Inthehighestsituationwecanfancy，thepleasuresfromwhichweproposetoderiveourrealhappinessaregenerallythesameasthosewhich，inahumblerstation，wehaveatalltimesathandandinourpower。Thepoorman\'sson，\"whomheaveninitsangerhasvisitedwithambition，\"willgothrough，inthefirstmonthofhispursuitofthepleasuresofwealth，morefatigueofbodyanduneasinessofmindthanhecouldhavesufferedthroughthewholeofhislifeforthewantofthem。\"Examinetherecordsofhistory，recollectwhathashappenedinthecircleofyourownexperience，considerwithattentionwhathasbeentheconductofalmostallthegreatlyunfortunate，eitherinprivateorpubliclife，whomyouhaveeitherreadoforheardoforremember，andyouwillfindthatthemisfortunesofbyfarthegreaterpartofthemhavearisenfromtheirnotknowingwhentheywerewell，whenitwasproperforthemtositstillandbecontented。\"
Popetaughtthesamelessonbetterandmorebrieflyinhiswell-knownlines:——
Hopespringseternalinthehumanbreast；
Manneveris，butalwaystobe，blest。
AndHoraceaskedMecaenasthesamequestionlongago:——
Quifit，Mecaenas，utnemoquamsibisortemSeuratiodederit，senforsobjeceritillaContentusvivat？
\"Whatcanbeadded，\"asksAdamSmith，\"tothehappinessofthemanwhoisinhealth，whoisoutofdebt，andhasaclearconscience？\"Andthiscondition，hemaintains，istheordinaryconditionofthegreaterpartofmankind。Wouldyoulivefreely，fearlessly，andindependently，thereisonesureway:\"Neverentertheplacefromwhencesofewhavebeenabletoreturn，nevercomewithinthecircleofambition。\"Theloveofpublicadmirationadmitsofnorivalnorsuccessorinthebreast，andallotherpleasuressickenbycomparisonwithit。Itisverytrue，aswassaidbyRochefoucault，\"Loveiscommonlysucceededbyambition，butambitionishardlyeversucceededbylove。\"
Thefollowingpassageisperhapsthebestillustrationofourphilosopher\'sviewoftheobjectsofambition。\"Powerandriches，\"hesays，\"areenormousandoperosemachinescontrivedtoproduceafewtriflingconveniencestothebody，consistingofspringsthemostniceanddelicate，whichmustbekeptinorderwiththemostanxiousattention，andwhich，inspiteofallourcare，arereadyeverymomenttoburstintopieces，andtocrushintheirruinstheirunfortunatepossessor。`Theyareimmensefabricswhichitrequiresthelabourofalifetoraise，whichthreateneverymomenttooverwhelmthepersonthatdwellsinthem，andwhich，whiletheystand，thoughtheymaysavehimfromsomesmallerinconveniencies，canprotecthimfromnoneofthesevererinclemenciesoftheseason。Theykeepoffthesummershowerbutnotthewinterstorm，butleavehimasmuch，andsometimesmore，exposedthanbeforetoanxiety，tofear，andtosorrow；
todiseases，todanger，andtodeath。\"
Thequestionthenarises，Whydoweallsogenerallyfleefrompovertyandpursueriches？Theanswerisanditisoneofthehappiestapplicationsoftheauthor\'sfavouritetheory，thoughitequallysolvestheproblemofthegreatabsenceofcontentment，fromregardtothecommonsentimentsofmankind；fromthegreatersympathyoradmirationnaturallyfeltfortherichthanforthepoor。Forbeingaswearemoredisposedtosympathizewithjoythanwithsorrow，wemorenaturallyenterintotheagreeableemotionswhichaccompanythepossessorofriches，whilstwefailofmuchrealfellow-feelingforthedistressandmiseryofpoverty。Sympathywithpovertyisasympathyofpity；sympathywithwealthasympathyofadmiration，asympathyaltogethermorepleasurablethantheother。Thesituationofwealthmostsetsamanintheviewofgeneralsympathyandattention；anditistheconsciousnessofthissympatheticadmirationwhichrichesbringwiththem，nottheeaseorpleasuretheyafford，thatmakestheirpossessionsoardentlydesired。
Itistheoppositeconsciousnesswhichmakesallthemiseryofpoverty；
thefeelingofbeingplacedawayfromthesightornoticeofmankind，thefeelingthataman\'smiseryisalsodisagreeabletoothers。Henceitisthatforeverycalamityorinjurywhichaffectstherich，thespectatorfeelstentimesmorecompassionthanwhenthesamethingshappentootherpeople；thusalltheinnocentbloodthatwasshedinthecivilwarsprovokedlessindignationthanthedeathofCharlesI。；andhencethemisfortunesofkings，likethoseoflovers，aretheonlyrealpropersubjectsoftragedy，forinspiteofreasonandexperienceourimaginationattachestothesetwoconditionsoflifeahappinesssuperiortothatofanyother。
Butthisdispositionofmankindtosympathizewithallthepassionsoftherichandpowerfulhasalsoitsutilityasthesourceofthedistinctionofranksandofthepeaceandorderofsociety。Itisnotthecase，aswastaughtbyEpicurus，thatthetendencyofrichesandpowertoprocurepleasuremakesthemdesirable，andthatthetendencytoproducepainisthegreatevilofpoverty。Richesaredesirableforthegeneralsympathywhichgoesalongwiththem，andtheabsenceofsuchsympathyistheeviloftheirwant。Stilllessisthereverenceofmenfortheirsuperiorsfoundedonanyselfishexpectationsofbenefitfromtheirgood-will。Itarisesratherfromasimpleadmirationoftheadvantagesoftheirposition，andisprimarilyadisinterestedsentiment。Fromanaturalsympatheticadmirationoftheirhappiness，wedesiretoservethemfortheirownsakes，andrequirenootherrecompensethanthevanityandhonourofobligingthem。
Itwouldequallybeamistaketosupposethatthecommondeferencepaidtotherichisfoundedonanyregardforthegeneralutilityofsuchsubmission，orforthesupportitgivestothemaintenanceofsocialorder，forevenwhenitmaybemostbeneficialtoopposethem，suchoppositionismostreluctantlymade。Thetendencytoreverencethemissonatural，thatevenwhenapeoplearebroughttodesirethepunishmentoftheirkings，thesorrowfeltforthemortificationofamonarchiseverreadytoreviveformersentiments，ofloyalty。ThedeathofCharlesI。broughtabouttheRestoration，andsympathyforJamesIIwhenhewascaughtbythepopulacemakinghisescapeonboardship，wentverynightopreventingtheRevolution。
Butalthoughthisdispositiontosympathizewiththerichisconducivetothegoodorderofsociety，AdamSmithadmitsthatittoacertainextenttendstocorruptmoralsentiments。Forinequaldegreesofmerit，therichandgreatreceivemorehonourthanthepoorandhumble；andifitbe\"scarceagreeabletogoodmoralsoreventogoodlanguage，tosaythatmerewealthandgreatness，abstractedfrommeritandvirtue，deserveourrespect，\"
itiscertainthattheyalmostalwaysobtainit，andthattheyarethereforepursuedasitsnaturalobjects。
Henceitcomesabout，that\"theexternalgraces，thefrivolousaccomplishments，ofthatimpertinentandfoolishthing，calledamanoffashion，arecommonlymoreadmiredthanthesolidandmasculinevirtuesofawarrior，astatesman，aphilosopheroralegislator。\"Notonlythedress，andlanguage，andbehaviouroftherichandgreatbecomefavourable，buttheirvicesandfolliestoo，vainmengivingthemselvesairsofafashionableprofligacyofwhichintheirheartstheydonotapproveandofwhichperhapstheyarenotguilty。
For\"therearehypocritesofwealthandgreatnessaswellasofreligionandvirtue；andavainmanisapttopretendtobewhatheisnotinoneway，asacunningmanisintheother。\"
CHAPTERXIADAMSMITH\'STHEORYOFFINALCAUSESINETHICS。
Inoursympathyforrankandwealth，asexplainedinthelastchapter，AdamSmithseesplainlythe\"benevolentwisdomofnature。\"\"Nature，\"hesays，\"haswiselyjudgedthatthedistinctionofranks，thepeaceandorderofsociety，wouldrestmoresecurelyupontheplainandpalpabledifferenceofbirthandfortunethanupontheinvisibleandoftenuncertaindifferenceofwisdomandvirtue。\"Andindiscussingthepervertinginfluenceofchanceuponourmoralsentiments，hefindsthesamejustificationforouradmirationofSuccess。Forequallywithouradmirationformerewealthitisnecessaryforthestabilityofsociety。Wearetherebytaughttosubmitmoreeasilytooursuperiors，andtoregardwithreverence，orakindofrespectfulaffection，thatfortunateviolencewecannolongerresist。Bythisadmirationforsuccess，weacquiescewithlessreluctanceinthegovernmentwhichanirresistibleforceoftenimposesonus，andsubmitnolesseasilytoanAttilaoraTamerlanethantoaCaesaroranAlexander。
ToacertainextentthisconceptionofNature，andrecognitionofdesign，enteredintothegeneralthoughtofthetime。EvenHumesaid，\"Itiswiselyordainedbynaturethatprivateconnexionsshouldcommonlyprevailoveruniversalviewsandconsiderations；otherwiseouraffectionsandactionswouldbedissipatedandlostforwantofaproperlimitedobject。\"ButAdamSmithmoreparticularlyadoptedthisviewofthings，andtheassumptionofFinalCausesasexplanatoryofmoralphenomenaisoneofthemoststrikingfeaturesinhisphilosophy；nordoesheeverwearyofidentifyingtheactualfactsorresultsofmoralitywiththeactualintentionofnature。ItseemsasiftheshadowofMandevillehadrestedoverhispen，andthatheoftenwroteratherastheadvocateofasystemofnaturewhichhebelievedtohavebeenfalselyimpugnedthanasmerelytheanalystofourmoralsentiments。
Writingtooashedescribeshimselftohavedone，withanimmenselandscapeoflawnsandwoodsandmountainsbeforehiswindow，itisperhapsnotsurprising，thathisobservationofthephysicalworldshouldhavepleasantlyaffectedhiscontemplationofthemoralone，andblessedhimwiththatoptimisticandgenialviewofthings，whichformssoagreeableafeatureinhisTheory。
TheextenttowhichAdamSmithapplieshisdoctrineoffinalcausesinethicsissoremarkable，thatitisworthwhiletonoticethemoststrikingexamplesofit。
Ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoybeing，ashasbeensaid，muchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow，wemorefullysympathizewithourfriendsintheirjoysthanintheirsorrows。Itisafact，thathoweverconsciouswemaybeofthejusticeofanother\'slamentation，andhowevermuchwemayreproachourselvesforourwantofsensibility，oursympathywiththeafflictionsofourfriendsgenerallyvanisheswhenweleavetheirpresence。Suchisthefact，thefinalcauseofwhichisthusstated:\"Nature，itseems，whensheloadeduswithourownsorrows，thoughtthattheywereenough，andthereforedidnotcommandustotakeanyfurthershareinthoseofothersthanwasnecessarytopromptustorelievethem。\"
Anotherpurposeofnaturemaybetracedinthefact，thatasexpressionsofkindnessandgratitudeattractoursympathy，thoseofhatredandresentmentrepelit。Thehoarsediscord-antvoiceofangerinspiresusnaturallywithfearandaversion，andthesymptomsofthedisagreeableaffectionsneverexcite，butoftendisturb，oursympathy。For，manhavingbeenformedforsociety，\"itwas，itseems，theintentionofnaturethatthoserougherandmoreunamiableemotionswhichdrivemenfromoneanothershouldbelesseasilyandmorerarelycommunicated。\"
Ournaturaltendencytosympathizewiththeresentmentofanotherhasalsoitspurpose。Forinstance，inthecaseofamurder，wefeelforthemurderedmanthesameresentmentwhichhewouldfeel，wereheconscioushimself，andintowhichwesofarenterastocarryitoutashisavengers；
andthus，withregardtothemostdreadfulofallcrimes，hasnature，antecedenttoallreflectionsontheutilityofpunishment，stampedindeliblyonthehumanheartanimmediateandinstinctiveapprobationofthesacredandnecessarylawofretaliation。
Resentmentwithinmoderationisdefensibleasoneoftheoriginalpassionsofournature，andisthecounterpartofgratitude。Nature\"doesnotseemtohavedealtsounkindlywithusastohaveendoweduswithanyprinciplewhichiswhollyandineveryrespectevil。\"Theveryexistenceofsocietydependingasitdoesonthepunishmentofunprovokedmalice，manhasnotbeenlefttohisownreason，todiscoverthatthepunishmentofbadactionsisthepropermeanstopre-servesociety，buthehasbeenendowedwithanimmediateandinstinctiveapprobationofthatveryapplicationofpunishmentwhichissonecessary。Inthiscase，asinsomanyothers，theeconomyofnatureisthesame，inendowingmankindwithaninstinctivedesireforthemeansnecessaryfortheattainmentofoneofherfavouriteends。Astheself-preservationoftheindividualisanend，forwhichmanhasnotbeenlefttotheexerciseofhisownreasontofindoutthemeans，buthasbeenimpelledtothemeansthemselves，namely，foodanddrink，bytheimmediateinstinctsofhungerandthirst，sothepreservationofsocietyisanend，tothemeanstowhichmanisdirectlyimpelledbyaninstinctivedesireforthepunishmentofbadactions。
Thesameexplanationisthenappliedtothefact，thatbeneficence，orthedoinggoodtoothers，aslessnecessarytosocietythanjustice，orthenotdoingeviltoothers，isnotenforcedbyequallystrongnaturalsanctions。Societyisconceivablewithoutthepracticeofbeneficence，butnotwithoutthatofjustice。withoutjustice，society，\"thepeculiaranddarlingcareofnature，\"mustinamomentcrumbletoatoms。Itisthemainpillarwhichupholdsthewholeedifice，whilstbeneficenceisonlytheornamentwhichembellishesit。Forthisreasonstrongermotiveswerenecessarytoenforcejusticethantoenforcebeneficence。Thereforenature\"implantedinthehumanbreastthatconsciousnessofill-desert，thoseterrorsofmeritedpunishmentwhichattenditsviolation，asthegreatsafeguardoftheassociationofmankind，toprotecttheweak，tocurbtheviolent，andtochastisetheguilty。\"
Intheinfluenceoffortuneoverourmoralsentiments，inourdispositiontoattachlesspraisewherebyaccidentagoodintentionhasstoppedshortofrealaction，tofeellessresent-mentwhereacriminaldesignhasstoppedshortoffulfilment，andtofeelastrongersenseofthemeritordemeritofactionswhentheychancetooccasionextraordinarybutunintendedpleasureorpain，AdamSmithagaintracestheworkingofafinalcause，andseesinthisirregularityofoursentimentsanintentiononthepartofNaturetopromotethehappinessofourspecies。Forwereresentmentasvividlykindledbyameredesigntoinjureasbyanactualinjury，werebadwishesheldequivalenttobadconduct，merethoughtsandfeelingswouldbecometheobjectsofpunishment，andastateofuniversalsuspicionwouldallowofnosecurityevenforthemostinnocent。If，ontheotherhand，themerewishtoserveanotherwereregardedasequivalenttotheactualservice，anindolentbenevolencemighttaketheplaceofactivewell-doing，tothedetrimentofthoseendswhicharethepurposeofman\'sexistence。Inthesameway，manistaught，bythatmereanimalresentmentwhicharisesnaturallyagainsteveryinjury，howsoeveraccidental，torespectthewell-beingofhisfellows，and，byafallacioussenseofguilt，todreadinjuringthembyaccidentonlylessthanhedreadstodosobydesign。
Letustakenextthemanifestationoffortitudeundermisfortune。A
man\'sself-approbationundersuchcircumstancesisexactlyproportionedtothedegreeofself-commandnecessarytoobtainit；or，inotherwords，tothedegreeinwhichhecanassumewithregardtohimselfthefeelingsoftheimpartialandindifferentspectator。Thusamanwhospeaksandactsthemomentafterhisleghasbeenshotoffbyacannon-ballwithhisusualcoolness，feels，asareflexoftheapplauseoftheindifferentspectator，anamountofself-approbationexactlyproportionedtotheself-commandheexhibits。AndthusNatureexactlyapportionsherrewardtothevirtueofaman\'sbehaviour。ButitisneverthelessnotfittingthattherewardwhichNaturethusbestowsonfirmnessofconductshouldentirelycompensatehimforthesufferingswhichherlawsinflictonhim。For，ifitdidso，amancouldhavenomotivefromself-interestforavoidingaccidentswhichcannotbutdiminishhisutilitybothtohimselfandsociety。Naturetherefore，\"fromherparentalcareofboth，meantthatheshouldanxiouslyavoidallsuchaccidents。\"
Thisisagoodillustrationofthedifficultiesofthiskindofreasoningingeneral。Itwillbeeasilyseenthatitraisesmoredoubtsthanitsolves。
IftherereallyisthisparentalcareonthepartofNatureformankind，whyarehermeasuresincomplete？Iftherewardshebestowsonfortitudedidentirelycompensateforthemisfortunesitcontendswith，wouldnotalltheevilofthembedestroyed？AndmightnotNature，withherparentalcare，havemadelawswhichcouldnotbeviolated，ratherthanmakelawswhoseobservanceneedstheprotectionofmisfortune？Itdoesnotsolvetheproblemofmoralevil，toshowhereandtherebeneficialresults；itonlymakesthedifficultythegreater。Wherethereissomuchgood，whyshouldtherebeanyevil？
TothisquestionAdamSmithattemptsnoanswer，orthinkstheproblemsolvedbythediscoveryofsomegoodsidetoeverythingevil。HiswholesystemisbasedonthetheorythattheworksofNature\"seemallintendedtopromotehappinessandguardagainstmisery。\"Againstthose\"whiningandmelancholyMoralists，\"whoreproachusforbeinghappyinthemidstofallthemiseryoftheworld，hereplies，notonlythatifwetakethewholeworldonanaverage，therewillbeforeverymaninpainormiserytwentyinprosperityandjoy，andthatwehavenomorereasontoweepwiththeonethantorejoicewiththetwenty，butalsothat，ifweweresoconstitutedastofeeldistressfortheevilwedonotsee，itcouldservenootherpurposethantoincreasemiserytwofold。Thisistrueenough；butitisanotherthingtoarguefromthefacttothepurpose，andtosaythatithasbeenwiselyordainedbyNaturethatweshouldnotfeelinterestedinthefortuneofthosewhomwecanneitherservenorhurt。Foritistomenwhosesympathieshavebeenwiderthantheaveragethatallthediminutionoftheworld\'smiseryhasbeendue；anditisfair，ifwemustargueaboutNatureatall，tosaythathadsheendowedmengenerallywithwidersympathiesthanshehasdone，themiseryintheworldmighthavebeenstillmorereducedthanithasbeen，andthesum-totalofhappinessproportionatelygreater。
Similarthoughtsarisewithrespecttothefollowingpassage，whereinAdamSmithcontends，inwordsthatseemaforetasteoftheWealthofNations，thatNatureleadsusintentionally，byanillusionoftheimagination，tothepursuitofriches。\"ItiswellthatNatureimposesuponusinthismanner。Itisthisdeceptionwhichrousesandkeepsincontinualmotiontheindustryofmankind。Itisthiswhichfirstpromptedthemtocultivatetheground，tobuildhouses，tofoundcitiesandcommonwealths，andtoinventandimproveallthesciencesandarts，whichennobleandembellishhumanlife；whichhaveentirelychangedthewholefaceoftheglobe，haveturnedtherudeforestsofnatureintoagreeableandfertileplains，andmadethetracklessandbarrenoceananewfundofsubsistence，andthegreathighroadofcommunicationtothedifferentnationsoftheearth……Itistonopurposethattheproudandunfeelinglandlordviewshisextensivefields，and，withoutathoughtforthewantsofhisbrethren，inimaginationconsumeshimselfthewholeharvestthatgrowsuponthem……
Thecapacityofhisstomachbearsnoproportiontotheimmensityofhisdesires，andwillreceivenomorethanthatofthemeanestpeasant。7Therestheisobligedtodistributeamongthosewhoprepare，inthenicestmanner，thatlittlewhichhehimselfmakesuseof，amongthosewhofitupthepalaceinwhichthislittleistobeconsumed，amongthosewhoprovideandkeepinorderallthedifferentbaublesandtrinketswhichareemployedintheeconomyofgreatness；allofwhomthusderivefromhisluxuryandcapricethatshareofthenecessariesoflifewhichtheywouldinvainhaveexpectedfromhishumanityorhisjustice。Theproduceofthesoilmaintainsatalltimesnearlythatnumberofinhabitantswhichitiscapableofmaintaining。Therichonlyselectfromtheheapwhatismostpreciousandagreeable。Theyconsumelittlemorethanthepoor；andinspiteoftheirnaturalselfishnessandrapacity，thoughtheymeanonlytheirownconveniency，thoughthesoleendwhichtheyproposefromthelaboursofallthethousandswhomtheyemploybethegratificationoftheirownvainandinsatiabledesires，theydividewiththepoortheproduceofalltheirimprovements。Theyareledbyaninvisiblehandtomakenearlythesamedistributionofthenecessariesoflifewhichwouldhavebeenmadehadtheearthbeendividedintoequalportionsamongallitsinhabitants……
WhenProvidencedividedtheearthamongafewlordlymasters，itneitherforgotnorabandonedthosewhoseemedtohavebeenleftoutinthepartition。
Theselast，too，enjoytheirshareofallthatitproduces。Inwhatconstitutestherealhappinessofhumanlife，theyareinnorespectinferiortothosewhowouldseemsomuchabovethem。\"
AdamSmithappliesthesameargumenttotheconditionofchildren。Nature，hemaintains，hasforthewisestpurposesrenderedparentaltendernessinallormostmenmuchstrongerthanfilialaffection。Forthecontinuanceofthespeciesdependsupontheformer，notuponthelatter；andwhilsttheexistenceandpreservationofachilddependsaltogetheronthecareofitsparents，theexistenceoftheparentsisquiteindependentofthechild。IntheDecalogue，thoughwearecommandedtohonourourfathersandmothers，thereisnomentionofloveforourchildren，Naturehavingsufficientlyprovidedforthat。\"IntheeyeofNature，itwouldseem，achildisamoreimportantobjectthananoldman，andexcitesamuchmorelivelyaswellasamoreuniversalsympathy。\"Thus，again，withregardtotheexcessivecredulityofchildren，andtheirdispositiontobelievewhatevertheyaretold，\"natureseemstohavejudgeditnecessaryfortheirpreservationthattheyshould，forsometimeatleast，putimplicitconfidenceinthosetowhomthecareoftheirchildhood，andoftheearliestandmostnecessarypartsoftheireducation，isentrusted。\"
Theloveofourcountry，again，isbynatureendearedtous，notonlybyallourselfish，butbyallourprivatebenevolentaffections；forinitswelfareiscomprehendedourown，andthatofallourfriendsandrelations。
Wedonotthereforeloveourcountrymerelyasapartofthegreatsocietyofmankind，butforitsownsake，andindependentlyofotherconsiderations。
\"Thatwisdomwhichcontrivedthesystemofhumanaffections，aswellasthatofeveryotherpartofnature，seemstohavejudgedthattheinterestofthegreatsocietyofmankindwouldbebestpromotedbydirectingtheprincipalattentionofeachindividualtothatparticularportionofitwhichwasmostwithinthespherebothofhisabilitiesandofhisunderstanding。\"
Tosumupourauthor\'sapplicationofhistheorytohisgeneralschemeofethics。Man，havingbeenintendedbynatureforsociety，wasfittedbyherforthatsituation。Hencesheendowedhimwithanoriginaldesiretoplease，andanoriginalaversiontooffend，hisbrethren。Byteachinghimtofeelpleasureintheirfavourable，andpainintheirunfavourableregards，shelaid，intherewardoftheirapprobation，orthepunishmentoftheirdisapproval，thefoundationofhumanethics。Intherespectwhichshehastaughthimtofeelfortheirjudgmentandsentiments，shehasraisedinhismindasenseofDuty，andgirtherlawsforhisconductwiththesanctionofobligatorymorality。Andsohappilyhassheadjustedthesentimentsofapprobationanddisapprobationtotheadvantagebothoftheindividualandofsociety，thatitispreciselythosequalitieswhichareusefuloradvantageoustotheindividualhimself，ortoothers，whicharealwaysaccountedvirtuousorthecontrary。
CHAPTERXII。ADAMSMITH\'STHEORYOFUTILITY。
TheinfluencewhichHume\'sphilosophyexercisedoverthatofAdamSmithhasalreadybeennoticedwithrespecttothefundamentalfactsofsympathy，andthepartplayedbythemintheformationofourmoralsentiments。ButitischieflywithrespecttothepositionofUtilityinmoralphilosophythatAdamSmith\'stheoryisaffectedbyHume\'scelebratedInquiryconcerning，thePrinciplesofMorals。Notonlyareallhisspeculationscolouredbyconsiderationsofutility，butbedevotesaspecialdivisionofhisbooktothe\"EffectofUtilityupontheSentimentofApprobation。\"
InAdamSmith\'stheory，thetendencyofanyaffectiontoproducebeneficialorhurtfulresultsisonlyonepartofthephenomenonofmoralapprobation，constitutingoursenseofmeritordemerit，whiletheotherpartconsistsinourperceptionoftheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectiontotheobjectwhichexcitesit。Andasthesenseofthemeritordemeritofanyactionorconductismuchstrongerthanoursenseoftheproprietyorimproprietyofaffections；stimulatingus，notmerelytoapassivefeelingofapprobationorthecontrary，buttoadesiretoconferactualrewardorpunishmentontheagent，itisevidentthatthegreaterpartofmoralapprobationconsistsintheperceptionofutilityoftendency。
Sofar，AdamSmithagreeswiththeutilitariantheorybutherefusesaltogethertoassenttothedoctrine，thattheperceptionoftheutilityofvirtueisitsprimaryrecommendation，orthatasenseoftheevilresultsofviceistheoriginofourhatredagainstit。Itistruethatthetendencyofvirtuetopromote，andofvicetodisturbtheorderofsociety，istoreflectaverygreatbeautyontheone，andaverygreatdeformityontheother。Butboththebeautyandthedeformityareadditionaltoanalreadyexistentbeautyanddeformity，andabeautyanddeformityinherentintheobjectsthemselves。Humansocietymaybecomparedto\"animmensemachine，whoseregularandharmoniousmovementsproduceathousandagreeableeffects。
Asinanyotherbeautifulandnoblemachinethatwastheproductionofhumanart，whatevertendedtorenderitsmovementsmoresmoothandeasy，wouldderiveabeautyfromthiseffect；andonthecontrary，whatevertendedtoobstructthem，woulddispleaseuponthataccount；sovirtue，whichis，asitwere，thefinepolishtothewheelsofsociety，necessarilypleases；
whilevice，likethevilerust，whichmakesthemjarandgrateupononeanother，isasnecessarilyoffensive。\"
AccordingtoHume，thewholeapprobationofvirtuemayberesolvedintotheperceptionofbeautywhichresultsfromtheappearanceofitsutility，noqualitiesofthemindbeingeverapprovedofasvirtuous，ordisapprovedofasvicious，butsuchasareeitherusefuloragreeabletothepersonhimself，ortoothers，orelsehaveacontrarytendency。AdamSmithfullyadmitsthefact，thatthecharactersofmenmaybefittedeithertopromoteortodisturbthehappinessbothoftheindividualhimselfandofthesocietytowhichhebelongs，andthatthereisacertainanalogybetweenourapprobationofausefulmachineandausefulcourseofconduct。Thecharacterofprudence，equity，activity，andresolution，holdsouttheprospectofprosperityandsatisfactionbothtothepersonhimselfandtoeveryoneconnectedwithhim；whilsttherash，insolent，slothful，oreffeminatecharacter，portendsruintotheindividual，andmisfortunetoallwhohaveanythingtodowithhim。Intheformercharacterthereisallthebeautywhichcanbelongtothemostperfectmachineeverinventedforpromotingthemostagreeablepurpose；intheotherthereisallthedeformityofanawkwardandclumsycontrivance。
Butthisperceptionofbeautyinvirtue，orofdeformityinvice，thoughitenhancesandenlivensourfeelingswithregardtoboth，isnotthefirstorprincipalsourceofourapprobationoftheone，orofourdislikefortheother。
\"For，inthefirstplace，itseemsimpossiblethattheapprobationofvirtueshouldbeasentimentofthesamekindwiththatbywhichweapproveofaconvenientandwell-contrivedbuilding；or，thatweshouldhavenootherreasonforpraisingamanthanthatforwhichwecommendachestofdrawers。\"
\"And，secondly，itwillbefound，uponexamination，thattheusefulnessofanydispositionofmindisseldomthefirstgroundofourapprobation；
andthatthesentimentofapprobationalwaysinvolvesinitasenseofproprietyquitedistinctfromtheperceptionofutility。\"
Forinstance，superiorreasonandunderstandingisaqualitymostusefultoourselves，asenablingustodiscerntheremoteconsequencesofouractions，andtoforeseetheadvantageordisadvantagelikelytoresultfromthem；butitisaqualityoriginallyapprovedofasjustandright，andaccurate，andnotmerelyasusefuloradvantageous。Self-command，also，isavirtuewequiteasmuchapproveofundertheaspectofpropriety，asunderthatofutility。Itisthecorrespondenceoftheagent\'ssentimentswithourown，thatisthesourceofourapprobationofthem；anditisonlybecausehispleasureaweekorayearhenceisjustasinterestingorindifferenttous，asspectators，asthepleasurethattemptshimatthismoment，thatweapproveofhissacrificeofpresenttofutureenjoyment。
Weapproveofhisactingasiftheremoteobjectinterestedhimasmuchasthefutureone，becausethenhisaffectionscorrespondexactlywithourown，andwerecognizetheperfectproprietyofhisconduct……
Withrespectagaintosuchqualitieswhicharemostusefultoothersashumanity，justice，generosity，andpublicspirittheesteemandapprobationpaidtothemdependsinthe，samewayontheconcordbetweentheaffectionsoftheagentandthoseofthespectator。Theproprietyofanactofgenerosity，aswhenamansacrificessomegreatinterestofhisowntothatofafriendorasuperior，orpreferssomeotherpersontohimself，liesnotintheconsiderationofthegoodeffectofsuchanactiononsocietyatlarge，butintheagreementoftheindividual\'spointofviewwiththatoftheimpartialspectator。Thus，ifamangivesuphisownclaimstoanofficewhichhadbeenagreatobjectofhisambition，becauseheimaginesthatanotherman\'sservicesarebetterentitledtoit，orifheexposeshislifetodefendthatofafriendwhichheconsidersofmoreimportance，itisbecauseheconsidersthepointofviewofdisinterestedpersons，whowouldpreferthatothermanorfriendtohimself，thathisconductseemsclothedwiththatappearanceofproprietywhichconstitutestheapprobationbestowedonit。Itistheaccommodationofthefeelingsoftheindividualtothoseoftheimpartialbystander，whichisthesourceoftheadmirationbestowedonasoldier，whothrowsawayhislifetodefendthatofhisofficer，andwhodeservesandwinsapplause，notfromanyfeelingofconcernforhisofficer，butfromtheadjustmentofhisownfeelingstothoseofeveryoneelsewhoconsiderhislifeasnothingwhencomparedwiththatofhissuperior。
Sowithregardtopublicspirit，thefirstsourceofouradmirationofitisnotfoundedsomuchonasenseofitsutilityasuponthegreatandexaltedproprietyoftheactionstowhichitprompts。Take，forinstance，thecaseofBrutus，leadinghisownsonstocapitalpunishmentfortheircon-spiracyagainsttherisinglibertyofRome。NaturallyheoughttohavefeltmuchmoreforthedeathofhisownsonsthanforallthatRomecouldhavesufferedfromthewantoftheexample。Butheviewedthem，notasafather，butasaRomancitizen；thatistosay，heenteredsothoroughlyintothesentimentsoftheimpartialspectator，oroftheordinaryRomancitizen，thatevenhisownsonsweighedasnothinginthebalancewiththesmallestinterestofRome。Theproprietyoftheaction，ortheperfectsympathyoffeelingbetweentheagentandthespectator，isthecauseofouradmirationofit。Itsutilitycertainlybestowsuponitanewbeauty，andsostillfurtherrecommendsittoourapprobation。Butsuchbeauty\"ischieflyperceivedbymenofreflectionandspeculation，andisbynomeansthequalitywhichfirstrecommendssuchactionstothenaturalsentimentsofthebulkofmankind。\"