTrevoux，threeorfourleaguesfromLyons。SeeTillemont，tom。
iii。p。406，note18。]
[Footnote*:AccordingtoHerodian，itwashislieutenantLaetuswholedbackthetroopstothebattle，andgainedtheday，whichSeverushadalmostlost。DionalsoattributestoLaetusagreatshareinthevictory。Severusafterwardsputhimtodeath，eitherfromfearorjealousy。—W。andG。WenckandM。GuizothavenotgiventherealstatementofHerodianorofDion。
Accordingtotheformer，Laetusappearedwithhisownarmyentire，whichhewassuspectedofhavingdesignedlykeptdisengagedwhenthebattlewasstilldoudtful，orratheraftertheroutofseverus。DionsaysthathedidnotmovetillSeverushadwonthevictory。—M。]
ThecivilwarsofmodernEuropehavebeendistinguished，notonlybythefierceanimosity，butlikewisebytheobstinateperseverance，ofthecontendingfactions。Theyhavegenerallybeenjustifiedbysomeprinciple，or，atleast，coloredbysomepretext，ofreligion，freedom，orloyalty。Theleaderswerenoblesofindependentpropertyandhereditaryinfluence。Thetroopsfoughtlikemeninterestedinthedecisionofthequarrel；
andasmilitaryspiritandpartyzealwerestronglydiffusedthroughoutthewholecommunity，avanquishedchiefwasimmediatelysuppliedwithnewadherents，eagertoshedtheirbloodinthesamecause。ButtheRomans，afterthefalloftherepublic，combatedonlyforthechoiceofmasters。Underthestandardofapopularcandidateforempire，afewenlistedfromaffection，somefromfear，manyfrominterest，nonefromprinciple。Thelegions，uninflamedbypartyzeal，werealluredintocivilwarbyliberaldonatives，andstillmoreliberalpromises。Adefeat，bydisablingthechieffromtheperformanceofhisengagements，dissolvedthemercenaryallegianceofhisfollowers，andleftthemtoconsulttheirownsafetybyatimelydesertionofanunsuccessfulcause。Itwasoflittlemomenttotheprovinces，underwhosenametheywereoppressedorgoverned；
theyweredrivenbytheimpulsionofthepresentpower，andassoonasthatpoweryieldedtoasuperiorforce，theyhastenedtoimploretheclemencyoftheconqueror，who，ashehadanimmensedebttodischarge，wasobligedtosacrificethemostguiltycountriestotheavariceofhissoldiers。InthevastextentoftheRomanempire，therewerefewfortifiedcitiescapableofprotectingaroutedarmy；norwasthereanyperson，orfamily，ororderofmen，whosenaturalinterest，unsupportedbythepowersofgovernment，wascapableofrestoringthecauseofasinkingparty。^52
[Footnote52:Montesquieu，ConsiderationssurlaGrandeuretlaDecadencedesRomains，c。xiii。]
Yet，inthecontestbetweenNigerandSeverus，asinglecitydeservesanhonorableexception。AsByzantiumwasoneofthegreatestpassagesfromEuropeintoAsia，ithadbeenprovidedwithastronggarrison，andafleetoffivehundredvesselswasanchoredintheharbor。^53TheimpetuosityofSeverusdisappointedthisprudentschemeofdefence；helefttohisgeneralsthesiegeofByzantium，forcedthelessguardedpassageoftheHellespont，and，impatientofameanerenemy，pressedforwardtoencounterhisrival。Byzantium，attackedbyanumerousandincreasingarmy，andafterwardsbythewholenavalpoweroftheempire，sustainedasiegeofthreeyears，andremainedfaithfultothenameandmemoryofNiger。Thecitizensandsoldiersweknownotfromwhatcausewereanimatedwithequalfury；severaloftheprincipalofficersofNiger，whodespairedof，orwhodisdained，apardon，hadthrownthemselvesintothislastrefuge:thefortificationswereesteemedimpregnable，and，inthedefenceoftheplace，acelebratedengineerdisplayedallthemechanicpowersknowntotheancients。^54Byzantium，atlength，surrenderedtofamine。Themagistratesandsoldierswereputtothesword，thewallsdemolished，theprivilegessuppressed，andthedestinedcapitaloftheEastsubsistedonlyasanopenvillage，subjecttotheinsultingjurisdictionofPerinthus。ThehistorianDion，whohadadmiredtheflourishing，andlamentedthedesolate，stateofByzantium，accusedtherevengeofSeverus，fordeprivingtheRomanpeopleofthestrongestbulwarkagainstthebarbariansofPontusandAsia^55
Thetruthofthisobservationwasbuttoowelljustifiedinthesucceedingage，whentheGothicfleetscoveredtheEuxine，andpassedthroughtheundefinedBosphorusintothecentreoftheMediterranean。
[Footnote53:Mostofthese，asmaybesupposed，weresmallopenvessels；some，however，weregalleysoftwo，andafewofthreeranksofoars。]
[Footnote54:Theengineer\'snamewasPriscus。Hisskillsavedhislife，andhewastakenintotheserviceoftheconqueror。
Fortheparticularfactsofthesiege，consultDionCassiusl。
lxxv。p。1251andHerodian，l。iii。p。95；forthetheoryofit，thefancifulchevalierdeFolardmaybelookedinto。SeePolybe，tom。i。p。76。]
[Footnote55:NotwithstandingtheauthorityofSpartianus，andsomemodernGreeks，wemaybeassured，fromDionandHerodian，thatByzantium，manyyearsafterthedeathofSeverus，layinruins。
Footnote*:ThereisnocontradictionbetweentherelationofDionandthatofSpartianusandthemodernGreeks。DiondoesnotsaythatSeverusdestroyedByzantium，butthathedepriveditofitsfranchisesandprivileges，strippedtheinhabitantsoftheirproperty，razedthefortifications，andsubjectedthecitytothejurisdictionofPerinthus。Therefore，whenSpartian，Suidas，Cedrenus，saythatSeverusandhissonAntoninusrestoredtoByzantiumitsrightsandfranchises，orderedtemplestobebuilt，&c。，thisiseasilyreconciledwiththerelationofDion。
Perhapsthelattermentioneditinsomeofthefragmentsofhishistorywhichhavebeenlost。AstoHerodian，hisexpressionsareevidentlyexaggerated，andhehasbeenguiltyofsomanyinaccuraciesinthehistoryofSeverus，thatwehavearighttosupposeoneinthispassage。—G。fromWWenckandM。GuizothaveomittedtociteZosimus，whomentionsaparticularporticobuiltbySeverus，andcalled，apparently，byhisname。Zosim。Hist。
ii。c。xxx。p。151，153，editHeyne。—M。]
BothNigerandAlbinuswerediscoveredandputtodeathintheirflightfromthefieldofbattle。Theirfateexcitedneithersurprisenorcompassion。Theyhadstakedtheirlivesagainstthechanceofempire，andsufferedwhattheywouldhaveinflicted；nordidSeverusclaimthearrogantsuperiorityofsufferinghisrivalstoliveinaprivatestation。Buthisunforgivingtemper，stimulatedbyavarice，indulgedaspiritofrevenge，wheretherewasnoroomforapprehension。Themostconsiderableoftheprovincials，who，withoutanydisliketothefortunatecandidate，hadobeyedthegovernorunderwhoseauthoritytheywereaccidentallyplaced，werepunishedbydeath，exile，andespeciallybytheconfiscationoftheirestates。ManycitiesoftheEastwerestrippedoftheirancienthonors，andobligedtopay，intothetreasuryofSeverus，fourtimestheamountofthesumscontributedbythemfortheserviceofNiger。
^56
[Footnote56:Dion，l。lxxiv。p。1250。]
Tillthefinaldecisionofthewar，thecrueltyofSeveruswas，insomemeasure，restrainedbytheuncertaintyoftheevent，andhispretendedreverenceforthesenate。TheheadofAlbinus，accompaniedwithamenacingletter，announcedtotheRomansthathewasresolvedtosparenoneoftheadherentsofhisunfortunatecompetitors。Hewasirritatedbythejustauspicionthathehadneverpossessedtheaffectionsofthesenate，andheconcealedhisoldmalevolenceundertherecentdiscoveryofsometreasonablecorrespondences。Thirty—fivesenators，however，accusedofhavingfavoredthepartyofAlbinus，hefreelypardoned，and，byhissubsequentbehavior，endeavoredtoconvincethem，thathehadforgotten，aswellasforgiven，theirsupposedoffences。But，atthesametime，hecondemnedforty—one^57
othersenators，whosenameshistoryhasrecorded；theirwives，children，andclientsattendedthemindeath，andthenoblestprovincialsofSpainandGaulwereinvolvedinthesameruin。^!
Suchrigidjustice—forsohetermedit—was，intheopinionofSeverus，theonlyconductcapableofinsuringpeacetothepeopleorstabilitytotheprince；andhecondescendedslightlytolament，thattobemild，itwasnecessarythatheshouldfirstbecruel。^58
[Footnote57:Dion，l。lxxv。p。1264；onlytwenty—ninesenatorsarementionedbyhim，butforty—onearenamedintheAugustanHistory，p。69，amongwhomweresixofthenameofPescennius。
Herodianl。iii。p。115speaksingeneralofthecrueltiesofSeverus。]
[Footnote*:Wenckdeniesthatthereisanyauthorityforthismassacreofthewivesofthesenators。Headds，thatonlythechildrenandrelativesofNigerandAlbinuswereputtodeath。
ThisistrueofthefamilyofAlbinus，whosebodieswerethrownintotheRhone；thoseofNiger，accordingtoLampridius，weresentintoexile，butafterwardsputtodeath。AmongthepartisansofAlbinuswhowereputtodeathweremanywomenofrank，multaefoeminaeillustres。Lamprid。inSever。—M。]
[Footnote!:AnewfragmentofDiondescribesthestateofRomeduringthiscontest。AllpretendedtobeonthesideofSeverus；
buttheirsecretsentimentswereoftenbetrayedbyachangeofcountenanceonthearrivalofsomesuddenreport。Someweredetectedbyoveractingtheirloyalty，Mai。Fragm。Vatican。p。227
Severustoldthesenatehewouldratherhavetheirheartsthantheirvotes。—Ibid。—M。]
[Footnote58:AureliusVictor。]
Thetrueinterestofanabsolutemonarchgenerallycoincideswiththatofhispeople。Theirnumbers，theirwealth，theirorder，andtheirsecurity，arethebestandonlyfoundationsofhisrealgreatness；andwerehetotallydevoidofvirtue，prudencemightsupplyitsplace，andwoulddictatethesameruleofconduct。SeverusconsideredtheRomanempireashisproperty，andhadnosoonersecuredthepossession，thanhebestowedhiscareonthecultivationandimprovementofsovaluableanacquisition。Salutarylaws，executedwithinflexiblefirmness，sooncorrectedmostoftheabuseswithwhich，sincethedeathofMarcus，everypartofthegovernmenthadbeeninfected。Intheadministrationofjustice，thejudgmentsoftheemperorwerecharacterizedbyattention，discernment，andimpartiality；andwheneverhedeviatedfromthestrictlineofequity，itwasgenerallyinfavorofthepoorandoppressed；notsomuchindeedfromanysenseofhumanity，asfromthenaturalpropensityofadespottohumbletheprideofgreatness，andtosinkallhissubjectstothesamecommonlevelofabsolutedependence。Hisexpensivetasteforbuilding，magnificentshows，andaboveallaconstantandliberaldistributionofcornandprovisions，werethesurestmeansofcaptivatingtheaffectionoftheRomanpeople。^59Themisfortunesofcivildiscordwereobliterated。
Theclamofpeaceandprosperitywasoncemoreexperiencedintheprovinces；andmanycities，restoredbythemunificenceofSeverus，assumedthetitleofhiscolonies，andattestedbypublicmonumentstheirgratitudeandfelicity。^60ThefameoftheRomanarmswasrevivedbythatwarlikeandsuccessfulemperor，^61andheboasted，withajustpride，that，havingreceivedtheempireoppressedwithforeignanddomesticwars，heleftitestablishedinprofound，universal，andhonorablepeace。
^62
[Footnote59:Dion，l。lxxvi。p。1272。Hist。August。p。67。
Severuscelebratedtheseculargameswithextraordinarymagnificence，andheleftinthepublicgranariesaprovisionofcornforsevenyears，attherateof75，000modii，orabout2500
quartersperday。IampersuadedthatthegranariesofSeverusweresuppliedforalongterm，butIamnotlesspersuaded，thatpolicyononehand，andadmirationontheother，magnifiedthehoardfarbeyonditstruecontents。]
[Footnote60:SeeSpanheim\'streatiseofancientmedals，theinscriptions，andourlearnedtravellersSponandWheeler，Shaw，Pocock，&c，who，inAfrica，Greece，andAsia，havefoundmoremonumentsofSeverusthanofanyotherRomanemperorwhatsoever。]
[Footnote61:HecarriedhisvictoriousarmstoSeleuciaandCtesiphon，thecapitalsoftheParthianmonarchy。Ishallhaveoccasiontomentionthiswarinitsproperplace。]
[Footnote62:EtiaminBritannis，washisownjustandemphaticexpressionHist。August。73。]
Althoughthewoundsofcivilwarappearedcompletelyhealed，itsmortalpoisonstilllurkedinthevitalsoftheconstitution。
Severuspossessedaconsiderableshareofvigorandability；butthedaringsoulofthefirstCaesar，orthedeeppolicyofAugustus，werescarcelyequaltothetaskofcurbingtheinsolenceofthevictoriouslegions。Bygratitude，bymisguidedpolicy，byseemingnecessity，Severuswasreducedtorelaxthenervesofdiscipline。^63Thevanityofhissoldierswasflatteredwiththehonorofwearinggoldringstheireasewasindulgedinthepermissionoflivingwiththeirwivesintheidlenessofquarters。Heincreasedtheirpaybeyondtheexampleofformertimes，andtaughtthemtoexpect，andsoontoclaim，extraordinarydonativesoneverypublicoccasionofdangerorfestivity。Elatedbysuccess，enervatedbyluxury，andraisedabovethelevelofsubjectsbytheirdangerousprivileges，^64
theysoonbecameincapableofmilitaryfatigue，oppressivetothecountry，andimpatientofajustsubordination。Theirofficersassertedthesuperiorityofrankbyamoreprofuseandelegantluxury。ThereisstillextantaletterofSeverus，lamentingthelicentiousstageofthearmy，andexhortingoneofhisgeneralstobeginthenecessaryreformationfromthetribunesthemselves；since，ashejustlyobserves，theofficerwhohasforfeitedtheesteem，willnevercommandtheobedience，ofhissoldiers。^65Hadtheemperorpursuedthetrainofreflection，hewouldhavediscovered，thattheprimarycauseofthisgeneralcorruptionmightbeascribed，notindeedtotheexample，buttotheperniciousindulgence，however，ofthecommander—in—chief。
[Footnote63:Herodian，l。iii。p。115。Hist。August。p。68。]
[Footnote64:Upontheinsolenceandprivilegesofthesoldier，the16thsatire，falselyascribedtoJuvenal，maybeconsulted；
thestyleandcircumstancesofitwouldinducemetobelieve，thatitwascomposedunderthereignofSeverus，orthatofhisson。]
[Footnote*:Notofthearmy，butofthetroopsinGaul。ThecontentsofthisletterseemtoprovethatSeveruswasreallyanxioustorestoredisciplineHerodianistheonlyhistorianwhoaccuseshimofbeingthefirstcauseofitsrelaxation。—G。fromWSpartianmentionshisincreaseofthepays。—M。]
[Footnote65:Hist。August。p。73。]
ThePraetorians，whomurderedtheiremperorandsoldtheempire，hadreceivedthejustpunishmentoftheirtreason；butthenecessary，thoughdangerous，institutionofguardswassoonrestoredonanewmodelbySeverus，andincreasedtofourtimestheancientnumber。^66FormerlythesetroopshadbeenrecruitedinItaly；andastheadjacentprovincesgraduallyimbibedthesoftermannersofRome，thelevieswereextendedtoMacedonia，Noricum，andSpain。Intheroomoftheseeleganttroops，betteradaptedtothepompofcourtsthantotheusesofwar，itwasestablishedbySeverus，thatfromallthelegionsofthefrontiers，thesoldiersmostdistinguishedforstrength，valor，andfidelity，shouldbeoccasionallydraughted；andpromoted，asanhonorandreward，intothemoreeligibleserviceoftheguards。^67Bythisnewinstitution，theItalianyouthweredivertedfromtheexerciseofarms，andthecapitalwasterrifiedbythestrangeaspectandmannersofamultitudeofbarbarians。
ButSeverusflatteredhimself，thatthelegionswouldconsiderthesechosenPraetoriansastherepresentativesofthewholemilitaryorder；andthatthepresentaidoffiftythousandmen，superiorinarmsandappointmentstoanyforcethatcouldbebroughtintothefieldagainstthem，wouldforevercrushthehopesofrebellion，andsecuretheempiretohimselfandhisposterity。
[Footnote66:Herodian，l。iii。p。131。]
[Footnote67:Dion，l。lxxiv。p。1243。]
Thecommandofthesefavoredandformidabletroopssoonbecamethefirstofficeoftheempire。Asthegovernmentdegeneratedintomilitarydespotism，thePraetorianPraefect，whoinhisoriginhadbeenasimplecaptainoftheguards，wasplacednotonlyattheheadofthearmy，butofthefinances，andevenofthelaw。Ineverydepartmentofadministration，herepresentedtheperson，andexercisedtheauthority，oftheemperor。ThefirstpraefectwhoenjoyedandabusedthisimmensepowerwasPlautianus，thefavoriteministerofSeverus。Hisreignlastedabovethenyears，tillthemarriageofhisdaughterwiththeeldestsonoftheemperor，whichseemedtoassurehisfortune，provedtheoccasionofhisruin。^68Theanimositiesofthepalace，byirritatingtheambitionandalarmingthefearsofPlautianus，threatenedtoproducearevolution，andobligedtheemperor，whostilllovedhim，toconsentwithreluctancetohisdeath。^69AfterthefallofPlautianus，aneminentlawyer，thecelebratedPapinian，wasappointedtoexecutethemotleyofficeofPraetorianPraefect。
[Footnote*:ThePraetorianPraefecthadneverbeenasimplecaptainoftheguards；fromthefirstcreationofthisoffice，underAugustus，itpossessedgreatpower。Thatemperor，therefore，decreedthatthereshouldbealwaystwoPraetorianPraefects，whocouldonlybetakenfromtheequestrianorderTiberiusfirstdepartedfromtheformerclauseofthisedict；
AlexanderSeverusviolatedthesecondbynamingsenatorspraefects。ItappearsthatitwasunderCommodusthatthePraetorianPraefectsobtainedtheprovinceofciviljurisdiction。