Inthehighestsituationwecanfancy,thepleasuresfromwhichweproposetoderiveourrealhappinessaregenerallythesameasthosewhich,inahumblerstation,wehaveatalltimesathandandinourpower。Thepoorman\'sson,\"whomheaveninitsangerhasvisitedwithambition,\"willgothrough,inthefirstmonthofhispursuitofthepleasuresofwealth,morefatigueofbodyanduneasinessofmindthanhecouldhavesufferedthroughthewholeofhislifeforthewantofthem。\"Examinetherecordsofhistory,recollectwhathashappenedinthecircleofyourownexperience,considerwithattentionwhathasbeentheconductofalmostallthegreatlyunfortunate,eitherinprivateorpubliclife,whomyouhaveeitherreadoforheardoforremember,andyouwillfindthatthemisfortunesofbyfarthegreaterpartofthemhavearisenfromtheirnotknowingwhentheywerewell,whenitwasproperforthemtositstillandbecontented。\"
Popetaughtthesamelessonbetterandmorebrieflyinhiswell-knownlines:——
Hopespringseternalinthehumanbreast;
Manneveris,butalwaystobe,blest。
AndHoraceaskedMecaenasthesamequestionlongago:——
Quifit,Mecaenas,utnemoquamsibisortemSeuratiodederit,senforsobjeceritillaContentusvivat?
\"Whatcanbeadded,\"asksAdamSmith,\"tothehappinessofthemanwhoisinhealth,whoisoutofdebt,andhasaclearconscience?\"Andthiscondition,hemaintains,istheordinaryconditionofthegreaterpartofmankind。Wouldyoulivefreely,fearlessly,andindependently,thereisonesureway:\"Neverentertheplacefromwhencesofewhavebeenabletoreturn,nevercomewithinthecircleofambition。\"Theloveofpublicadmirationadmitsofnorivalnorsuccessorinthebreast,andallotherpleasuressickenbycomparisonwithit。Itisverytrue,aswassaidbyRochefoucault,\"Loveiscommonlysucceededbyambition,butambitionishardlyeversucceededbylove。\"
Thefollowingpassageisperhapsthebestillustrationofourphilosopher\'sviewoftheobjectsofambition。\"Powerandriches,\"hesays,\"areenormousandoperosemachinescontrivedtoproduceafewtriflingconveniencestothebody,consistingofspringsthemostniceanddelicate,whichmustbekeptinorderwiththemostanxiousattention,andwhich,inspiteofallourcare,arereadyeverymomenttoburstintopieces,andtocrushintheirruinstheirunfortunatepossessor。`Theyareimmensefabricswhichitrequiresthelabourofalifetoraise,whichthreateneverymomenttooverwhelmthepersonthatdwellsinthem,andwhich,whiletheystand,thoughtheymaysavehimfromsomesmallerinconveniencies,canprotecthimfromnoneofthesevererinclemenciesoftheseason。Theykeepoffthesummershowerbutnotthewinterstorm,butleavehimasmuch,andsometimesmore,exposedthanbeforetoanxiety,tofear,andtosorrow;
todiseases,todanger,andtodeath。\"
Thequestionthenarises,Whydoweallsogenerallyfleefrompovertyandpursueriches?Theanswerisanditisoneofthehappiestapplicationsoftheauthor\'sfavouritetheory,thoughitequallysolvestheproblemofthegreatabsenceofcontentment,fromregardtothecommonsentimentsofmankind;fromthegreatersympathyoradmirationnaturallyfeltfortherichthanforthepoor。Forbeingaswearemoredisposedtosympathizewithjoythanwithsorrow,wemorenaturallyenterintotheagreeableemotionswhichaccompanythepossessorofriches,whilstwefailofmuchrealfellow-feelingforthedistressandmiseryofpoverty。Sympathywithpovertyisasympathyofpity;sympathywithwealthasympathyofadmiration,asympathyaltogethermorepleasurablethantheother。Thesituationofwealthmostsetsamanintheviewofgeneralsympathyandattention;anditistheconsciousnessofthissympatheticadmirationwhichrichesbringwiththem,nottheeaseorpleasuretheyafford,thatmakestheirpossessionsoardentlydesired。
Itistheoppositeconsciousnesswhichmakesallthemiseryofpoverty;
thefeelingofbeingplacedawayfromthesightornoticeofmankind,thefeelingthataman\'smiseryisalsodisagreeabletoothers。Henceitisthatforeverycalamityorinjurywhichaffectstherich,thespectatorfeelstentimesmorecompassionthanwhenthesamethingshappentootherpeople;thusalltheinnocentbloodthatwasshedinthecivilwarsprovokedlessindignationthanthedeathofCharlesI。;andhencethemisfortunesofkings,likethoseoflovers,aretheonlyrealpropersubjectsoftragedy,forinspiteofreasonandexperienceourimaginationattachestothesetwoconditionsoflifeahappinesssuperiortothatofanyother。
Butthisdispositionofmankindtosympathizewithallthepassionsoftherichandpowerfulhasalsoitsutilityasthesourceofthedistinctionofranksandofthepeaceandorderofsociety。Itisnotthecase,aswastaughtbyEpicurus,thatthetendencyofrichesandpowertoprocurepleasuremakesthemdesirable,andthatthetendencytoproducepainisthegreatevilofpoverty。Richesaredesirableforthegeneralsympathywhichgoesalongwiththem,andtheabsenceofsuchsympathyistheeviloftheirwant。Stilllessisthereverenceofmenfortheirsuperiorsfoundedonanyselfishexpectationsofbenefitfromtheirgood-will。Itarisesratherfromasimpleadmirationoftheadvantagesoftheirposition,andisprimarilyadisinterestedsentiment。Fromanaturalsympatheticadmirationoftheirhappiness,wedesiretoservethemfortheirownsakes,andrequirenootherrecompensethanthevanityandhonourofobligingthem。
Itwouldequallybeamistaketosupposethatthecommondeferencepaidtotherichisfoundedonanyregardforthegeneralutilityofsuchsubmission,orforthesupportitgivestothemaintenanceofsocialorder,forevenwhenitmaybemostbeneficialtoopposethem,suchoppositionismostreluctantlymade。Thetendencytoreverencethemissonatural,thatevenwhenapeoplearebroughttodesirethepunishmentoftheirkings,thesorrowfeltforthemortificationofamonarchiseverreadytoreviveformersentiments,ofloyalty。ThedeathofCharlesI。broughtabouttheRestoration,andsympathyforJamesIIwhenhewascaughtbythepopulacemakinghisescapeonboardship,wentverynightopreventingtheRevolution。
Butalthoughthisdispositiontosympathizewiththerichisconducivetothegoodorderofsociety,AdamSmithadmitsthatittoacertainextenttendstocorruptmoralsentiments。Forinequaldegreesofmerit,therichandgreatreceivemorehonourthanthepoorandhumble;andifitbe\"scarceagreeabletogoodmoralsoreventogoodlanguage,tosaythatmerewealthandgreatness,abstractedfrommeritandvirtue,deserveourrespect,\"
itiscertainthattheyalmostalwaysobtainit,andthattheyarethereforepursuedasitsnaturalobjects。
Henceitcomesabout,that\"theexternalgraces,thefrivolousaccomplishments,ofthatimpertinentandfoolishthing,calledamanoffashion,arecommonlymoreadmiredthanthesolidandmasculinevirtuesofawarrior,astatesman,aphilosopheroralegislator。\"Notonlythedress,andlanguage,andbehaviouroftherichandgreatbecomefavourable,buttheirvicesandfolliestoo,vainmengivingthemselvesairsofafashionableprofligacyofwhichintheirheartstheydonotapproveandofwhichperhapstheyarenotguilty。
For\"therearehypocritesofwealthandgreatnessaswellasofreligionandvirtue;andavainmanisapttopretendtobewhatheisnotinoneway,asacunningmanisintheother。\"
CHAPTERXIADAMSMITH\'STHEORYOFFINALCAUSESINETHICS。
Inoursympathyforrankandwealth,asexplainedinthelastchapter,AdamSmithseesplainlythe\"benevolentwisdomofnature。\"\"Nature,\"hesays,\"haswiselyjudgedthatthedistinctionofranks,thepeaceandorderofsociety,wouldrestmoresecurelyupontheplainandpalpabledifferenceofbirthandfortunethanupontheinvisibleandoftenuncertaindifferenceofwisdomandvirtue。\"Andindiscussingthepervertinginfluenceofchanceuponourmoralsentiments,hefindsthesamejustificationforouradmirationofSuccess。Forequallywithouradmirationformerewealthitisnecessaryforthestabilityofsociety。Wearetherebytaughttosubmitmoreeasilytooursuperiors,andtoregardwithreverence,orakindofrespectfulaffection,thatfortunateviolencewecannolongerresist。Bythisadmirationforsuccess,weacquiescewithlessreluctanceinthegovernmentwhichanirresistibleforceoftenimposesonus,andsubmitnolesseasilytoanAttilaoraTamerlanethantoaCaesaroranAlexander。
ToacertainextentthisconceptionofNature,andrecognitionofdesign,enteredintothegeneralthoughtofthetime。EvenHumesaid,\"Itiswiselyordainedbynaturethatprivateconnexionsshouldcommonlyprevailoveruniversalviewsandconsiderations;otherwiseouraffectionsandactionswouldbedissipatedandlostforwantofaproperlimitedobject。\"ButAdamSmithmoreparticularlyadoptedthisviewofthings,andtheassumptionofFinalCausesasexplanatoryofmoralphenomenaisoneofthemoststrikingfeaturesinhisphilosophy;nordoesheeverwearyofidentifyingtheactualfactsorresultsofmoralitywiththeactualintentionofnature。ItseemsasiftheshadowofMandevillehadrestedoverhispen,andthatheoftenwroteratherastheadvocateofasystemofnaturewhichhebelievedtohavebeenfalselyimpugnedthanasmerelytheanalystofourmoralsentiments。
Writingtooashedescribeshimselftohavedone,withanimmenselandscapeoflawnsandwoodsandmountainsbeforehiswindow,itisperhapsnotsurprising,thathisobservationofthephysicalworldshouldhavepleasantlyaffectedhiscontemplationofthemoralone,andblessedhimwiththatoptimisticandgenialviewofthings,whichformssoagreeableafeatureinhisTheory。
TheextenttowhichAdamSmithapplieshisdoctrineoffinalcausesinethicsissoremarkable,thatitisworthwhiletonoticethemoststrikingexamplesofit。
Ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoybeing,ashasbeensaid,muchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow,wemorefullysympathizewithourfriendsintheirjoysthanintheirsorrows。Itisafact,thathoweverconsciouswemaybeofthejusticeofanother\'slamentation,andhowevermuchwemayreproachourselvesforourwantofsensibility,oursympathywiththeafflictionsofourfriendsgenerallyvanisheswhenweleavetheirpresence。Suchisthefact,thefinalcauseofwhichisthusstated:\"Nature,itseems,whensheloadeduswithourownsorrows,thoughtthattheywereenough,andthereforedidnotcommandustotakeanyfurthershareinthoseofothersthanwasnecessarytopromptustorelievethem。\"
Anotherpurposeofnaturemaybetracedinthefact,thatasexpressionsofkindnessandgratitudeattractoursympathy,thoseofhatredandresentmentrepelit。Thehoarsediscord-antvoiceofangerinspiresusnaturallywithfearandaversion,andthesymptomsofthedisagreeableaffectionsneverexcite,butoftendisturb,oursympathy。For,manhavingbeenformedforsociety,\"itwas,itseems,theintentionofnaturethatthoserougherandmoreunamiableemotionswhichdrivemenfromoneanothershouldbelesseasilyandmorerarelycommunicated。\"
Ournaturaltendencytosympathizewiththeresentmentofanotherhasalsoitspurpose。Forinstance,inthecaseofamurder,wefeelforthemurderedmanthesameresentmentwhichhewouldfeel,wereheconscioushimself,andintowhichwesofarenterastocarryitoutashisavengers;
andthus,withregardtothemostdreadfulofallcrimes,hasnature,antecedenttoallreflectionsontheutilityofpunishment,stampedindeliblyonthehumanheartanimmediateandinstinctiveapprobationofthesacredandnecessarylawofretaliation。
Resentmentwithinmoderationisdefensibleasoneoftheoriginalpassionsofournature,andisthecounterpartofgratitude。Nature\"doesnotseemtohavedealtsounkindlywithusastohaveendoweduswithanyprinciplewhichiswhollyandineveryrespectevil。\"Theveryexistenceofsocietydependingasitdoesonthepunishmentofunprovokedmalice,manhasnotbeenlefttohisownreason,todiscoverthatthepunishmentofbadactionsisthepropermeanstopre-servesociety,buthehasbeenendowedwithanimmediateandinstinctiveapprobationofthatveryapplicationofpunishmentwhichissonecessary。Inthiscase,asinsomanyothers,theeconomyofnatureisthesame,inendowingmankindwithaninstinctivedesireforthemeansnecessaryfortheattainmentofoneofherfavouriteends。Astheself-preservationoftheindividualisanend,forwhichmanhasnotbeenlefttotheexerciseofhisownreasontofindoutthemeans,buthasbeenimpelledtothemeansthemselves,namely,foodanddrink,bytheimmediateinstinctsofhungerandthirst,sothepreservationofsocietyisanend,tothemeanstowhichmanisdirectlyimpelledbyaninstinctivedesireforthepunishmentofbadactions。
Thesameexplanationisthenappliedtothefact,thatbeneficence,orthedoinggoodtoothers,aslessnecessarytosocietythanjustice,orthenotdoingeviltoothers,isnotenforcedbyequallystrongnaturalsanctions。Societyisconceivablewithoutthepracticeofbeneficence,butnotwithoutthatofjustice。withoutjustice,society,\"thepeculiaranddarlingcareofnature,\"mustinamomentcrumbletoatoms。Itisthemainpillarwhichupholdsthewholeedifice,whilstbeneficenceisonlytheornamentwhichembellishesit。Forthisreasonstrongermotiveswerenecessarytoenforcejusticethantoenforcebeneficence。Thereforenature\"implantedinthehumanbreastthatconsciousnessofill-desert,thoseterrorsofmeritedpunishmentwhichattenditsviolation,asthegreatsafeguardoftheassociationofmankind,toprotecttheweak,tocurbtheviolent,andtochastisetheguilty。\"
Intheinfluenceoffortuneoverourmoralsentiments,inourdispositiontoattachlesspraisewherebyaccidentagoodintentionhasstoppedshortofrealaction,tofeellessresent-mentwhereacriminaldesignhasstoppedshortoffulfilment,andtofeelastrongersenseofthemeritordemeritofactionswhentheychancetooccasionextraordinarybutunintendedpleasureorpain,AdamSmithagaintracestheworkingofafinalcause,andseesinthisirregularityofoursentimentsanintentiononthepartofNaturetopromotethehappinessofourspecies。Forwereresentmentasvividlykindledbyameredesigntoinjureasbyanactualinjury,werebadwishesheldequivalenttobadconduct,merethoughtsandfeelingswouldbecometheobjectsofpunishment,andastateofuniversalsuspicionwouldallowofnosecurityevenforthemostinnocent。If,ontheotherhand,themerewishtoserveanotherwereregardedasequivalenttotheactualservice,anindolentbenevolencemighttaketheplaceofactivewell-doing,tothedetrimentofthoseendswhicharethepurposeofman\'sexistence。Inthesameway,manistaught,bythatmereanimalresentmentwhicharisesnaturallyagainsteveryinjury,howsoeveraccidental,torespectthewell-beingofhisfellows,and,byafallacioussenseofguilt,todreadinjuringthembyaccidentonlylessthanhedreadstodosobydesign。
Letustakenextthemanifestationoffortitudeundermisfortune。A
man\'sself-approbationundersuchcircumstancesisexactlyproportionedtothedegreeofself-commandnecessarytoobtainit;or,inotherwords,tothedegreeinwhichhecanassumewithregardtohimselfthefeelingsoftheimpartialandindifferentspectator。Thusamanwhospeaksandactsthemomentafterhisleghasbeenshotoffbyacannon-ballwithhisusualcoolness,feels,asareflexoftheapplauseoftheindifferentspectator,anamountofself-approbationexactlyproportionedtotheself-commandheexhibits。AndthusNatureexactlyapportionsherrewardtothevirtueofaman\'sbehaviour。ButitisneverthelessnotfittingthattherewardwhichNaturethusbestowsonfirmnessofconductshouldentirelycompensatehimforthesufferingswhichherlawsinflictonhim。For,ifitdidso,amancouldhavenomotivefromself-interestforavoidingaccidentswhichcannotbutdiminishhisutilitybothtohimselfandsociety。Naturetherefore,\"fromherparentalcareofboth,meantthatheshouldanxiouslyavoidallsuchaccidents。\"
Thisisagoodillustrationofthedifficultiesofthiskindofreasoningingeneral。Itwillbeeasilyseenthatitraisesmoredoubtsthanitsolves。
IftherereallyisthisparentalcareonthepartofNatureformankind,whyarehermeasuresincomplete?Iftherewardshebestowsonfortitudedidentirelycompensateforthemisfortunesitcontendswith,wouldnotalltheevilofthembedestroyed?AndmightnotNature,withherparentalcare,havemadelawswhichcouldnotbeviolated,ratherthanmakelawswhoseobservanceneedstheprotectionofmisfortune?Itdoesnotsolvetheproblemofmoralevil,toshowhereandtherebeneficialresults;itonlymakesthedifficultythegreater。Wherethereissomuchgood,whyshouldtherebeanyevil?
TothisquestionAdamSmithattemptsnoanswer,orthinkstheproblemsolvedbythediscoveryofsomegoodsidetoeverythingevil。HiswholesystemisbasedonthetheorythattheworksofNature\"seemallintendedtopromotehappinessandguardagainstmisery。\"Againstthose\"whiningandmelancholyMoralists,\"whoreproachusforbeinghappyinthemidstofallthemiseryoftheworld,hereplies,notonlythatifwetakethewholeworldonanaverage,therewillbeforeverymaninpainormiserytwentyinprosperityandjoy,andthatwehavenomorereasontoweepwiththeonethantorejoicewiththetwenty,butalsothat,ifweweresoconstitutedastofeeldistressfortheevilwedonotsee,itcouldservenootherpurposethantoincreasemiserytwofold。Thisistrueenough;butitisanotherthingtoarguefromthefacttothepurpose,andtosaythatithasbeenwiselyordainedbyNaturethatweshouldnotfeelinterestedinthefortuneofthosewhomwecanneitherservenorhurt。Foritistomenwhosesympathieshavebeenwiderthantheaveragethatallthediminutionoftheworld\'smiseryhasbeendue;anditisfair,ifwemustargueaboutNatureatall,tosaythathadsheendowedmengenerallywithwidersympathiesthanshehasdone,themiseryintheworldmighthavebeenstillmorereducedthanithasbeen,andthesum-totalofhappinessproportionatelygreater。
Similarthoughtsarisewithrespecttothefollowingpassage,whereinAdamSmithcontends,inwordsthatseemaforetasteoftheWealthofNations,thatNatureleadsusintentionally,byanillusionoftheimagination,tothepursuitofriches。\"ItiswellthatNatureimposesuponusinthismanner。Itisthisdeceptionwhichrousesandkeepsincontinualmotiontheindustryofmankind。Itisthiswhichfirstpromptedthemtocultivatetheground,tobuildhouses,tofoundcitiesandcommonwealths,andtoinventandimproveallthesciencesandarts,whichennobleandembellishhumanlife;whichhaveentirelychangedthewholefaceoftheglobe,haveturnedtherudeforestsofnatureintoagreeableandfertileplains,andmadethetracklessandbarrenoceananewfundofsubsistence,andthegreathighroadofcommunicationtothedifferentnationsoftheearth……Itistonopurposethattheproudandunfeelinglandlordviewshisextensivefields,and,withoutathoughtforthewantsofhisbrethren,inimaginationconsumeshimselfthewholeharvestthatgrowsuponthem……
Thecapacityofhisstomachbearsnoproportiontotheimmensityofhisdesires,andwillreceivenomorethanthatofthemeanestpeasant。7Therestheisobligedtodistributeamongthosewhoprepare,inthenicestmanner,thatlittlewhichhehimselfmakesuseof,amongthosewhofitupthepalaceinwhichthislittleistobeconsumed,amongthosewhoprovideandkeepinorderallthedifferentbaublesandtrinketswhichareemployedintheeconomyofgreatness;allofwhomthusderivefromhisluxuryandcapricethatshareofthenecessariesoflifewhichtheywouldinvainhaveexpectedfromhishumanityorhisjustice。Theproduceofthesoilmaintainsatalltimesnearlythatnumberofinhabitantswhichitiscapableofmaintaining。Therichonlyselectfromtheheapwhatismostpreciousandagreeable。Theyconsumelittlemorethanthepoor;andinspiteoftheirnaturalselfishnessandrapacity,thoughtheymeanonlytheirownconveniency,thoughthesoleendwhichtheyproposefromthelaboursofallthethousandswhomtheyemploybethegratificationoftheirownvainandinsatiabledesires,theydividewiththepoortheproduceofalltheirimprovements。Theyareledbyaninvisiblehandtomakenearlythesamedistributionofthenecessariesoflifewhichwouldhavebeenmadehadtheearthbeendividedintoequalportionsamongallitsinhabitants……
WhenProvidencedividedtheearthamongafewlordlymasters,itneitherforgotnorabandonedthosewhoseemedtohavebeenleftoutinthepartition。
Theselast,too,enjoytheirshareofallthatitproduces。Inwhatconstitutestherealhappinessofhumanlife,theyareinnorespectinferiortothosewhowouldseemsomuchabovethem。\"
AdamSmithappliesthesameargumenttotheconditionofchildren。Nature,hemaintains,hasforthewisestpurposesrenderedparentaltendernessinallormostmenmuchstrongerthanfilialaffection。Forthecontinuanceofthespeciesdependsupontheformer,notuponthelatter;andwhilsttheexistenceandpreservationofachilddependsaltogetheronthecareofitsparents,theexistenceoftheparentsisquiteindependentofthechild。IntheDecalogue,thoughwearecommandedtohonourourfathersandmothers,thereisnomentionofloveforourchildren,Naturehavingsufficientlyprovidedforthat。\"IntheeyeofNature,itwouldseem,achildisamoreimportantobjectthananoldman,andexcitesamuchmorelivelyaswellasamoreuniversalsympathy。\"Thus,again,withregardtotheexcessivecredulityofchildren,andtheirdispositiontobelievewhatevertheyaretold,\"natureseemstohavejudgeditnecessaryfortheirpreservationthattheyshould,forsometimeatleast,putimplicitconfidenceinthosetowhomthecareoftheirchildhood,andoftheearliestandmostnecessarypartsoftheireducation,isentrusted。\"
Theloveofourcountry,again,isbynatureendearedtous,notonlybyallourselfish,butbyallourprivatebenevolentaffections;forinitswelfareiscomprehendedourown,andthatofallourfriendsandrelations。
Wedonotthereforeloveourcountrymerelyasapartofthegreatsocietyofmankind,butforitsownsake,andindependentlyofotherconsiderations。
\"Thatwisdomwhichcontrivedthesystemofhumanaffections,aswellasthatofeveryotherpartofnature,seemstohavejudgedthattheinterestofthegreatsocietyofmankindwouldbebestpromotedbydirectingtheprincipalattentionofeachindividualtothatparticularportionofitwhichwasmostwithinthespherebothofhisabilitiesandofhisunderstanding。\"
Tosumupourauthor\'sapplicationofhistheorytohisgeneralschemeofethics。Man,havingbeenintendedbynatureforsociety,wasfittedbyherforthatsituation。Hencesheendowedhimwithanoriginaldesiretoplease,andanoriginalaversiontooffend,hisbrethren。Byteachinghimtofeelpleasureintheirfavourable,andpainintheirunfavourableregards,shelaid,intherewardoftheirapprobation,orthepunishmentoftheirdisapproval,thefoundationofhumanethics。Intherespectwhichshehastaughthimtofeelfortheirjudgmentandsentiments,shehasraisedinhismindasenseofDuty,andgirtherlawsforhisconductwiththesanctionofobligatorymorality。Andsohappilyhassheadjustedthesentimentsofapprobationanddisapprobationtotheadvantagebothoftheindividualandofsociety,thatitispreciselythosequalitieswhichareusefuloradvantageoustotheindividualhimself,ortoothers,whicharealwaysaccountedvirtuousorthecontrary。
CHAPTERXII。ADAMSMITH\'STHEORYOFUTILITY。
TheinfluencewhichHume\'sphilosophyexercisedoverthatofAdamSmithhasalreadybeennoticedwithrespecttothefundamentalfactsofsympathy,andthepartplayedbythemintheformationofourmoralsentiments。ButitischieflywithrespecttothepositionofUtilityinmoralphilosophythatAdamSmith\'stheoryisaffectedbyHume\'scelebratedInquiryconcerning,thePrinciplesofMorals。Notonlyareallhisspeculationscolouredbyconsiderationsofutility,butbedevotesaspecialdivisionofhisbooktothe\"EffectofUtilityupontheSentimentofApprobation。\"
InAdamSmith\'stheory,thetendencyofanyaffectiontoproducebeneficialorhurtfulresultsisonlyonepartofthephenomenonofmoralapprobation,constitutingoursenseofmeritordemerit,whiletheotherpartconsistsinourperceptionoftheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectiontotheobjectwhichexcitesit。Andasthesenseofthemeritordemeritofanyactionorconductismuchstrongerthanoursenseoftheproprietyorimproprietyofaffections;stimulatingus,notmerelytoapassivefeelingofapprobationorthecontrary,buttoadesiretoconferactualrewardorpunishmentontheagent,itisevidentthatthegreaterpartofmoralapprobationconsistsintheperceptionofutilityoftendency。
Sofar,AdamSmithagreeswiththeutilitariantheorybutherefusesaltogethertoassenttothedoctrine,thattheperceptionoftheutilityofvirtueisitsprimaryrecommendation,orthatasenseoftheevilresultsofviceistheoriginofourhatredagainstit。Itistruethatthetendencyofvirtuetopromote,andofvicetodisturbtheorderofsociety,istoreflectaverygreatbeautyontheone,andaverygreatdeformityontheother。Butboththebeautyandthedeformityareadditionaltoanalreadyexistentbeautyanddeformity,andabeautyanddeformityinherentintheobjectsthemselves。Humansocietymaybecomparedto\"animmensemachine,whoseregularandharmoniousmovementsproduceathousandagreeableeffects。
Asinanyotherbeautifulandnoblemachinethatwastheproductionofhumanart,whatevertendedtorenderitsmovementsmoresmoothandeasy,wouldderiveabeautyfromthiseffect;andonthecontrary,whatevertendedtoobstructthem,woulddispleaseuponthataccount;sovirtue,whichis,asitwere,thefinepolishtothewheelsofsociety,necessarilypleases;
whilevice,likethevilerust,whichmakesthemjarandgrateupononeanother,isasnecessarilyoffensive。\"
AccordingtoHume,thewholeapprobationofvirtuemayberesolvedintotheperceptionofbeautywhichresultsfromtheappearanceofitsutility,noqualitiesofthemindbeingeverapprovedofasvirtuous,ordisapprovedofasvicious,butsuchasareeitherusefuloragreeabletothepersonhimself,ortoothers,orelsehaveacontrarytendency。AdamSmithfullyadmitsthefact,thatthecharactersofmenmaybefittedeithertopromoteortodisturbthehappinessbothoftheindividualhimselfandofthesocietytowhichhebelongs,andthatthereisacertainanalogybetweenourapprobationofausefulmachineandausefulcourseofconduct。Thecharacterofprudence,equity,activity,andresolution,holdsouttheprospectofprosperityandsatisfactionbothtothepersonhimselfandtoeveryoneconnectedwithhim;whilsttherash,insolent,slothful,oreffeminatecharacter,portendsruintotheindividual,andmisfortunetoallwhohaveanythingtodowithhim。Intheformercharacterthereisallthebeautywhichcanbelongtothemostperfectmachineeverinventedforpromotingthemostagreeablepurpose;intheotherthereisallthedeformityofanawkwardandclumsycontrivance。
Butthisperceptionofbeautyinvirtue,orofdeformityinvice,thoughitenhancesandenlivensourfeelingswithregardtoboth,isnotthefirstorprincipalsourceofourapprobationoftheone,orofourdislikefortheother。
\"For,inthefirstplace,itseemsimpossiblethattheapprobationofvirtueshouldbeasentimentofthesamekindwiththatbywhichweapproveofaconvenientandwell-contrivedbuilding;or,thatweshouldhavenootherreasonforpraisingamanthanthatforwhichwecommendachestofdrawers。\"
\"And,secondly,itwillbefound,uponexamination,thattheusefulnessofanydispositionofmindisseldomthefirstgroundofourapprobation;
andthatthesentimentofapprobationalwaysinvolvesinitasenseofproprietyquitedistinctfromtheperceptionofutility。\"
Forinstance,superiorreasonandunderstandingisaqualitymostusefultoourselves,asenablingustodiscerntheremoteconsequencesofouractions,andtoforeseetheadvantageordisadvantagelikelytoresultfromthem;butitisaqualityoriginallyapprovedofasjustandright,andaccurate,andnotmerelyasusefuloradvantageous。Self-command,also,isavirtuewequiteasmuchapproveofundertheaspectofpropriety,asunderthatofutility。Itisthecorrespondenceoftheagent\'ssentimentswithourown,thatisthesourceofourapprobationofthem;anditisonlybecausehispleasureaweekorayearhenceisjustasinterestingorindifferenttous,asspectators,asthepleasurethattemptshimatthismoment,thatweapproveofhissacrificeofpresenttofutureenjoyment。
Weapproveofhisactingasiftheremoteobjectinterestedhimasmuchasthefutureone,becausethenhisaffectionscorrespondexactlywithourown,andwerecognizetheperfectproprietyofhisconduct……
Withrespectagaintosuchqualitieswhicharemostusefultoothersashumanity,justice,generosity,andpublicspirittheesteemandapprobationpaidtothemdependsinthe,samewayontheconcordbetweentheaffectionsoftheagentandthoseofthespectator。Theproprietyofanactofgenerosity,aswhenamansacrificessomegreatinterestofhisowntothatofafriendorasuperior,orpreferssomeotherpersontohimself,liesnotintheconsiderationofthegoodeffectofsuchanactiononsocietyatlarge,butintheagreementoftheindividual\'spointofviewwiththatoftheimpartialspectator。Thus,ifamangivesuphisownclaimstoanofficewhichhadbeenagreatobjectofhisambition,becauseheimaginesthatanotherman\'sservicesarebetterentitledtoit,orifheexposeshislifetodefendthatofafriendwhichheconsidersofmoreimportance,itisbecauseheconsidersthepointofviewofdisinterestedpersons,whowouldpreferthatothermanorfriendtohimself,thathisconductseemsclothedwiththatappearanceofproprietywhichconstitutestheapprobationbestowedonit。Itistheaccommodationofthefeelingsoftheindividualtothoseoftheimpartialbystander,whichisthesourceoftheadmirationbestowedonasoldier,whothrowsawayhislifetodefendthatofhisofficer,andwhodeservesandwinsapplause,notfromanyfeelingofconcernforhisofficer,butfromtheadjustmentofhisownfeelingstothoseofeveryoneelsewhoconsiderhislifeasnothingwhencomparedwiththatofhissuperior。
Sowithregardtopublicspirit,thefirstsourceofouradmirationofitisnotfoundedsomuchonasenseofitsutilityasuponthegreatandexaltedproprietyoftheactionstowhichitprompts。Take,forinstance,thecaseofBrutus,leadinghisownsonstocapitalpunishmentfortheircon-spiracyagainsttherisinglibertyofRome。NaturallyheoughttohavefeltmuchmoreforthedeathofhisownsonsthanforallthatRomecouldhavesufferedfromthewantoftheexample。Butheviewedthem,notasafather,butasaRomancitizen;thatistosay,heenteredsothoroughlyintothesentimentsoftheimpartialspectator,oroftheordinaryRomancitizen,thatevenhisownsonsweighedasnothinginthebalancewiththesmallestinterestofRome。Theproprietyoftheaction,ortheperfectsympathyoffeelingbetweentheagentandthespectator,isthecauseofouradmirationofit。Itsutilitycertainlybestowsuponitanewbeauty,andsostillfurtherrecommendsittoourapprobation。Butsuchbeauty\"ischieflyperceivedbymenofreflectionandspeculation,andisbynomeansthequalitywhichfirstrecommendssuchactionstothenaturalsentimentsofthebulkofmankind。\"