INTHElastchapterIhavespokenofthesimilarpartsofaCommonwealth：inthisIshallspeakofthepartsorganical，whicharepublicministers。
Apublicministerishethatbythesovereign，whetheramonarchoranassembly，isemployedinanyaffairs，withauthoritytorepresentinthatemploymentthepersonoftheCommonwealth。Andwhereaseverymanorassemblythathathsovereigntyrepresentethtwopersons，or，asthemorecommonphraseis，hastwocapacities，onenaturalandanotherpolitic；asamonarchhaththepersonnotonlyoftheCommonwealth，butalsoofaman，andasovereignassemblyhaththepersonnotonlyoftheCommonwealth，butalsooftheassembly：theythatbeservantstothemintheirnaturalcapacityarenotpublicministers；butthoseonlythatservethemintheadministrationofthepublicbusiness。Andthereforeneitherushers，norsergeants，norotherofficersthatwaitontheassemblyfornootherpurposebutforthecommodityofthemenassembled，inanaristocracyordemocracy；norstewards，chamberlains，cofferers，oranyotherofficersofthehouseholdofamonarch，arepublicministersinamonarchy。
Ofpublicministers，somehavechargecommittedtothemofageneraladministration，eitherofthewholedominionorofapartthereof。
Ofthewhole，astoaprotector，orregent，maybecommittedbythepredecessorofaninfantking，duringhisminority，thewholeadministrationofhiskingdom。Inwhichcase，everysubjectissofarobligedtoobedienceastheordinancesheshallmake，andthecommandsheshallgive，beintheking’sname，andnotinconsistentwithhissovereignpower。Ofapart，orprovince；aswheneitheramonarchorasovereignassemblyshallgivethegeneralchargethereoftoagovernor，lieutenant，prefectorviceroy：andinthiscasealso，everyoneofthatprovinceisobligedtoallheshalldointhenameofthesovereign，andthatnotincompatiblewiththesovereign’sright。Forsuchprotectors，viceroys，andgovernorshavenootherrightbutwhatdependsonthesovereignswill；andnocommissionthatcanbegiventhemcanbeinterpretedforadeclarationofthewilltotransferthesovereignty，withoutexpressandperspicuouswordstothatpurpose。Andthiskindofpublicministersresembleththenervesandtendonsthatmovetheseverallimbsofabodynatural。
Othershavespecialadministration；thatistosay，chargesofsomespecialbusiness，eitherathomeorabroad：asathome，first，fortheeconomyofaCommonwealth，theythathaveauthorityconcerningthetreasury，astributes，impositions，rents，fines，orwhatsoeverpublicrevenue，tocollect，receive，issue，ortaketheaccountsthereof，arepublicministers：ministers，becausetheyservethepersonrepresentative，andcandonothingagainsthiscommand，norwithouthisauthority；public，becausetheyservehiminhispoliticalcapacity。
Secondly，theythathaveauthorityconcerningthemilitia；tohavethecustodyofarms，forts，ports；tolevy，pay，orconductsoldiers；ortoprovideforanynecessarythingfortheuseofwar，eitherbylandorsea，arepublicministers。Butasoldierwithoutcommand，thoughhefightfortheCommonwealth，doesnotthereforerepresentthepersonofit；becausethereisnonetorepresentitto。Foreveryonethathathcommandrepresentsittothemonlywhomhecommandeth。
Theyalsothathaveauthoritytoteach，ortoenableotherstoteachthepeopletheirdutytothesovereignpower，andinstructthemintheknowledgeofwhatisjustandunjust，therebytorenderthemmoreapttoliveingodlinessandinpeaceamongstthemselves，andresistthepublicenemy，arepublicministers：ministers，inthattheydoitnotbytheirownauthority，butbyanother’s；andpublic，becausetheydoit，orshoulddoit，bynoauthoritybutthatofthesovereign。ThemonarchorthesovereignassemblyonlyhathimmediateauthorityfromGodtoteachandinstructthepeople；andnomanbutthesovereignreceivethhispowerDeigratiasimply；thatistosay，fromthefavourofnonebutGod：allotherreceivetheirsfromthefavourandprovidenceofGodandtheirsovereigns；asinamonarchyDeigratiaetregis；orDeiprovidentiaetvoluntateregis。
Theyalsotowhomjurisdictionisgivenarepublicministers。Forintheirseatsofjusticetheyrepresentthepersonofthesovereign；andtheirsentenceishissentence；for，ashathbeenbeforedeclared，alljudicatureisessentiallyannexedtothesovereignty；andthereforeallotherjudgesarebutministersofhimorthemthathavethesovereignpower。Andascontroversiesareoftwosorts，namelyoffactandoflaw；soarejudgements，someoffact，someoflaw：andconsequentlyinthesamecontroversy，theremaybetwojudges，oneoffact，anotheroflaw。
Andinboththesecontroversies，theremayariseacontroversybetweenthepartyjudgedandthejudge；which，becausetheybebothsubjectstothesovereign，oughtinequitytobejudgedbymenagreedonbyconsentofboth；fornomancanbejudgeinhisowncause。Butthesovereignisalreadyagreedonforjudgedbythemboth，andisthereforeeithertohearthecause，anddetermineithimself，orappointforjudgesuchastheyshallbothagreeon。Andthisagreementisthenunderstoodtobemadebetweenthemdiverseways；
asfirst，ifthedefendantbeallowedtoexceptagainstsuchofhisjudgeswhoseinterestmakethhimsuspectthemforastothecomplainant，hehathalreadychosenhisownjudge；thosewhichheexceptethnotagainstarejudgeshehimselfagreeson。Secondly，ifheappealtoanyotherjudge，hecanappealnofurther；forhisappealishischoice。Thirdly，ifheappealtothesovereignhimself，andhebyhimself，orbydelegateswhichthepartiesshallagreeon，givesentence；thatsentenceisfinal：forthedefendantisjudgedbyhisownjudges，thatistosay，byhimself。
Thesepropertiesofjustandrationaljudicatureconsidered，I
cannotforbeartoobservetheexcellentconstitutionofthecourtsofjusticeestablishedbothforcommonandalsoforpublicpleasinEngland。Bycommonpleas，Imeanthosewhereboththecomplainantanddefendantaresubjects：andbypublicwhicharealsocalledpleasofthecrownthosewherethecomplainantisthesovereign。Forwhereasthereweretwoordersofmen，whereofonewaslords，theothercommons，thelordshadthisprivilege，tohaveforjudgesinallcapitalcrimesnonebutlords；andofthem，asmanyaswouldbepresent；whichbeingeveracknowledgedasaprivilegeoffavour，theirjudgeswerenonebutsuchastheyhadthemselvesdesired。Andinallcontroversies，everysubjectasalsoincivilcontroversiesthelordshadforjudgesmenofthecountrywherethematterincontroversylay；againstwhichhemightmakehisexceptions，tillatlasttwelvemenwithoutexceptionbeingagreedon，theywerejudgedbythosetwelve。Sothathavinghisownjudges，therecouldbenothingallegedbythepartywhythesentenceshouldnotbefinal。Thesepublicpersons，withauthorityfromthesovereignpower，eithertoinstructorjudgethepeople，aresuchmembersoftheCommonwealthasmayfitlybecomparedtotheorgansofvoiceinabodynatural。
Publicministersarealsoallthosethathaveauthorityfromthesovereigntoprocuretheexecutionofjudgementsgiven；topublishthesovereignscommands；tosuppresstumults；toapprehendandimprisonmalefactors；andotheractstendingtotheconservationofthepeace。ForeveryacttheydobysuchauthorityistheactoftheCommonwealth；andtheirserviceanswerabletothatofthehandsinabodynatural。
Publicministersabroadarethosethatrepresentthepersonoftheirownsovereigntoforeignstates。Suchareambassadors，messengers，agents，andheralds，sentbypublicauthority，andonpublicbusiness。
Butsuchasaresentbyauthorityonlyofsomeprivatepartyofatroubledstate，thoughtheybereceived，areneitherpublicnorprivateministersoftheCommonwealth，becausenoneoftheiractionshavetheCommonwealthforauthor。Likewise，anambassadorsentfromaprincetocongratulate，condole，ortoassistatasolemnity；thoughtheauthoritybepublic，yetbecausethebusinessisprivate，andbelongingtohiminhisnaturalcapacity，isaprivateperson。Alsoifamanbesentintoanothercountry，secretlytoexploretheircounselsandstrength；thoughboththeauthorityandthebusinessbepublic，yetbecausethereisnonetotakenoticeofanypersoninhim，buthisown，heisbutaprivateminister；butyetaministeroftheCommonwealth；andmaybecomparedtoaneyeinthebodynatural。Andthosethatareappointedtoreceivethepetitionsorotherinformationsofthepeople，andare，asitwere，thepublicear，arepublicministersandrepresenttheirsovereigninthatoffice。
Neitheracounsellor，noracouncilofstate，ifweconsiderwithnoauthorityjudicatureorcommand，butonlyofgivingadvicetothesovereignwhenitisrequired，orofofferingitwhenitisnotrequired，isapublicperson。Fortheadviceisaddressedtothesovereignonly，whosepersoncannotinhisownpresenceberepresentedtohimbyanother。Butabodyofcounsellorsareneverwithoutsomeotherauthority，eitherofjudicatureorofimmediateadministration：asinamonarchy，theyrepresentthemonarchindeliveringhiscommandstothepublicministers：inademocracy，thecouncilorsenatepropoundstheresultoftheirdeliberationstothepeople，asacouncil；butwhentheyappointjudges，orhearcauses，orgiveaudiencetoambassadors，itisinthequalityofaministerofthepeople：andinanaristocracythecouncilofstateisthesovereignassemblyitself，andgivescounseltononebutthemselves。
THENUTRITIONofaCommonwealthconsistethintheplentyanddistributionofmaterialsconducingtolife：inconcoctionorpreparation，and，whenconcocted，intheconveyanceofitbyconvenientconduitstothepublicuse。
Asfortheplentyofmatter，itisathinglimitedbynaturetothosecommoditieswhich，fromthetwobreastsofourcommonmother，landandsea，Godusuallyeitherfreelygivethorforlaboursellethtomankind。
Forthematterofthisnutrimentconsistinginanimals，vegetables，andminerals，Godhathfreelylaidthembeforeus，inorneartothefaceoftheearth，soasthereneedethnomorebutthelabourandindustryofreceivingthem。Insomuchasplentydependeth，nexttoGod’sfavour，merelyonthelabourandindustryofmen。
Thismatter，commonlycalledcommodities，ispartlynativeandpartlyforeign：native，thatwhichistobehadwithintheterritoryoftheCommonwealth；foreign，thatwhichisimportedfromwithout。AndbecausethereisnoterritoryunderthedominionofoneCommonwealth，exceptitbeofveryvastextent，thatproducethallthingsneedfulforthemaintenanceandmotionofthewholebody；andfewthatproducenotsomethingmorethannecessary；thesuperfluouscommoditiestobehadwithinbecomenomoresuperfluous，butsupplythesewantsathome，byimportationofthatwhichmaybehadabroad，eitherbyexchange，orbyjustwar，orbylabour：foraman’slabouralsoisacommodityexchangeableforbenefit，aswellasanyotherthing：andtherehavebeenCommonwealthsthat，havingnomoreterritorythanhathservedthemforhabitation，haveneverthelessnotonlymaintained，butalsoincreasedtheirpower，partlybythelabouroftradingfromoneplacetoanother，andpartlybysellingthemanufactures，whereofthematerialswerebroughtinfromotherplaces。
Thedistributionofthematerialsofthisnourishmentistheconstitutionofmine，andthine，andhis；thatistosay，inoneword，propriety；andbelongedinallkindsofCommonwealthtothesovereignpower。ForwherethereisnoCommonwealth，thereis，ashathbeenalreadyshown，aperpetualwarofeverymanagainsthisneighbour；andthereforeeverythingishisthatgettethitandkeepethitbyforce；whichisneitherproprietynorcommunity，butuncertainty。WhichissoevidentthatevenCicero，apassionatedefenderofliberty，inapublicpleadingattributethallproprietytothelawcivil：“Letthecivillaw，“saithhe，“beonceabandoned，orbutnegligentlyguarded，nottosayoppressed，andthereisnothingthatanymancanbesuretoreceivefromhisancestor，orleavetohischildren。“Andagain：“Takeawaythecivillaw，andnomanknowswhatishisown，andwhatanotherman’s。“SeeingthereforetheintroductionofproprietyisaneffectofCommonwealth，whichcandonothingbutbythepersonthatrepresentsit，itistheactonlyofthesovereign；andconsistethinthelaws，whichnonecanmakethathavenotthesovereignpower。Andthistheywellknewofold，whocalledthatNomosthatistosay，distribution，whichwecalllaw；
anddefinedjusticebydistributingtoeverymanhisown。