Buteverygentlemanunderstandshisownbusinessbest。\"
Theletter,pervadedbythesamespiritofbanterthroughout,istoolongtoquoteatlength,butthefollowingextractscontaintheleadingidea:\"Areyousure,andcanyoumakeussure,thattherereallyexistnosuchthingsasGod,afuturestateofrewardsandpunishments?Ifso,alliswell。Letusthen,inourlasthours,readLucian,andplayatwhist,anddrolluponCharonandhisboat;letusdieasfoolishandinsensible,asmuchlikeourbrotherphilosophersthecalvesofthefieldandtheassesofthedesert,aswecan,forthelifeofus……Uponthewhole,doctor,yourmeaningisgood;butIthinkyouwillnotsucceedthistime。Youwouldpersuadeus,bytheexampleofDavidHume,Esq。,thatatheismistheonlycordialforlowspirits,andtheproperantidoteagainstthefearofdeath。\"
Itisdifficulttosaywhetherthepuerilityortheignorancedisplayedinthisletteristhegreater。EitherthewriterhadneverreadtheTheoryofMoralSentimentsatall,orhewasso1ittleversedinphilosophyastoseenodifferencebetweenDeismandAtheism,twodistinctlogicalcontradictories。Thereis,moreover,notawordinAdamSmith\'slettertojustifyanyreferencetoreligiousquestionsatall;andsub-sequentquotationsfromtheMoralSentimentswillabundantlydemonstratethetotalfalsityofthechurchman\'sassumptions。AdamSmithtreatedhisletterwiththecontemptuoussilenceitsowelldeserved。ThestoryquotedbySirWalterScott,inanarticleintheQuarterly,thatJohnsongrosslyinsultedAdamSmithataliterarymeetinginGlasgow,byreasonofhisdislikeforhim,astheeulogizerofHume,iseasilyshowntorestonnofoundation。Humedidnotdietill1776,anditwasthreeyearsearlierthatJohnsonvisitedGlasgow。
ThetwoyearsafterthepublicationofhisgreatestworkAdamSmithspentinLondon,inthemidstofthatliterarysocietywhichweknowsowellthroughthepagesofBoswell。Then,attherequestoftheDukeofBuceleuch,hewasmadeoneoftheCommissionersofCustominScotland,andinthisoccupationspentthelasttwelveyearsofhislife,inthemidstofasocietywhichmusthaveformedanagreeablecontrasttothelongyearsofhisretirementandsolitude。Thelightdutiesofhisofficethepleasuresoffriendship;thelossofhismotherandcousin,andincreasingillhealth,allcombinedtopreventthecompletionofanymoreofhisliteraryprojects。Afewdaysbeforehisdeathheorderedallhismanuscriptstobeburnt,withtheexceptionofafewessays,whichmaystillberead。
TheyconsistofaHistoryofAstronomy,aHistoryofAncientPhysics,aHistoryofAncientLogicandMetaphysics,anEssayontheImitativeArts,oncertainEnglishandItalianverses,andontheExternalSenses。ThedestroyedmanuscriptsaresupposedtohavecomprisedthelecturesonRhetoric,readatEdinburghforty-twoyearsbefore,andthelecturesonNaturalTheologyandonJurisprudence,whichformedpartofhislecturesatGlasgow。TheadditionswhichliemadetotheMoralSentiments,inthelastwinterofhislife,helivedtoseepublishedbeforehisdeath。
OftheTheoryofMoralSentimentsSirJamesMackintoshsays:
\"PerhapsthereisnoethicalworksinceCicero\'sOffices,ofwhichanabridgmentenablesthereadersoinadequatelytoestimatethemerit,astheTheoryofMoralSentiments。Thisisnotchieflyowingtothebeautyofdiction,asinthecaseofCicero,buttothevarietyofexplanationsoflifeandmannerswhichembellishthebookmorethantheyilluminatethetheory。Yet,ontheotherhand,itmustbeownedthat,forphilosophicalpurposes,fewbooksmoreneedabridgment;forthemostcarefulreaderfrequentlylosessightofprinciplesburiedunderillustrations。
Thenaturallycopiousandflowingstyleoftheauthorisgenerallyredundant,andtherepetitionofcertainformulariesofthesystemis,inthelatereditions,sofrequentastobewearisome,andsometimesludicrous。\"
ThejusticeofthiscriticismhasbeentheguidingprincipleintheattemptmadeinthefollowingchapterstogiveanaccountofAdamSmith\'ssystemofmoralphilosophy,theaimhavingbeentoavoidsacrificingthemaintheorytothesuper-abundanceofillustrationwhichsomewhatobscuresitintheoriginal,whileatthesametimedoingjusticetotheminorsubjectstreatedof,which,thoughtheyhavelittleornothingtodowithAdamSmith\'sleadingprinciples,yetformadistinctivefeatureinhiswork,andareinmanyrespectsthemostinterestingpartofit;forcriticswhohaverejectedthe
Theoryasawhole,havebeenuniformlyloudintheirpraisesofitsminordetailsandillustrations。Brown,forinstance,whohasbeenthemostsuccessfulperhapsofalltheadversecriticsoftheTheory,speaksofitaspresentingintheserespects\"amodelofphilosophicbeauty。\"Jouffroy,too,allowsthatthebookisoneofthemostusefulinmoralscience,becauseAdamSmith,\"deceivedasheundoubtedlywasastotheprincipleofmorality,\"broughttolightandanalyzedsomanyofthefactsofhumannature。DugaldStewartandMackintoshbothsaymuchthesamething;sothatitisevidentnoaccountofAdamSmith\'sworkcanbecompletewhichomitsfromconsiderationallthecollateralinquirieshepursuesoralltheillustrationshedraws,eitherfromhistoryorfromhisimagination。Topreserve,asfaraspossible,theproportionwhichthesecollateralinquiriesbeartooneanotherandtothemaintheory,aswellastoretainwhatismostcharacteristicoftheoriginalinpointofillustrationandstyle,havingbeenthereforetheendinview,ithasbeenfoundbesttoalterthearrangementinsomedegree,andtodividethewholeintochapters,therelationsofwhichtothedivisionsoftheoriginalwillbebestunderstoodbyabriefreferencetothestructureofthelatter。
AdamSmithdivideshisworkintosevenParts,whichprecedeoneanotherinthefollowingorder:——
I。OftheProprietyofAction。
II。OfMeritandDemerit;ortheobjectsofRewardandPunishment。
III。OftheFoundationofourjudgmentsconcerningourownSentimentsandConduct,andoftheSenseofDuty。
IV。OftheEffectofUtilityuponthesentimentofApprobation。
V。OftheinfluenceofCustomandFashionuponthesentimentsofMoralApprobationandDisapprobation。
VI。OfthecharacterofVirtue。
VII。OfsystemsofMoralPhilosophy。
Theexcellenceofthisarrangement,however,isconsiderablymarredbythedivisionofthesePartsintoSections,andbythefrequentfurthersubdivisonoftheSectionsthemselvesintoChapters。Aninstancewillillustratehowdetrimentalthisistotheclearnessofthemainargument。ThefirstthreePartsexhaustthemaintheory,orthatdoctrineofSympathy,whichisAdamSmith\'sownspecialcreation,andonwhichhisrankasamoralphilosopherdepends;theotherfourPartshavingonlytodowithitincidentallyorbyaccident。ButinfollowingthefirstthreePartsinwhichthedoctrineofSympathyisexpounded,wecomeacrosssectionswhichalsoareonlyconnectedincidentallywiththeleadingargument,andarereallybranchesoffthemainline。ThusinthePartdevotedtotheexplanationofourideasofProprietyinActionthereoccursasectionontheeffectofprosperityoradversityininfluencingourjudgment;intheParttreatingofMeritandDemeritthereisasectionontheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentonoursentimentsofmen\'smeritorthecontrary;andthereis,lastly,adistinctPartPartV。allottedtotheconsiderationoftheinfluenceofCustomandFashiononoursentimentsofmoralapprobationordisapprobation。
Thesesubjectsareobviouslysonearlyallied,thattheymightallhavebeentreatedtogether,apartfromthedoctrineofsympathyofwhichtheyarequiteindependent;andaccordinglyinthesequelthedissertationsconcerningthemintheoriginalarecollectedintoasinglechapter,thefifth,ontheinfluenceofProsperityandAdversity,ChanceandCustom,onourmoralsentiments。
Consistentlywiththeprinciplesalreadyexplained,theorderoftheoriginalhasbeenfollowedascloselyaspossible。Thesecond,third,andfourthchapterscomprisePartsI。andII。PartV。,andthesectionsrelatingtothesamesubjectinPartsI。andII。,makeupthefifthchapter。ThenPartIII。isdividedforclearness\'sakeintotwochapters,explainingtheauthor\'sTheoryofConscienceandTheoryofMoralPrinciples;andtheendofthesetwochapters,thesixthandseventh,concludesthemostimportanthalfofAdamSmith\'streatise。
PartVI。,ontheCharacterofVirtue,whichformssolargeadivisionintheoriginal,andwhichwasonlyaddedtothesixthedition,correspondswithchapterIX。,underthesametitle。PartIV。,ontheeffectofUtilityonourmoralsentiments,formschapterXII。,inwhichallthatissaidonthesubjectindifferentpassagesisbroughttogether。PartVII。,orSystemsofMoralPhilosophy,helpsinthethirteenthchaptertothrowintoclearlighttherelationofAdamSmith\'stheorytoothertheoriesofmoralphilosophy。Thethreechaptersontherelationofreligiontomorality,onthetheoryofhappiness,andonfinalcausesinethics,correspondwithnosimilardivisionsintheoriginal,butareseverallycollectedfromdifferentpassagesinthebook,which,scatteredthroughthework,impressuponitadistinctivecharacter,andconstitutethechiefpartofitscolouring。
ThelastchapterofallservestoillustratethehistoricalimportanceofAdamSmith\'sworkbyshowingthelargepartwhichitfillsinthecriticismsofsubsequentwriters。
AnaccidentalcoincidencebetweenAdamSmith\'stheoryandapassageinPolybiushasunnecessarilybeenconsideredtheoriginalsourceoftheTheoryofMoralSentiments。TheverysamepassageisreferredtobyHume,asshowingthatPolybius,likemanyotherancientmoralists,tracedourideasofmoralitytoaselfishorigin。YetthereisnothingAdamSmithresentedmorestronglythananyidentificationofhistheorywiththeselfishsystemofmorality。Thecoincidenceisthereforeprobablyaccidental;butthepassageisworthquoting,ascontaininginafewlinesthecentralideaofthedoctrineabouttobeconsidered。Polybiusisspeakingofthedispleasurefeltbypeopleforthosewho,insteadofmakingsuitablereturnsofgratitudeandassistancefortheirparents,injurethembywordsoractions;andheproceedstosaythat\"man,whoamongallthevariouskindsofanimalsisaloneendowedwiththefacultyofreason,cannot,liketherest,passoversuchactions,butwillmakereflectiononwhatliesees;
andcomparinglikewisethefuturewiththepresent,willnotfailtoexpresshisindignationatthisinjurioustreatment,towhich,asheforesees,hemayalsoatsometimebeexposed。Thusagain,whenanyonewhohasbeensuccouredbyanotherintimeofdanger,insteadofshowingthelikekindnesstothisbenefactor,endeavoursatanytimetodestroyorhurthim;itiscertainthatallmenmustbeshockedbysuchingratitude,throughsympathywiththeresentmentoftheirneighbour;andfromanapprehensionalsothatthecasemaybetheirown。Andfromhencearises,inthemindofeveryman,acertainnotionofthenatureandforceofduty,inwhichconsistsboththebeginningandendofjustice。Inlikemanner,themanwho,indefenceofothersisseentothrowhimselftheforemostintoeverydanger,neverfailstoobtaintheloudestacclamationsofapplauseandvenerationfromthemultitude;whilehewhoshowsadifferentconductispursuedwithcensureandreproach。Andthusitisthatthepeoplebegintodiscernthenatureofthingshonourableandbase,andinwhatconsiststhedifferencebetweenthem;andtoperceivethattheformer,onaccountoftheadvantagethatattendsthem,aretobeadmiredandimitated,andthelattertobedetestedandavoided。\"
CHAPTERI。HISTORICALINTRODUCTION。
Toexplaintheoriginofourideasofrightandwrong,andtofindforthem,ifpossible,asolidbasisofauthority,apartfromtheircoincidencewiththedogmasoftheology,wastheproblemofmoralphilosophywhichchieflyoccupiedthespeculationofthelastcentury,andtowhichAdamSmith\'sTheoryofMoralSentimentswasoneofthemostimportantcontributions。Histheory,likeallothers,mustbeunderstoodasananswertothequestion:Howdowecometoregardcertainactionsorstatesofmindwithapprovalandtocondemntheircontraries,andonwhatgroundscanwejustifyourjudgmentsinsuchmattersandholdthemtoaccorduniversallywiththemoraljudgmentsofmankind?
ButinordertounderstandAdamSmith\'sanswertothisquestion,andhispositioninthehistoryofthought,itisnecessarytoreferbrieflytothetheoriesofhispredecessorsdowntothetimewhenhetookupthethreadofthespeculationandofferedhissolutionoftheproblemstheyhaddealtwith。
FromthetimewhensuchproblemsfirstbecamepopularinEngland,twomaincurrentsofthoughtmaybedetectedrunningsidebysideinmutualantagonismtooneanother;andwhilstaccordingtotheteachingoftheoneschooltheultimatestandardofmoralitywastheinterestoftheindividualhimselforthecommunityhebelongedto,theaimoftheoppositeschoolwastofindsomebasisformoralitywhichshouldmakeitlessdependentonchangesofcircumstanceandgivetoitsmaximstheauthorityofpropositionsthatshouldholdtrueofalltimesandplaces。
ThenamesofLocke,Hobbes,Mandeville,andHume,areassociatedwiththeformerschool;thoseofClarke,Price,LordShaftesbury,BishopButler,andHutcheson,withthelatter;andthedifferencebetweenthemisgenerallyex-pressedbyclassingtheformertogetherastheUtilitarian,Selfish,orScepticalSchool,andthelatterastheschoolofIntuitionalists。
ThedoctrineofHobbes,thatmoralitywasidenticalwiththepositivecommandsandprohibitionsofthelawgiver,andthatthelawwasthustherealultimatesourceandstandardofallrightandwrong,gaverisetoseveralsystemswhichsoughtindifferentwaystofindforourmoralsentimentsalessvariableandunstablefoundationthanwasimpliedbysuchanhypothesis。
ItwasinoppositiontosuchatheorythatClarkeandPrice,andotheradvocatesoftheso-calledRationalorIntellectualsystem,attributedourperceptionofmoraldistinctionstointuitionsofourintellect,sothatthetruthsofmoralitymightappear,likethoseofmathematics,eternalandimmutable,independentofpeculiaritiesoftimeandplace,andwithanexistenceapartfromanyparticularmanorcountry,justasthedefinitionsofgeometryareindependentofanyparticularstraightlinesortriangles。
Todeny,forexample,thatamanshoulddoforotherswhathewouldwishdoneforhimselfwas,accordingtoClarke,equivalenttoacontentionthat,thoughtwoandthreeareequaltofive,yetfiveisnotequaltotwoandthree。
ButthesamefoundationforanimmutablemoralitythatClarkesoughtforinthehumanintellect,otherssoughtforinapeculiarinstinctofournature。ThusLordShaftesburypostulatedtheexistenceofamoralsense,sufficientofitselftomakeuseschewviceandfollowaftervirtue;andthismoralsense,orprimitiveinstinctforgood,wasimplantedinusbynature,andcarrieditsownauthoritywithit。Itjudgedofactionsbyreferencetoacertainharmonybetweenouraffections,andthisharmonyhadarealexistence,independentof\'allfashionandcaprice,likeharmonyinmusic。Assymmetryandproportionwerefoundedinnature,howsoeverbarbarousmightbemen\'stastesinthearts,so,inmorals,anequallyrealharmonyalwayspresentedafixedstandardforourguidance。
ThisideaofaMoralSenseasthesourceandstandardofourmoralsentimentswassofardevelopedbyHutcheson,thattimeMoralSensetheoryofethicshadbeenmoregenerallyconnectedwithhisnamethanwiththatofitsrealoriginator。Hutchesonarguedthataswehaveexternalsenseswhichperceivesoundsandcolours,sowehaveinternalsenseswhichperceivemoralexcellenceandthecontrary。Thismoralsensehaditsanaloguesinoursenseofbeautyandharmony,oursympatheticsense,oursenseofhonour,ofdecency,andsoforth。Itwasaprimitivefacultyofournature,afactorincapableofresolutionintosimplerelements。Itcouldnot,forinstance,beresolvedintoaperceptionofutility,forbadactionswereoftenasusefulasgoodonesandyetfailedtomeetwithapprobation,norcoulditbeexplainedasamodeofsympathy,forwemightmorallyapproveevenofthevirtueswhichourenemiesmanifested。
BishopButler,likehiscontemporary,Hutcheson,alsofollowedLordShaftesburyinseekinginournaturalinstinctstheoriginofourmoralideas,ConsciencewithhimtakingtheplaceoftheMoralSense,fromitsbeingpossessed,ashethought,ofamoreauthoritativecharacter。Conscience,ac-cordingtoButler,wasafacultynaturaltoman,invirtueofwhichhewasamoralagent;afacultyorprincipleofthehumanheart,inkindandnaturesupremeoverallothers,andbearingitsownauthorityForbeingso。Usinglanguageaboutit,whichwemeetagainintheTheoryofAdamSmith,hespokeofitas\"God\'sviceroy,\"\"thevoiceofGodwithinus,\"\"theguideassignedtousbytheAuthorofournature。\"Theobligationtoobeyitthereforerestedinthefactofitsbeingthelawofournature。
Itcouldnomorebedoubtedthatshamewasgivenustopreventourdoingwrongthanthatoureyesweregivenustoseewith。
ItwasatthispointthatAdamSmithofferedhissolutionofthedifficulty。
ForcallitConscience,MoralSense,orwhatyouwill,suchexpressionsareevidentlyonlyre-statementsoftheproblemtobeexplained。Tocallthefactofmoralapprobationbysuchtermswassimplytogiveitothernames;andtosaythatourconscienceormoralsenseadmittedofnoanalysiswasequivalenttosayingthatourmoralsentimentsadmittedofnoexplanation。
AdamSmith\'stheorymustthereforebeunderstoodasanattempttoexplainwhattheIntuitionalistschoolreallygaveupasinexplicable;anditrepresentsthereactionagainstthatapriorimethodwhichtheyhademployedindealingwithmoralproblems。Inthatreaction,andinhisappealtothefactsofexperience,AdamSmithfollowedtheleadofbothHartleyandHume。Tenyearsbeforehim,timeformer,inhisObservationsonMan,hadsoughttoexplaintheexistenceofthemoralsense,bytracingitbacktoitslowesttermsinthepleasuresandpainsofsimplesensation,andmarkingitsgrowthinthegradualassociationofourideas。AndHume,afewyearslater,soughttodiscover\"theuniversalprinciplefromwhichallcensureorapprobationwasultimatelyderived\"bytheexperimentalmethodofinquiry;bycomparing,thatis,anumberofinstancesofqualitiesheldestimableontheonehandandqualitiesheldblameableontheother,andobservingwhatwasthecommonelementofeach。Fromsuchaninquiryheinferredthatthoseactsweregoodwhichwereusefulandthosebadwhichwereinjurious,andthatthefactoftheirbeingusefulorinjuriouswasthecauseoftheirgoodnessorbadness。
ThusitwillbeseenthatthequestionofchiefinterestinAdamSmith\'stimewaswidelydifferentfromthatwhichhaddividedtheschoolsofantiquity。
Theaimorchiefgoodoflifewhichchieflyoccupiedthemhadrecededintotheback-ground;andthecontroversyconcerned,asHumedeclared,\"thegeneralfoundationofmorals,\"whethertheywerederivedfromReasonorfromSentiment,whethertheywerearrivedatbyachainofargumentandprocessofreasoningorbyacertainimmediatefeelingandinternalsense。
Butroundthiscentralquestionoftheoriginofourfeelingsofmoralapprobationotherquestionsofconsiderableinterestwerenecessarilygrouped。
Therewasthequestionoftheauthorityandsanctionofourmoralsentiments,independentlyoftheirorigin;andtherewasthequestionoftheultimatestandardortestofmoralactions。Andthesequestionsinvolvedyetothers,asforexample:Whatwastherelationofmoralitytoreligion?Howfardidtheynecessarilycoincide,andhowfarweretheyindependentofeachother?Washumannaturereallycorrupt,andtowhatdegreeweretheordinarysanctionsofthislifeasufficientsafeguardfortheexistenceofmorality?
Didhappinessormisery,goodorevil,reallypredominateintheworld;
andwastheresuchathingasdisinterestedbenevolence,ormightallvirtueberesolvedintoself-loveandbereallyonlyviceundercloakandconcealment?
ThelatteralternativehadbeenthethesiswhichMandevillehadpartlymadeandpartlyfoundpopular。Inhisviewthemostvirtuousactionsmightberesolvedintoselfishness,andself-lovewasthestarting-pointofallmorality。Thisbecametherefore,oneofthefavouritetopicsofspeculation;
butitisonlynecessarytonoticeHume\'streatmentofit,inasmuchasitsuppliesthefirstprincipleofAdamSmith\'stheory。Humeassumedtheexistenceofadisinterestedprincipleunderlyingallourmoralsentiments。
Hearguedthat\"anaturalprincipleofbenevolence,\"impellingustoconsidertheinterestsofothers,wasanessentialpartofhumannature。\"Theveryaspect,\"hesaid,\"ofhappiness,joy,prosperity,givespleasure;thatofpain,suffering,sorrowcommunicatesuneasiness。\"Andthisfellow-feelingwithothershehadrefusedtoresolveintoanymoregeneralprinciple,ortotreatasotherthananoriginalprincipleofhumannature。
ThisphenomenonofSympathy,orfellow-feeling,whichwehavebynaturewithanypassionwhateverofanotherperson,ismadebyAdamSmiththecardinalpointanddistinctivefeatureofhistheoryoftheoriginofmoralapprobation;andthefirstsentenceofhistreatisecontainsthereforenotonlyhisansweroneofflatcontradictiontoMandeville,butthekey-notetothewholespiritofhisphilosophy。\"Howselfishsoever,\"hebegins,\"manmaybesupposed,thereareevidentlysomeprinciplesinhisnaturewhichinteresthiminthefortuneofothers,andrendertheirhappinessnecessarytohim,thoughhederivesnothingfromit,exceptthepleasureofseeingit。\"Sothatpityorcompassion,whichHobbeshadexplainedastheconsciousnessofapossiblemisfortunetoourselvessimilartothatseentobefallanother,is,withAdamSmith,aprimary,notasecondary,emotionofournature,anoriginalandnotaderivativepassion,andonethatispurelydisinterestedinitsmanifestation。
InthenextchapterandthefoursucceedingonesweshallobservehowonthisbasisofanoriginalinstinctofsympathyAdamSmithconstructshisexplanationoftheoriginofourmoralideas。Withregardtotheexplanationsalreadyofferedbypreviouswriters,hebelievedthattheyallcontainedsomeportionofthetruthfromtheparticularpointofviewtakenbyeach;