[121]\"SouvenirsdufeuducdeBroglie，\"p。143。（Asaspecimenofstepstakenintimeofwar，seetheregisterofMarshalBessières’
orders，commandantatValladolidfromApril11toJuly15，1811。）—
\"CorrespondanceduRoiJérome，\"letterofJerometoNapoleon，Dec。5，1811。（Showingthesituationofavanquishedpeopleintimesofpeace）:\"Ifwarshouldbreakout，allcountriesbetweentheRhineandtheOderwillbecomethecenterofavastandactiveinsurrection。
ThemightycauseofthisdangerousmovementisnotmerelyhatredoftheFrench，andimpatienceofaforeignyoke，butratherinthemisfortunesoftheday，inthetotalruinofallclasses，inover—
taxation，consistingofwarlevies，themaintenanceoftroops，soldierstraversingthecountry，andeverysortofconstantlyrenewedvexation……AtHanover，Magdebourg，andintheprincipaltownsofmykingdom，ownersofpropertyareabandoningtheirdwellingsandvainlytryingtodisposeofthematthelowestprices……Miseryeverywherepressesonfamilies；capitalisexhausted；thenoble，thepeasant，thebourgeois，arecrushedwithdebtandwant……Thedespairofpopulationsnolongerhavinganythingtolose，becauseallhasbeentakenaway，istobefeared。\"—DePradt，p。73。（Specimenofmilitaryproceedingsinalliedcountries。）AtWolburch，intheBishopofCujavie’schateau，\"Ifoundhissecretary，canonofCujavie，decoratedwiththeribbonandcrossofhisorder，whoshowedmehisjaw，brokenbythevigorousblowsadministeredtohimthepreviouseveningbyGeneralCountVandamme，becausehehadrefusedtoserveTokaywine，imperiouslydemandedbythegeneral；hewastoldthattheKingofWestphaliahadlodgedinthecastlethedaybefore，andhadcartedawayallthiswine。\"
[122]Fievée，\"CorrespondanceetrelationsavecBonaparte，de1802à
1813，\"III。，82。（Dec。1811），（Onthepopulationsannexedorconquered）:\"Thereisnohesitationindeprivingthemoftheirpatrimony，theirlanguage，theirlegislatures，indisturbingalltheirhabits，andthatwithoutanywarrantbutthrowingabulletindesloisattheirheads（inapplicable）……Howcouldtheybeexpectedtorecognizethis，orevenbecomeresignedtoit？……Isitpossiblenottofeelthatonenolongerhasacountry，thatoneisunderconstraint，woundedinfeelingandhumiliated？……Prussia，andalargepartofGermany，hasbeensoimpoverishedthatthereismoretogainbytakingapitchforktokillamanthantostirupapileofmanure。\"
[123]\"Correspondance，\"lettertoKingJoseph，Feb。18，1814。\"IfI
hadsignedthetreatyreducingFrancetoitsancientlimits，Ishouldhavegonetowartwoyearsafter—Marmont，V。，133（1813）:\"Napoleon，inthelastyearsofhisreign，alwayspreferredtoloseallratherthantoyieldanything。\"
[124]M。deMetternich，II。，205。
[125]WordsofRichelieuonhisdeath—bed:\"Beholdmyjudge，\"saidhe，pointingtotheHost，\"thejudgewhowillsoonpronouncehisverdict。
Ipraythathewillcondemnme，if，duringmyministry，IhaveproposedtomyselfaughtelsethanthegoodofreligionandoftheState。\"
[126]MiotdeMelito，\"Mémoires，\"II。，48，152。
[127]\"Souvenirs，\"byGaudin，ducdeGa？te（3rdvol。ofthe\"Mémoires，\"p。67）。
[128]M。deMetternich，II。，120。（LettertoStadion，July26，1807。）
[129]Ibid。，II。，291。（LetterofApril11，1809。）
[130]Ibid。，II。，400。（LetterofJan。17，1811。）Inlucidmoments，Napoleontakesthesameview。Cf。PeletdelaLozère，\"OpinionsdeNapoleonauconseild’etat，\"p。15:\"ThatwilllastaslongasIdo。
Afterme，however，mysonwilldeemhimselffortunateifhehas40，000
francsayear。\"—（DeSégur，\"HistoireetMémoires，\"III。，155。）:
\"Howoftenatthistime（1811）washeheardtoforetellthattheweightofhisempirewouldcrushhisheir！\"\"Poorchild，\"saidhe，regardingtheKingofRome，\"whatanentanglementIshallleavetoyou！\"Fromthebeginninghefrequentlypassedjudgmentonhimselfandforesawtheeffectofhisactioninhistory。\"OnreachingtheisleofPoplars，theFirstConsulstoppedatRousseau’sgrave，andsaid:’Itwouldhave，beenbetterforthereposeofFrance，ifthatmanhadneverexisted。’’Andwhy，citizenConsul？’’HeisthemanwhomadetheFrenchrevolution。’’ItseemstomethatyouneednotcomplainoftheFrenchrevolution！’’well，thefuturemustdecidewhetheritwouldnothavebeenbetterforthereposeofthewholeworldifneithermyselfnorRousseauhadeverlived。’Hethenresumedhispromenadeinarevery。\"—StanislasGirardin；\"JournaletMémoires，\"III。，VisitoftheFrenchConsultoErmenonville。
[131]Marmont，\"Mémoires，\"III。，337。（OnreturningfromWagram。）
[132]Onthisinitialdiscord，cf。ArmandLefèvre，\"HistoiredesCabinetsdel’Europe，\"vol。VI。
[133]\"CorrespondancedeNapoléonI。\"（LettertotheKingofWurtemberg，April2，1811。）
[134]TestamentofApril25，1821\"ItismydesirethatmyremainsrestonthebanksoftheSeine，amidstthatFrenchpeopleIhavesodearlyloved。\"
[135]\"CorrespondancedeNapoleonI。，XXII。，119。（NotebyNapoleon，April，1811。）\"TherewillalwaysbeatHamburg，Bremen，andLubeckfrom8000to10，000Frenchmen，eitherasemployeesorasgendarmes，inthecustom—housesandwarehouses。\"
[136]\"Souvenirs\"，byPASQUIER（Etienne—Dennis，duc），LibrariePlon，Paris1893。—，II。，88，andfollowingpages:\"Duringtheyear1813，fromJan。1toOct。7，840，000menhadalreadybeendraftedfromimperialFranceandtheyhadtobefurnished。\"—OtherdecreesinDecember，placingatthedispositionofthegovernment300，000
conscriptsfortheyears1806to1814inclusive。—AnotherdecreeinNovemberorganizing140，000menofthenationalguardincohorts，intendedforthedefenseofstrongholds。—Inall，1，300，000mensummonedinoneyear。\"Neverhasanynationbeenthusaskedtoletitselfbevoluntarilyledinamasstotheslaughterhouse。—Ibid。，II。，59。Senatus—consulte，andorderofcouncilforraising10，000
youngmen，exemptorredeemedfromconscription，astheprefectsmightchoose，arbitrarily，fromamongstthehighestclassesinsociety。Thepurposewasplainly\"tosecurehostagesineveryfamilyofdoubtfulloyalty。NomeasurecreatedforNapoleonmoreirreconcilableenemies。\"
—Cf。DeSégur，II。，34。（Hewaschargedwithorganizingandcommandingadivisionofyoungmen。）ManyweresonsofVendéansorofConventionalists，sometornfromtheirwivesthedayaftertheirmarriage，orfromthebedsideofawifeinherconfinement，ofadyingfather，orofasickson；\"somelookedsofeeblethattheyseemeddying。\"Onehalfperishedinthecampaignof1814。—\"
Correspondance，\"lettertoClarke，MinisterofWar，Oct。23，1813（inrelationtothenewlevies）:\"Irelyon100，000refractoryconscripts。\"
[137]\"Archivesnationales，\"AF。，VI。，1297。（Documents206to210。）
（ReporttotheEmperorbyCountDumas，April10，1810。）Besidesthe170millionsofpenalties1，675，457francsofpenaltywereinflictedon2335individuals，\"abettorsoraccomplices。\"—Ibid。，AF。，VI。，1051。（ReportofGen。LacosteonthedepartmentofHaute—Loire，Oct。
13，1808。）\"Healwayscalculatedinthisdepartmentonthedesertionofone—halfoftheconscripts。Inmostofthecantonsthegendarmestrafficwiththeconscriptionshamefully；certainconscriptspensionthemtoshowthemfavors。\"—Ibid。，AF。，VI。，1052。（ReportbyPelet，Jan。12，1812。）\"Theoperationoftheconscriptionhasimproved（intheHerault）；thecontingentsof1811havebeenfurnished。Thereremained1800refractory，ordesertersofthepreviousclasses；1600havebeenarrestedormadetosurrenderbytheflyingcolumn；200havestilltobepursued。\"Faber，—\"Notice（1807）surl’intérieurdelaFrance，\"p。141:\"Desertion，especiallyonthefrontiers，isoccasionallyfrightful；80desertersoutof160
havesometimesbeenarrested。\"—Ibid。，p。149:Ithasbeenstatedinthepublicjournalsthatin1801thecourtinsessionatLillehadcondemned135refractoryoutoftheannualconscription，andthatwhichholdsitssittingsatGhenthadcondemned70。Now，200
conscriptsformthemaximumofwhatanarrondissementinadepartmentcouldfurnish。\"—Ibid，p。145。\"Franceresemblesavasthouseofdetentionwhereeverybodyissuspiciousofhisneighbor，whereeachavoidstheother……Oneoftenseesayoungmanwithagendarmeathisheelsoftentimes，onlookingclosely，thisyoungman’shandsarefoundtied，orheishandcuffed。\"—MathieuDumas，III。，507（AfterthebattleofDresden，intheDresdenhospitals）:\"Iobserved，withsorrow，thatmanyofthesemenwereslightlywounded:mostofthem，youngconscriptsjustarrivedinthearmy，hadnotbeenwoundedbytheenemy’sfire，buttheyhadmutilatedeachother’sfeetandhands。
Antecedentsofthiskind，ofequallybadaugury，hadalreadybeenremarkedinthecampaignof1809。\"
[138]DeSégur，III。，474。—Thiers，XIV。，159。（OnemonthaftercrossingtheNiemenonehundredandfiftythousandmenhaddroppedoutoftheranks。）
[139]Bulletin29（December3，1812）。
[140]DePradt，Histoiredel’AmbassadedeVarsovie，\"p。219。
[141]M。deMetternich，I。，147。—Fain，\"Manuscript，\"of1813，II。，26。（Napoleon’saddresstohisgenerals。）\"Whatwewantisacompletetriumph。Toabandonthisorthatprovinceisnotthequestion；ourpoliticalsuperiorityandourexistencedependonit。\"—II。，41，42。
（WordsofNapoleontoMetternich。）\"Anditismyfather—in—lawwhofavorssuchaproject！Andhesendsyou！InwhatattitudedoeshewishtoplacemebeforetheFrenchpeople？Heisstrangelydeludedifhethinksthatamutilatedthronecanofferanasylumtohisdaughterandgrandson……Ah，Metternich，howmuchhasEnglandgivenyoutomakeyouplaythispartagainstme？\"（Thislastphrase，omittedinMetternich’snarrative，isacharacteristictrait；Napoleonatthisdecisivemoment，remainsinsultingandaggressive，gratuitouslyandeventohisowndestruction。）
[142]\"SouvenirsdufeuducdeBroglie，\"I。，235。
[143]Ibid。，I。，230。SomedaysbeforeNapoleonhadsaidtoM。deNarbonne，whotoldmethatveryevening:\"Afterall，whathasthis（theRussiancampaign）costme？300，000men，amongwhom，again，wereagoodmanyGermans。\"—\"Souvenirs\"，byPASQUIER（Etienne—Dennis，duc，LibrariePlon，Paris1893。II。110。（AproposoftheFrankfurtbasis，andacceptedbyNapoleonwhentoolate。）\"WhatcharacterizesthismistakeisthatitwascommittedmuchmoreagainsttheinterestsofFrancethanagainsthisown……Hesacrificedhertotheperplexitiesofhispersonalsituation，tothemauvaisehonteofhisownambition，tothedifficultyhefindsinstandingalonetoacertainextentbeforeanationwhichhaddoneeverythingforhimandwhichcouldjustlyreproachhimwithhavingsacrificedsomuchtreasureandspilledsomuchbloodonenterprisesprovedtohavebeenfoolishandimpracticable。\"
[144]LeoncedeLavergne，\"EconomieruraledelaFrance，\"P。40。
（AccordingtotheformerdirectoroftheconscriptionundertheEmpire。）
BOOKSECOND。FORMATIONANDCHARACTEROFTHENEWSTATE。
CHAPTERI。
I。TheInstitutionofGovernment。
Conditionsonwhichthepublicpowercanact。—Twopointsforgottenbytheauthorsoftheprecedingconstitutions。—Difficultyoftheundertakingandpoorqualityoftheavailablematerials。
Everyhumansocietyrequiresgovernment，thatistosayanauthority。
Noothermachineryismoreuseful。Butamachineryisusefulonlyifitisadaptedtoitspurpose；ifnotitwillnotwork，ormayevenworkcontrarytoitspurpose。Hence，duringitsconstruction，onemustfirstofallconsiderthemagnitudeoftheworkithastodoaswellasthequalityofthematerialsonehasatone’sdisposal。Itisveryimportanttoknowbeforehandwhetheritwilllift100orof100，000
kilograms，whetherthepiecesfittedtogetherwillbeofironorofsteel，ofsoundorofunsoundtimber。—Butthelegislatorshadnottakenthatintoconsiderationduringthelasttenyears。Theyhadsetthemselvesupastheoreticians，andlikewiseasoptimists，withoutlookingatthethings，orelseimaginingthethemastheywishedtohavethem。Inthenationalassemblies，aswellaswiththepublic，thetaskwasdeemedeasyandsimple，whereasitwasextraordinaryandimmense；forthematterinhandconsistedineffectingasocialrevolutionandincarryingonanEuropeanwar。Thematerialsweresupposedtobeexcellent，asmanageableastheyweresubstantial，while，infact，theywereverypoor，beingbothrefractoryandbrittle，forthesehumanmaterialsconsistedoftheFrenchmenof1789
andofthefollowingyears；thatistosay，ofexceedinglysensitivemendoingeachotherallpossibleharm，inexperiencedinpoliticalbusiness，Utopians，impatient，intractable，andoverexcited。
Calculationshadbeenmadeontheseprodigiouslyfalsedata；
consequently，althoughthecalculationswereveryexact，theresultsobtainedwerefoundabsurd。Relyingonthesedata，themachinehadbeenplanned，andallitspartsbeenadjusted，assembled，andbalanced。Thatiswhythemachine，irreproachableintheory，remainedunsuccessfulinpractice:thebetteritappearedonpaperthequickeritbrokedownwhensetupontheground。
II。Defaultofpreviousgovernment。
Theconsequencesoftheyears1789to1799。—Insubordinationofthelocalpowers，conflictofthecentralpowers，suppressionofliberalinstitutions，andtheestablishmentofanunstabledespotism。—Evil—
doingofthegovernmentthusformed。
Acapitaldefectatoncedeclareditselfinthetwoprincipalcompositions，intheworkinggearofthesuperposedpowersandinthebalanceofthemotorpowers。—Inthefirstplace，theholdgiventothecentralgovernmentonitslocalsubordinateswasevidentlytoofeeble；withnorighttoappointthese，itcouldnotselectthemasitpleased，accordingtotherequirementsoftheservice。Department，district，canton，andcommuneadministrators，civilandcriminaljudges，assessors，appraisers，andcollectorsoftaxes，officersofthenational—guardandevenofthegendarmerie，police—commissioners，andotheragentswhohadtoenforcelawsonthespot，werenearlyallrecruitedelsewhere:eitherinpopularassembliesorprovidedready—
madebyelectedbodies。[1]Theywereforitmerelyborrowedinstruments；thusoriginating，theyescapeditscontrol；itcouldnotmakethemworkasitwantedthemtowork。Onmostoccasionstheywouldshirktheirduties；atothertimes，onreceivingorders，theywouldstandinert；or，again，theywouldactoutsideoforbeyondtheirspecialfunction，eithergoingtoofaroractinginacontrarysense；
neverdidtheyactwithmoderationandprecision，withcoherenceandconsequence。Forthisreasonanydesireofthegovernmenttodoitsjobprovedunsuccessful。Itslegalsubordinates—incapable，timid，lukewarm，unmanageable，orevenhostile—obeyedbadly，didnotobeyatall，orwillfullydisobeyed。Thebladeoftheexecutiveinstrument，looseinthehandle，glancedorbrokeoffwhenthethrusthadtobemade。
Inthesecondplace，nevercouldthetwoorthreemotorforcesthrustingthehandleactinharmony，owingtotheclashingofsomanyofthem；onealwaysendedinbreakingdowntheother。TheConstituentAssemblyhadsetasidetheKing，theLegislativeAssemblyhaddeposedhim，theConventionhaddecapitatedhim。AfterwardeachfractionofthesovereignbodyintheConventionhadproscribedtheother；theMontagnardshadguillotinedtheGirondists，andtheThermidorianshadguillotinedtheMontagnards。Later，undertheConstitutionoftheyearIII，theFructidorianshadbanishedtheConstitutionalists，theDirectoryhadpurgedtheCouncils，andtheCouncilshadpurgedtheDirectory。—Notonlydidthedemocraticandparliamentaryinstitutionfailinitsworkandbreakdownontrial，but，again，throughitsownaction，itbecametransformedintoitsopposite。Inayearortwoacoupd’étatinParistookplace；afactionseizedthecentralpowerandconverteditintoanabsolutepowerinthehandsoffiveorsixringleaders。Thenewgovernmentatoncere—forgedtheexecutiveinstrumentforitsownadvantageandrefastenedthebladefirmlyonthehandle；intheprovincesitdismissedthoseelectedbythepeopleanddeprivedthegovernedoftherighttochoosetheirownrulers；
henceforth，throughitsproconsulsonmission，orthroughitsresidentcommissioners，italoneappointed，superintended，andregulatedonthespotalllocalauthorities。[2]
Thustheliberalconstitution，atitsclose，gavebirthtoacentralizeddespotism，andthiswastheworstofitsspecies，atonceformlessandmonstrous；foritwasbornoutofacivilcrime，whilethegovernmentwhichusedithadnosupportbutabandofbigotedfanaticsorpoliticaladventurers；withoutanylegalauthorityoverthenation，oranymoralholdonthearmy，detested，threatened，discordant，exposedtotheresistanceofitsownupholders，tothetreacheryofitsownmembers，andlivingonlyfromdaytoday，itcouldmaintainitselfonlythroughabrutalabsolutismandpermanentterror，whilethepublicpowerofwhichthefirstcareistheprotectionofproperty，consciences，andlives，becameinitshandstheworstofpersecutors，robbers，andmurderers。
III。
In1799，theundertakingismoredifficultandthematerialsworse。
Twiceinsuccessionhadtheexperimentbeentried，themonarchicalconstitutionof1791，andtherepublicanconstitutionof1795；twiceinsuccessionhadthesameeventsfollowedthesamecoursetoattainthesameend；twiceinsuccessionhadthetheoretical，cunningly—
devisedmachineforuniversalprotectionchangedintoanefficientandbrutalmachineforuniversaloppression。Itisevidentthatifthesamemachinewerestartedthethirdtimeunderanalogousconditions，onemightexpecttoseeitworkinthesamemanner；thatistosay，contrarytoitspurpose。
Now，in1799，theconditionswereanalogous，andevenworse，fortheworkwhichthemachinehadtodowasnotless，whilethehumanmaterialsavailableforitsconstructionwerenotsogood。—
Externally，thecountrywasconstantlyatwarwithEurope；peacecouldnotbesecuredexceptbygreatmilitaryeffort，andpeacewasasdifficulttopreserveastowin。TheEuropeanequilibriumhadbeentoogreatlydisturbed；neighboringorrivalStateshadsufferedtoomuch；
therancoranddistrustprovokedbytheinvadingrevolutionaryrepublicweretooactive；thesewouldhavelastedalongtimeagainstpacifiedFranceevenaftershehadconcludedreasonabletreaties。Evenshouldsheabandonapolicyofpropagandaandinterference，returnbrilliantacquisitions，ceasethedominationofprotectorates，andabandonthedisguisedannexationofItaly，Holland，andSwitzerland，thenationwasstillboundtokeepwatchunderarms。Agovernmentabletoconcentrateallitsforces—thatistosay，placedaboveandbeyondalldisputeandpromptlyobeyed—wasindispensable，ifonlytoremainintactandcomplete，tokeepBelgiumandthefrontieroftheRhine。—Likewiseinternally，andfornootherpurposethantorestorecivilorder；forhere，too，theoutragesoftheRevolutionhadbeentoogreat。Therehadbeentoomuchspoliation，toomanyimprisonments，exiles，andmurders，toomanyviolationsofeverykind，toomanyinvasionsoftherightsofpropertyandofpersons，publicandprivate。Itwassomuchmoredifficult*Toinsurerespectforpersonsandallprivateandpublicpossessions；
*torestrainatoncebothRoyalistsandJacobins；
*torestore140，000émigréstotheircountryandyetsatisfy1，200，000possessorsofnationalproperty；
*togivebackto25，000，000oforthodoxCatholicstheright，faculty，andmeansforworshipping，andyetnotallowtheschismaticclergytobemaltreated；
*tobringfacetofaceinthesamecommunethedispossessedseigneurandthepeasantholdersofhisdomain；
*tocompelthedelegatesoftheCommitteeofPublicSafetyandtheirvictims，theshootersandtheshotofVendémiaire，theFructidoriansandtheFructidorized，theWhitesandtheBluesofLaVendéeandBrittany，toliveinpeacesidebyside，becausethefuturelaborersinthisimmensework，fromthevillagemayortothestate—senatorandstate—councilor，hadborneapartintheRevolution，eitherineffectingitorundersubjectiontoit—
Monarchists，Feuillantists，Girondists，Montagnards，Thermidorians，moderateJacobinsordesperateJacobins，alloppressedinturnanddisappointedintheircalculations。Theirpassions，underthisrégime，hadbecomeembittered；eachbroughtpersonalbiasandresentmentintotheperformanceofhisduties；topreventhimfrombeingunjustandmischievousdemandedatightenedcurb。[3]Allsenseofconviction，underthisrégime，haddiedout；nobodywouldservegratisasin1789；[4]nobodywouldworkwithoutpay；disinterestednesshadlostallcharm；ostentatiouszealseemedhypocrisy；genuinezealseemedself—
dupery；eachlookedoutforhimselfandnotforthecommunity；publicspirithadyieldedtoindifference，toegotism，andtotheneedofsecurity，ofenjoyment，andofself—advancement。Humanmaterials，deterioratedbytheRevolution，werelessthaneversuitedtoprovidingcitizens—theysimplyfurnishedfunctionaries。Withsuchwheelscombinedtogetheraccordingtoformulacurrentbetween1791and1795，therequisiteworkcouldnotpossiblybedone。Asaconsequence，definitelyandforalongtime，anyuseofthetwogreatliberalmechanismsweredoomed。Solongasthewheelsremainedofsuchpoorqualityandthetasksohard，boththeelectionoflocalpowersandthedivisionofthecentralpowerhadtobeabandoned。
IV。
Motivesforsuppressingtheelectionoflocalpowers。—TheElectors。
—Theiregoismandpartiality。—TheElected。—Theirinertia，corruption，anddisobedience。
Allwereagreedonthefirstpoint。Ifanystilldoubted，theyhadonlytoopentheireyes，fixthemonthelocalauthorities，watchthemassoonasborn，andfollowthemthroughouttheexerciseoftheirfunctions。—Naturally，infillingeachoffice，theelectorshadchosenamanoftheirownspeciesandcaliber；theirfixedanddominantdispositionwasaccordinglywellknown；theywereindifferenttopublicmattersandthereforetheircandidatewasasindifferentasthemselves。Hadtheyshowntoogreataconcernforthenationthiswouldhavepreventedtheirelection；theStatetothemwasatroublesomemoralistandremotecreditor。Theircandidatemustchoosebetweenthemandthisintruder，sidewiththemagainstit，andnotactasapedagogueinitsnameorasbailiffonitsbehalf。Whenpowerisbornonthespotandconferredto—daybyconstituentswhoaretosubmittoitto—morrowassubordinates，theydonotputthewhipinthehandsofonewhowillflogthem；theydemandsentimentsofhiminconformitywiththeirinclinations；inanyeventtheywillnottolerateinhimtheoppositeones。Fromthebeginning，thisresemblancebetweenthemandhimisgreat，anditgoesonincreasingfromdaytodaybecausethecreatureisalwaysinthehandsofhiscreators；subjecttotheirdailypressure，heatlastbecomesastheyare；afteracertainperiodtheyhaveshapedhimintheirimage。—
Thusthecandidate—elect，fromthestartorverysoonafter，becameaconfederatewithhiselectors。Atonetime，andthisoccurredfrequently，especiallyinthetowns，hehadbeenelectedbyaviolentsectarianminority；hethensubordinatedgeneralintereststotheinterestsofaclique。Atanother，andespeciallyintheruraldistricts，hehadbeenelectedbyanignorantandbrutalmajority，whenheaccordinglysubordinatedgeneralintereststothoseofavillage。—Ifhechancedtobeconscientiousandsomewhatintelligentandwasanxioustodohisduty，hecouldnot；hefelthimselfweakandwasfelttobeweak；[5]bothauthorityandthemeansforexercisingitwerewantinginhim。Hehadnottheforcewhichapowerabovecommunicatestoitsdelegatesbelow；nobodysawbehindhimthegovernmentandthearmy；hisonlyresourcewasanational—guard，whicheithershirkedorrefusedtodoitsduty，andwhichoftendidnotexistatall。—Onthecontrary，hecouldprevaricate，pillage，andpersecuteforhisownadvantageandthatofhiscliquewithimpunity；
fortherewasnorestraintonhimfromabove；theParisJacobinswouldnotbedisposedtoalienatetheJacobinsoftheprovince；theywerepartisansandallies，andthegovernmenthadfewothers；itwasboundtoretainthem，toletthemintrigueandembezzleatwill。
Supposeanextensivedomainofwhichthestewardisappointed，notbytheabsentowner，butbyhistenants，debtors，farmers，anddependents:thereadermayimaginewhetherrentswillbepaidanddebtscollected，whetherroad—taxeswillbeworkedout，whatcarewillbetakenoftheproperty，whatitsannualincomewillbetotheowner，howabusesofcommissionandomissionwillbemultipliedindefinitely，howgreatthedisorderwillbe，theneglect，thewaste，thefraud，theinjustice，andthelicense。—ThesameinFrance，[6]andforthesamereason:
*everypublicservicedisorganized，destroyed，orperverted；
*nojustice，nopolice；
*authoritiesabstainingfromprosecution，magistratesnotdaringtocondemn，agendarmeriewhichreceivesnoordersorwhichstandsstill；
*ruralmaraudingbecomeahabit；
*rovingbandsofbrigandsinforty—fivedepartments；
*mailwagonsandcoachesstoppedandpillagedevenuptotheenvironsofParis；
*highwaysbrokenupandrenderedimpassable；
*opensmuggling，customsyieldingnothing，nationalforestsdevastated，thepublictreasuryempty，[7]itsrevenuesinterceptedandexpendedbeforebeingdeposited，taxesdecreedandnotcollected；
*everywherearbitraryassessmentsofrealandpersonalestate，nolesswickedexemptionsthanovercharges；
*inmanyplacesnolistpreparedfortaxassessments，*communeswhichhereandthere，underpretextofdefendingtherepublicagainstneighboringconsumers，exemptthemselvesfrombothtaxandconscription；
*conscriptstowhomtheirmayorgivesfalsecertificatesofinfirmityandmarriage，whodonotturnoutwhenorderedout，whodesertbyhundredsonthewaytoheadquarters，whoformmobsandusegunsindefendingthemselvesagainstthetroops，—
suchwerethefruitsofthesystem。
Thegovernmentcouldnotconstrainruralmajoritieswiththeofficialschosenbytheselfishandineptruralmajorities。Neithercoulditrepresstheurbanminoritieswithagentselectedbythesamepartialandcorrupturbanminorities。Handsarenecessary，andhandsasfirmastenacious，toseizeconscriptsbythecollar，torummagethepocketsoftaxpayers，andtheStatedidnothavesuchhands。Theywererequiredrightaway，ifonlytoprepareandprovideforurgentneeds。
Ifthewesterndepartmentshadtobesubduedandtranquilized，relieffurnishedtoMassenabesiegedinGenoa，MélaspreventedfrominvadingProvence，Moreau’sarmytransportedovertheRhine，thefirstthingwastorestoretothecentralgovernmenttheappointmentoflocalauthorities。
V。Reasonsforcentralization。
Reasonsforplacingtheexecutivecentralpowerinonehand。—Sieyès’
chimericalcombinations。—Bonaparte’sobjections。
Onthissecondpoint，theevidencewasscarcelyless。—Andclearly，themomentthelocalpowersowedtheirappointmenttothecentralpowers，itisplainthatthecentralexecutivepower，onwhichtheydepend，shouldbeunique。For，thisgreatteamoffunctionaries，drivenfromaloft，couldnothavealoftseveraldistinctdrivers；
beingseveralanddistinct，thedriverswouldeachpullhisownway，whilethehorses，pullinginoppositedirections，woulddonothingbutprance。InthisrespectthecombinationsofSieyèsdonotbearexamination。Ameretheoristandchargedwithpreparingtheplanofanewconstitution，hehadreasonedasifthedriversontheboxwerenotmen，butrobots:perchedaboveall，agrand—elector，ashowsovereign，withtwoplacestodisposeofandalwayspassive，excepttoappointorrevoketwoactivesovereigns，thetwogoverningconsuls。
One，apeace—consul，appointingallcivilofficers，andtheotherawar—consul，makingallmilitaryanddiplomaticappointments；eachwithhisownministers，hisowncouncilofstate，hisowncourtofjudicature。Allthesefunctionaries，ministers，consuls，andthegrand—electorhimself，wererevocableatthewillofasenatewhichfromdaytodaycouldabsorbthem，thatistosay，makethemsenatorswithasalaryof30，000francsandanembroidereddress—coat。[8]
Sieyèsevidentlyhadnottakenintoaccounteithertheworktobedoneorthemenwhowouldhavetodoit，whileBonaparte，whowasdoingtheworkatthisverytime，whounderstoodmenandwhounderstoodhimself，atonceputhisfingerontheweakspotofthiscomplexmechanism，sobadlyadjustedandsofrail。Twoconsuls，[9]\"onecontrollingtheministersofjustice，oftheinterior，ofthepolice，ofthetreasury，andtheothertheministersofwar，ofthenavy，andofforeignaffairs。\"Theconflictbetweenthemiscertain；lookatthemfacingeachother，subjecttocontraryinfluencesandsuggestions:aroundtheformer\"onlyjudges，administrators，financiers，andmeninlongrobes，\"androundthelatter\"onlyepauletsandmenofthesword。\"
Certainly\"onewillneedmoneyandrecruitsforhisarmywhichtheotherwillnotgrant。\"—Anditisnotyourgrand—electorwhowillmakethemagree。\"Ifheconformsstrictlytothefunctionswhichyouassigntohimhewillbethemereghost，thefleshlessphantomofaroifainéant。Doyouknowanymanvileenoughtotakepartinsuchcontrivances？Howcanyouimagineanymanoftalentoratallhonorablecontentedlyplayingthepartofahogfatteninghimselfonafewmillions？\"—Andallthemorebecauseifhewantstoabandonhispartthedoorstandsopen。\"WereIthegrand—electorIwouldsaytothewar—consulandtothepeace—consulonappointingthem，IfyouputinaministerorsignabillIdon’tlikeI’llputyouout。\"Thusdoesthegrand—electorbecomeanactive，absolutemonarch。
\"But，\"youmaysay，\"thesenateinitsturnwillabsorbthegrand—
elector。\"—\"Theremedyisworsethanthedisease；nobody，accordingtothisplan，hasanyguarantees，\"andeach，therefore，willtrytosecurethemtohimself，thegrand—electoragainstthesenate，theconsulsagainstthegrand—elector，andthesenateagainstthegrand—
electorandconsulscombined，eachuneasy，alarmed，threatened，threatening，andusurpingtoprotecthimself；thesearethewheelswhichworkthewrongway，inamachineconstantlygettingoutoforder，stopping，andfinallybreakingdownentirely。
Thereupon，andasBonaparte，moreover，wasalreadymaster，alltheexecutivepowerswerereducedtoone，andthispowerwasvestedinhim。[10]Inreality，\"tohumorrepublicanopinion\"[11]theygavehimtwoassociateswiththesametitleashisown；buttheywereappointedonlyforshow，simplyasconsulting，inferior，anddocileregistrars，withnorightssavethatofsigningtheirnamesafterhisandputtingtheirsignaturestotheprocèsverbaldeclaringhisorders；healonecommanded，\"healonehadthesay，healoneappointedtoalloffices，\"
sothattheywerealreadysubjectsashealonewasalreadythesovereign。
VI。Irreconcilabledivisions。
Difficultyoforganizingalegislativepower。—Fraudulentandviolentelectionsfortenyears。—SpiritanddiffusionofhatredagainstthemenanddogmasoftheRevolution。—ProbablecompositionofafreelyelectedAssembly。—Itstwoirreconcilabledivisions。—Sentimentsofthearmy。—Proximityandprobablemeaningofanewcoupd’état。
Itremainedtoframealegislativepowerasacounterpoisetothisexecutivepower，soconcentratedandsostrong。—Inorganizedandtolerablysoundcommunitiesthispointisreachedthroughanelectiveparliamentwhichrepresentsthepublicwill；itrepresentsthisbecauseitisacopy，afaithfulreductionofthatwillonasmallscale；itissoorganizedastopresentaloyalandproportionateexpressionofdiversecontrollingopinions。Inthiscase，theelectoralselectionhasworkedwell；onesuperiorright，thatofelection，hasbeenrespected，or，inotherwords，thepassionsexcitedhavenotprovedtoostrong，whichisowingtothemostimportantinterestsnothavingprovedtoodivergent。—Unfortunately，inFrance，rentasunderanddiscordant，allthemostimportantinterestswereinsharpantagonism；thepassionsbroughtintoplay，consequently，werefurious；norightwasrespected，andleastofallthatofelection；
hencetheelectoraltestworkedbadly，andnoelectedparliamentwasorcouldbeaveritableexpressionofthepublicwill。Since1791，theelections，violatedanddeserted，hadbroughtintrudersonlytothelegislativebenches，underthenameofmandatories。Thesewereenduredforlackofbetter；butnobodyhadanyconfidenceinthem，andnobodyshowedthemanydeference。Peopleknewhowtheyhadbeenelectedandhowlittletheirtitlewasworth。Throughinertness，fear，ordisgust，thegreatmajorityofelectorshadnotvoted，whilethevotersatthepollsfoughtamongthemselves，thestrongestorleastscrupulousexpellingorconstrainingtherest。DuringthelastthreeyearsoftheDirectorytheelectoralassemblywasoftendivided；eachfactionelecteditsowndeputyandprotestedagainsttheelectionoftheother。Thegovernmentthenchosebetweenthetwocandidateselected，arbitrarilyandalwayswithbarefacedpartiality；andagain，ifbutonecandidatewaselected，andthatoneanadversary，hiselectionwasinvalidated。Insum，fornineyears，thelegislativebody，imposedonthenationbyafaction，wasscarcelymorelegitimatethantheexecutivepower，anotherusurper，andwhich，lateron，filleduporpurgeditsranks。Anyremedyforthisdefectintheelectoralmachinewasimpossible；itwasduetoitsinternalstructure，totheveryqualityofitsmaterials。Atthisdate，evenunderanimpartialandstronggovernment，themachinecouldnothaveanswereditspurpose，thatofderivingfromthenationabodyofsober—mindedandrespecteddelegates，providingFrancewithaparliamentcapableofplayingitsownpart，oranypartwhatever，intheconductofpublicbusiness。
For，suppose*thatthenewgovernorsshowuncommonloyalty，energy，andvigilance，remarkablepoliticalabnegationandadministrativeomnipresence，*thatthefactionsarecontainedwithoutsuppressionoffreespeech，*thecentralpowersneutralyetactive，*noofficialcandidature，*nopressurefromabove，*noconstraintfrombelow，*thepolice—commissionersrespectfulandgendarmesprotectingtheentrancetoeveryelectoralassembly，*allproceedingsregular，nodisturbanceinside，votingperfectlyfree，theelectorsnumerous，fiveorsixmillionsofFrenchmengatheredatthepolls，andguesswhatchoicetheywillmake。
AfterFructidor，thereisarenewalofreligiouspersecutionandofexcessiveciviloppression；thebrutalityandunworthinessoftherulershavedoubledanddiffusedhatredagainstthemenandtheideasoftheRevolution。—InBelgium，recentlyannexed，theregularandsecularclergyhadjustbeenproscribedinamass，[12]andagreatruralinsurrectionhadbrokenout。TheuprisinghadspreadfromtheWaescountryandtheancientseignoryofMalines，aroundLouvainasfarasTirlemont，andafterwardtoBrussels，toCampine，toSouthBrabant，toFlanders，toLuxembourg，intheArdennes，andeventothefrontiersofLiège；manyvillageshadtobeburned，andmanyoftheirinhabitantskilled，andthesurvivorskeepthisinmind。Inthetwelvewesterndepartments，[13]atthebeginningoftheyear1800，theroyalistsweremastersofnearlythewholecountryandhadcontroloffortythousandarmedmeninregimentalorder；undoubtedlytheseweretobeovercomeanddisarmed，buttheywerenottobedeprivedoftheiropinions，asoftheirguns。—InthemonthofAugust，1799，[14]
sixteenthousandinsurgentsinHauteGaronneandthesixneighboringdepartments，ledbyCountdePaulo，hadunfurledtheroyalwhiteflag；
oneofthecantons，Cadours，\"hadrisenalmostentirely；\"acertaintown，Muret，sentallitsable—bodiedmen。TheyhadpenetratedeventotheoutskirtsofToulouse，andseveralengagements，includingapitchedbattle，werenecessarytosubduethem。Ononeoccasion，atMontréjean，2000wereslainordrowned。Thepeasantsfoughtwithfury，\"afurythatborderedonfrenzy；\"\"somewereheardtoexclaimwiththeirlastbreath，’ViveleRoi！’andotherswerecuttopiecesratherthanshout，’VivelaRépublique！’\"—FromMarseillestoLyonstherevoltlastedfiveyearsonbothbanksoftheRh？ne，undertheformofbrigandage；theroyalistbands，increasedbyrefractoryconscriptsandfavoredbytheinhabitantswhomtheyspared，killedorpillagedtheagentsoftherepublicandthebuyersofnationalpossessions。[15]
Therewerethus，inmorethanthirtydepartments，intermittentandscatteredVendées。InalltheCatholicdepartmentstherewasalatentVendée。Hadtheelectionsbeenfreeduringthisstateofexasperationitisprobablethatone—halfofFrancewouldhavevotedformenoftheancientrégime—Catholics，Royalists，or，atleast，theMonarchistsof1790。
Letthereaderimaginefacingthisparty，inthesamechamber，aboutanequalnumberofrepresentativeselectedbytheotherparty；theonlyonesitcouldselect，itsnotables，thatistosay，thesurvivorsofprecedingassemblies，probablyConstitutionalistsoftheyearIV
andtheyearV，ConventionalistsofthePlainandoftheFeuillantsof1792，fromLafayetteandDumolardtoDaunou，ThibaudeauandGrégoire，amongthemGirondistsandafewMontagnards，Barère，[16]withothers，allofthemweddedtothetheorythesameastheiradversariestotraditions。Toonewhoisfamiliarwiththetwogroups，beholdtwoinimicaldoctrinesconfrontingeachother；twoirreconcilablesystemsofopinionsandpassions，twocontradictorymodesofconceivingsovereignty，law，society，theState，property，religion，theChurch，theancientrégime，theRevolution，thepresentandthepast；itiscivilwartransferredfromthenationtotheparliament。CertainlytheRightwouldliketoseetheFirstConsulaMonck，whichwouldleadtohisbecomingaCromwell；forhispowerdependsentirelyonhiscreditwiththearmy，thenthesovereignforce；atthisdatethearmyisstillrepublican，atleastinfeelingifnotintelligently，imbuedwithJacobinprejudices，attachedtorevolutionaryinterests，andhenceblindlyhostiletoaristocrats，kings，andpriests。[17]AtthefirstthreatofamonarchicalandCatholicrestorationitwilldemandofhimaneighteenthFructidor[18]；otherwise，someJacobingeneral，Jourdan，Bernadotte，orAugereau，willmakeonewithouthim，againsthim，andtheyfallbackintotherutfromwhichtheywishedtoescape，intothefatalcircleofrevolutionsandcoupsd’état。
VII。EstablishmentofanewDictatorship。
TheelectoralandlegislativecombinationsofSieyès。—Bonaparte’suseofthem。—Paralysisandsubmissionofthethreelegislativebodies。—TheSenateastheruler’stool。—Senatus—consultesandPlebiscites。—FinalestablishmentoftheDictatorship。—Itsdangersandnecessity。—Publicpowernowabletodoitswork。
Sieyèscomprehendedthis:hedetectsonthehorizonthetwospecterswhich，fortenyears，havehauntedallthegovernmentsofFrance，legalanarchyandunstabledespotism；hehasfoundamagicformulawithwhichtoexorcisethesetwophantoms；henceforth\"poweristocomefromaboveandconfidencefrombelow。\"[19]—Consequently，thenewconstitutionalactwithdrawsfromthenationtherighttoelectitsdeputies；itwillsimplyelectcandidatestothedeputationandthroughthreedegreesofelection，oneabovetheother；thus，itistotakepartinthechoiceofitscandidatesonlythrough\"anillusoryandmetaphysicalparticipation。\"[20]Therightoftheelectorsofthefirstdegreeiswhollyreducedtodesignatingone—tenthamongthemselves；therightofthoseoftheseconddegreeisalsoreducedtodesignatingone—tenthamongthemselves；therightofthoseofthethirddegreeisfinallyreducedtodesignatingone—tenthoftheirnumber，aboutsixthousandcandidates。Onthislist，thegovernmentitself，byrightandbywayofincreasingthenumber，inscribesitsownhighfunctionaries；evidently，onsuchalonglist，itwillhavenodifficultyinfindingmenwho，assimpletools，willbedevotedtoit。Throughanotherexcessofprecaution，thegovernment，onitssoleauthority，intheabsenceofanylist，alonenamesthefirstlegislature。Lastofall，itiscarefultoattachhandsomesalariestotheselegislativeoffices，10，000f。，15，000f。，and30，000f。ayear；
partiescanvasswithitfortheseplacestheveryfirstday，thefuturedepositariesoflegislativepowerbeing，tobeginwith，solicitorsoftheantechamber。—Torendertheirdocilitycomplete，thereisadismembermentofthislegislativepowerinadvance；itisdividedamongthreebodies，bornfeebleandpassivebyinstitution。
Neitherofthesehasanyinitiative；theirdeliberationsareconfinedtolawsproposedbythegovernment。Eachpossessesonlyafragmentoffunction；the\"Tribunat\"discusseswithoutpassinglaws，the\"CorpsLégislatif\"decreeswithoutdiscussion，theconservative\"Sénat\"istomaintainthisgeneralparalysis。\"Whatdoyouwant？\"saidBonapartetoLafayette。[21]\"Sieyèseverywhereputnothingbutghosts，theghostofalegislativepower，theghostofajudiciary，theghostofagovernment。Somethingsubstantialhadtobeputintheirplace。Mafoi，Iputitthere，\"intheexecutivepower。
Thereitis，completelyinhishands；otherauthoritiestohimaremerelyforshoworasinstruments。[22]ThemutesoftheCorpsLégislatifcomeannuallytoParistokeepsilentforfourmonths；onedayhewillforgettoconvokethem，andnobodywillremarktheirabsence。—AstotheTribunat，whichtalkstoomuch，hewillatfirstreduceitswordstoaminimum\"byputtingitonthedietoflaws；\"
afterward，throughtheinterpositionofthesenate，whichdesignatesretiringmembers，hegetsridoftroublesomebabblers；finally，andalwaysthroughtheinterpositionofthesenate，titularinterpreter，guardian，andreformeroftheconstitution，heventilatesandthensuppressestheTribunatitself。—Thesenateisthegrandinstrumentbywhichhereigns；hecommandsittofurnishthesenatus—consultesofwhichhehasneed。Throughthiscomedyplayedbyhimabove，andthroughanothercomplementarycomedywhichheplaysbelow，theplebiscite，hetransformshisten—yearconsulateintoaconsulateforlife，andthenintoanempire，thatistosay，intoapermanent，legal，full，andperfectdictatorship。Inthiswaythenationishandedovertotheabsolutismofamanwho，beingaman，cannotfailtothinkofhisowninterestbeforeallothers。Itremainstobeseenhowfarandforhowlongatimethisinterest，ashecomprehendsit，orimaginesit，willaccordwiththeinterestofthepublic。AllthebetterforFranceshouldthisaccordprovecompleteandpermanent；alltheworseforFranceshoulditprovepartialandtemporary。Itisaterriblerisk，butinevitable。Thereisnoescapefromanarchyexceptthroughdespotism，withthechanceofencounteringinoneman，atfirstasaviorandthenadestroyer，withthecertaintyofhenceforthbelongingtoanunknownwillfashionedbygeniusandgoodsense，orbyimaginationandegoism，inasoulfieryanddisturbedbythetemptationsofabsolutepower，bysuccessanduniversaladulation，inadespotresponsibletonoonebuthimself，inaconquerorcondemnedbytheimpulsesofconquesttoregardhimselfandtheworldunderalightgrowingfalserandfalser。
Sucharethebitterfruitsofsocialdissolution:theauthorityofthestatewilleitherperishorbecomeperverted；eachusesitforhisownpurposes，andnobodyisdisposedtoentrustittoanexternalarbitrator，andtheusurperswhoseizeitonlyremaintrusteeonconditionthattheyabuseit；whenitworksintheirhandsitisonlytoworkagainstitsoffice。Itmustbeacceptedwhen，forwantofbetterorfearofworse，throughafinalusurpation，itfallsintotheonlyhandsabletorestoreit，organizeit，andapplyitatlasttotheserviceofthepublic。
_
Notes:
[1]\"TheRevolution，\"P。193andfollowingpages，alsop。224andfollowingpages。TheprovisionsoftheconstitutionoftheyearIII，somewhatlessanarchical，areanalogous；thoseofthe\"Mountain\"
constitution（yearII）aresoanarchicalthatnobodythoughtofenforcingthem。
[2]\"TheRevolution，\"vol。III。，pp。446，450，476。
[3]Sauzay，\"HistoiredelapersecutionrévolutionnairedansledépartementduDoubs，\"X。，472（SpeechofBriottothefive—hundred，Aug。29，1799）:\"Thecountryseeksinvainforitschildren；itfindsthechouans，theJacobins，themoderates，andtheconstitutionalistsof’91and’93，clubbists，theamnestied，fanatics，scissionistsandantiscissionists；invaindoesitcallforrepublicans。\"
[4]\"TheRevolution，\"III。，427，474。—Rocquain，\"L’étatdelaFranceau18Brumaire，\"360，362:\"Inertiaorabsenceofthenationalagents……Itwouldbepainfultothinkthatalackofsalarywasoneofthecausesofthedifficultyinestablishingmunicipaladministrations。In1790，1791，and1792，wefoundourfellow—citizensemulouslystrivingafterthesegratuitousofficesandevenproudofthedisinterestednesswhichthelawprescribed。\"（ReportoftheDirectory，endof1795。）
Afterthisdatepublicspiritisextinguished，stifledbytheReignofTerror。—Ibid。，368，369:\"Deplorableindifferenceforpublicoffices……OutofseventownofficialsappointedinthecommuneofLaval，onlyoneaccepted，andthatonetheleastcapable。Itisthesameintheothercommunes。\"—Ibid。，380（ReportoftheyearVII）:
\"Generaldeclineofpublicspirit。\"—Ibid。，287（ReportbyLacuée，onthe1stmilitarydivision，Aisne，Eure—et—Loire，Loiret，Oise，Seine，Seine—et—Marne，（yearIX）:\"Publicspiritisdyingoutandisevengone。\"
[5]Rocquain，Ibid。，p。27（ReportofFran？oisdeNantes，onthe8thmilitarydivision，Vaucluse，Bouches—du—Rh？ne，Var，Basses—Alpes，andAlpes—Maratimes，yearIX）:\"Witnesses，insomecommunes，didnotdarefurnishtestimony，and，inall，thejusticesofthepeacewereafraidofmakingenemiesandofnotbeingre—elected。Itwasthesamewiththetownofficialschargedwithprosecutionsandwhomtheirqualityaselectedandtemporaryofficialsalwaysrenderedtimid。\"—Ibid。，48:
\"Allthecustoms—directorscomplainedofthepartialityofthecourts。
IhavemyselfexaminedseveralcasesinwhichthecourtsofMarseillesandToulondecidedagainsttheplaintextthelawandwithcriminalpartiality。—Archivesnationales，seriesF7，Reports\"onthesituation，onthespiritofthepublic，\"inmanyhundredsoftowns，cantons，anddepartments，fromtheyearIIItotheyearVIIIandafter。
[6]Cf。\"TheRevolution，\"III。，bookIX。，ch。I。—Rocquain，passim。—
Schmidt，\"TableauxdelaRévolutionfran？aise，\"III。，parts9and10。
—Archivesnationales，F7，3250（Letterofthecommissioneroftheexecutivedirectory，Fructidor23，yearVII）:\"ArmedmobsontheroadbetweenSaint—OmerandArrashavedaredfireonthediligencesandrescuefromthegendarmeriethedrawnconscripts。\"—Ibid。，F7，6565。
OnlyonSeine—inferiure，ofwhichthefollowingaresomeofthereportsofthegendarmerieforoneyear。—Messidor，yearVII，seditiousmobsofconscriptsandothersinthecantonsofMottevilleandDoudeville。\"WhatshowsthepervertedspiritofthecommunesofGremonvilleandofHéronvilleisthatnoneoftheinhabitantswillmakeanydeclaration，whileitisimpossiblethattheyshouldnothavebeenintherebels’secrets。\"—SimilarmobsinthecommunesofGuerville，Mi1lebose，andintheforestofEu:\"Itisstatedthattheyhaveleaders，andthatdrillinggoesonundertheirorders。—
Vendémiarie27，yearVIII。）\"Twenty—fivearmedbrigandsordraftedmeninthecantonsofRéautéandBolbechaveputfarmerstoransom。\"—
（Niv？se12~yearVIII。）InthecantonofCunyanotherbandofbrigandsdothesamething。—（Germinal14，yearVIII。）TwelvebrigandsstopthediligencebetweenNeufchatelandRouen；afewdaysafter，thediligencebetweenRouenandParisisstoppedandthreeoftheescortarekilled。—Analogousscenesandmobsintheotherdepartments。
[7]\"Souvenirs\"，byPASQUIER（Etienne—Dennis，duc），LibrariePlon，Paris1893。I。，260。UndertheDirectory，\"oneday，inordertodispatchaspecialcourier，thereceiptsoftheOperahadtobetakenbecausetheywereincoin。Anotherday，itwasonthepointofsendingeverygoldpieceinthemuséeofmedalstobemelteddown（worthinthecruciblefrom5000to6000francs）。\"
[8]\"ThéorieconstitutionnelledeSieyès。\"（ExtractfromunpublishedmemoirsbyBoulaydelaMeurthe。）Paris，1866，Renouard。
[9]\"CorrespondancedeNapoleon1er，\"XXX……345。（\"Mémoires。\"）—
\"MémorialdeSainte—Hélène[10]\"ExtraitdesMémoires\"deBoulaydelaMeurthe，p。50。（WordsofBonapartetoRoedereraboutSieyès，whoraisedobjectionsandwantedtoretire。）\"IfSieyèsgoesintothecountry，drawupformeatoncetheplanofaconstitution。Iwillsummontheprimaryassembliesinaweekandmakethemacceptitafterdischargingthe（Constituant）
committees。\"
[11]\"CorrespondancedeNapoléonler\"XXX。，345，346。（\"Mémoires。\"）
\"Circumstancesweresuchastostillmakeitnecessarytodisguisetheuniquemagistracyofthepresident。\"
[12]TheRevolution，\"III。，458，417。—\"Mercurebritannique，\"nos。
forNovember1798andJanuary1799。（LettersfromBelgium。）—\"Morethan300millionshavebeenseizedbyforceinthesedesolatedprovinces；thereisnotalandownerwhosefortunehasnotbeenruined，orsequestrated，orfatallysappedbyforcedleviesandthefloodoftaxeswhichfollowedthese，byrobberiesofmovablepropertyandthebankruptcyduetoFrancehavingdiscreditedclaimsontheemperorandonthegovernments，inshortthroughconfiscation。\"—Theinsurrectionbreaksout，asinVendée，onaccountoftheconscription；thewar—cryoftheinsurgentsis，\"Betterdieherethanelsewhere。\"
[13]DeMartel，\"LesHistoriensfantaisistes，\"part2（onthePacificationoftheWest，accordingtoreportsoftheroyalistleadersandoftherepublicangenerals）。
[14]Archivesnationales，F7，3218。（Summaryofdispatchesarrangedaccordingtodates。—LettersofAdjutant—GeneralVicose，Fructidor3，yearVII。—LettersofLamagdelaine，commissioneroftheexecutiveDirectory，Thermidor26andFructidor3，yearVII。）—\"Therascalswholedthepeopleastrayhadpromisedthem，intheKing’sname，thattheyshouldnotbecalledonforfurthertaxes，thattheconscriptsandrequisitionnairesshouldnotleave，and，finally，thattheyshouldhavetheprieststheywanted。\"—NearMontréjean\"thecarnagewasfrightful，nearly2000menslainordrownedand1000prisoners。\"—
（LetterofM。Alquiertothefirstconsul，Pluvi？se18，yearVIII。）
\"TheinsurrectionofThermidorcausedthelossof3000cultivators。—
（Lettersofthedepartmentadministratorsandofthegovernmentcommissioners，Niv？se25and27，Pluvi？se13，15，25，27，and30，yearVIII。）—Theinsurrectionisprolongedthroughavastnumberofisolatedoutrages，withsabersorguns，againstrepublicanfunctionariesandpartisans，justicesofthepeace，mayors，etc。InthecommuneofBalbèze，fiftyconscripts，armeddeserterswiththeirknapsacks，imposerequisitions，giveballsonSunday，andmakepatriotsgiveuptheirarms。Elsewhere，thisorthatknownpatriotisassaultedinhishousebyabandoftenoradozenyoungfolkswhomakehimpayaransom，shout\"ViveleRoi！\"etc。—Cf。\"HistoiredeI’
insurrectionroyalistedel’anVII，\"byB。Lavigne，1887。
[15]Archivesnationales，F7，3273（LetterofthecommissioneroftheexecutiveDirectory，Vaucluse，Fructidor6，yearVII。）:\"Eightyarmedroyalistshavecarriedoff，neartheforestofSuze，thecash—boxofthecollector，Bouchet，inthenameofLouisXVIII。Theserascals，itmustbenoted，didnottakeanyofthemoneybelongingtothecollectorhimself。\"—（Ibid。，Thermidor3，yearVII。）\"OnlookingaroundamongourcommunesIfindallofthemunderthecontrolofroyalistortown—councillors。Thatisthespiritofthepeasantsgenerally……Publicspirititsoperverted，soopposedtotheconstitutionalregime，thatamiracleonlywillbringthemwithinthepaleoffreedom。\"—Ibid。，F7，3199。（SimilardocumentsonthedepartmentofBouches—du—Rh？ne。）Outragescontinueherefardownintotheconsulate，inspiteofthevigorandmultitudeofmilitaryexecutions。—（Letterofthesub—prefectofTarascon，Germinal15，yearIX。）\"InthecommuneofEyragues，yesterday，ateighto’clock，abandofmaskedbrigandssurroundedthemayor’shouse，whilesomeofthementereditandshotthispublicfunctionarywithoutanybodydaringtorenderhimanyassistance……Three—quartersoftheinhabitantsofEyraguesareroyalists。\"—InseriesF7，7152andthosefollowingmaybefoundanenumerationofpoliticalcrimesclassifiedbydepartmentandbythemonth，especiallyforMessidor，yearVII。
[16]Barère，representativeofHautesPyrénées，hadpreservedagooddealofcreditinthisremotedepartment，especiallyinthedistrictofArgeles，withpopulationswhichknewnothingaboutthe\"Mountain。\"
In1805，theelectorspresentedhimasacandidateforthelegislativebodyandthesenate；in1815，theyelectedhimdeputy。
[17]\"Souvenirs\"，byPASQUIER（Etienne—Dennis，duc），chancelierdeFrance。inVIvolumes，LibrariePlon，Paris1893。I。，158。Atthetimetheconcordatwasunderconsiderationtheaversionto\"priestrule\"wasverygreatinthearmy；thereweresecretmeetingsheldagainstit。Manyofthesuperiorofficerstookpartinthem，andevensomeoftheleadinggenerals。Moreauwasawareofthemalthoughhedidnotattendthem。Inoneofthesegatherings，thingswerecarriedfarenoughtoresolveupontheassassinationofthefirstconsul。A
certainDonnadieu，thenofalowrankinthearmy，offeredtostriketheblow。GeneralOudinot，whowaspresent，informedDavoust，andDonnadieu，imprisonedintheTemple，maderevelations。Measureswereatoncetakentoscattertheconspirators，whowereallsentawaymoreorlessfartheroff；somewerearrestedandothersexiled，amongthemGeneralMounier，whohadcommandedoneofDesaix’sbrigadesatMarengo。GeneralLecourbewasalsooneoftheconspirators。
[18]Onthe18thFructidorNapoléonusedgrape—shotandartillerytosweeptheroyalistsoffthestreetsofParis。（SR。）
[19]\"ExtraitdesMémoiresdeBoulaydelaMeurthe，\"p。10。
[20]Napoleon’swords。（\"Correspondance，\"XXX。，343，memoirsdictatedatSaintHelena。）
[21]Lafayette，\"Mémoires，\"II。，192。
[22]PeletdelaLozère，\"OpinionsdeNapoléonauconseild’état，\"p。
63\"Thesenateismistakenifitthinksitpossessesanationalandrepresentativechamber。Itismerelyaconstitutedauthorityemanatingfromthegovernmentliketheothers。\"—Ibid。，P。147:\"Itmustnotbeinthepowerofalegislativebodytoimpedegovernmentbyrefusingtaxes；oncethetaxesareestablishedtheyshouldbeleviedbysimpledecrees。Thecourtofcassationregardsmydecreesaslaws；otherwise，therewouldbenogovernment。\"（January9，1808。）—Ibid。，p。147:\"
IfIeverhadanyfearofthesenateIhadonlytoputfiftyyoungstate—councillorsintoit。\"（December1，1803。）—Ibid。，p。150:\"IfanoppositionshouldspringupinthelegislativecorpsIwouldfallbackonthesenatetoprorogue，changeit，orbreakitup。\"（March29，1806。）—Ibid。，p。151:\"Sixtylegislatorsgoouteveryyearwhichonedoesnotknowwhattodowith；thosewhodonotgetplacesgoandgrumbleinthedepartments。Ishouldliketohaveoldland—ownersmarried，inacertainsense，tothestatethroughtheirfamilyorprofession，attachedbysometietothecommonwealth。SuchmenwouldcometoParisannually，conversewiththeemperorinhisowncircle，andbecontentedwiththislittlebitofvanityrelievingthemonotonyoftheirexistence。\"（Samedate。）—Cf。Thibaudeau，\"MémoiressurleConsulat，\"ch。XIII。，andM。deMetternich，\"Mémoires，\"I。，120（WordsofNapoleonatDresden，inthespringof1812）:\"Ishallgivethesenateandthecouncilofstateaneworganization。Theformerwilltaketheplaceoftheupperchamber，thelatterthatofthechamberofdeputies。Ishallcontinuetoappointthesenators；Ishallhavethestatecouncillorselectedone—thirdatatimeontriplelists；therestIwillappoint。Herewillthebudgetbepreparedandthelawselaborated。\"—Weseethecorpslégislatif，docileasitis，stillworryinghim，andveryjustly；heforesawthesessionof1813。
CHAPTERII。
I。
Principalservicerenderedbythepublicpower。—Itisaninstrumentality。—Acommonlawforeveryinstrumentality。—
Mechanicalinstruments。—Physiologicalinstruments。—Socialinstruments。—Theperfectionofaninstrumentincreaseswiththeconvergenceofitseffects。
Whatistheservicewhichthepublicpowerrenderstothepublic？—
Theprincipaloneistheprotectionofthecommunityagainsttheforeigner，andofprivateindividualsagainsteachother。—Evidently，todothis，itmustinallcasesbeprovidedwithindispensablemeans，namely:diplomats，anarmy，afleet，arsenals，civilandcriminalcourts，prisons，apolice，taxationandtax—collectors，ahierarchyofagentsandlocalsupervisors，who，eachinhisplaceandattendingtohisspecialduty，willco—operateinsecuringthedesiredeffect。—
Evidently，again，toapplyalltheseinstruments，thepublicpowermusthave，accordingtothecase，thisorthatformorconstitution，thisorthatdegreeofimpulseandenergy:accordingtothenatureandgravityofexternalorinternaldanger，itisproperthatitshouldbeconcentratedordivided，emancipatedfromcontrolorundercontrol，authoritativeorliberal。Noindignationneedbecherishedbeforehandagainstitsmechanism。Strictlyspeaking，itisavastpieceapplianceinthehumancommunity，suchasamachineinafactoryorsuchasorganinthehumanbody。Ifthisorganistheonlyonthatcancarryoutthetask，letusacceptitanditsstructure:whoeverwantstheendwantsthemeans。Allwecanaskisthatthemeansshallbeadaptedtotheend；inotherterms，thatthemyriadoflargeorsmalllocalorcentralpiecesshallbedetermined，adjusted，andcoordinatedinviewofthefinalandtotaleffecttowhichtheyco—operatenearlyorremotely。
But，whethersimpleorcompound，everyenginewhichdoesanyworkissubjecttoonecondition；thebetteritissuitedtoanydistinctpurposethelessitissuitedtootherpurposes；asitsperfectionincreases，sodoesitsapplicationbecomelimited。—Accordingly，iftherearetwodistinctinstrumentsappliedtotwodistinctobjects，themoreperfecttheyare，eachofitskind，themoredotheirdomainsbecomecircumscribedandopposedtoeachother；asoneofthembecomesmorecapableofdoingitsownworkitbecomesmoreincapableofdoingtheworkoftheother；finally，neithercantaketheplaceoftheother，andthisistruewhatevertheinstrumentmaybe，mechanical，physiological，orsocial。
Attheverylowestgradeofhumanindustrythesavagepossessesbutonetool；withhiscuttingorpointedbitofstonehekills，breaks，splits，bores，saws，andcarves；theinstrumentsuffices，inthemain，forallsortsofservices。Afterthiscomethelance，thehatchet，thehammer，thepunch，thesaw，theknife，eachadaptedtoadistinctpurposeandlessefficaciousoutsideofthatpurpose:onecannotsawwellwithaknife，andonecutsbadlywithasaw。Later，highly—
perfectedenginesappear，and，whollyspecial，thesewing—machineandthetypewriter:itisimpossibletosewwiththetypewriterorwritewiththesewing—machine。—Inlikemanner，whenatthelowestroundoftheorganicladdertheanimalissimplyashapelessjelly，homogeneousandviscous，allpartsofitareequallysuitedtoallfunctions；theamoebae，indifferentlyandbyallthecellsofitsbody，canwalk，seize，swallow，digest，breathe，andcirculateallitsfluids，expelitswaste，andpropagateitsspecies。Alittlehigherup，infresh—
waterpolyp，theinternalsacwhichdigestsandtheouterskinwhichservestoenvelopitcan，ifabsolutelynecessary，changetheirfunctions；ifyouturntheanimalinsideoutlikeagloveitcontinuestolive；itsskin，becomeinternal，fulfillstheofficeofastomach；
itsstomach，becomeexternal，fulfillstheofficeofanenvelope。But，thehigherweascend，themoredotheorgans，complicatedbythedivisionandsubdivisionoflabor，diverge，eachtoitsownside，andrefusetotakeeachother’splace。Theheart，withthemammal，isonlygoodforimpellingtheblood，whilethelungsonlyfurnishthebloodwithoxygen；onecannotpossiblydotheworkoftheother；betweenthetwodomainsthespecialstructureoftheformerandthespecialstructureofthelatterinterposeanimpassablebarrier。—Inlikemanner，finally，attheverybottomofthesocialscale—lowerdownthantheAndamansandtheFuegians—wefindaprimitivestageofhumanityinwhichsocietyconsistswhollyofaherd。Inthisherdthereisnodistinctassociationinviewofadistinctpurpose；thereisnotevenafamily—nopermanenttiebetweenmaleandfemale；thereissimplyacontactofthesexes。Gradually，inthisherdofindividuals，allequalandallalike，particulargroupsdefinethemselves，takeshape，andseparate:weseeappearingmoreandmorepreciserelationships，moreandmoredistincthabitations，moreandmorehereditaryhomesteads，fishing，hunting，andwargroups，andsmallworkshops；ifthepeopleisaconqueringpeople，castesestablishthemselves。Atlength，wefindinthisexpandedandsolidly—
organizedsocialbodyprovinces，communes，churches，hospitals，schools，corporatebodiesandassociationsofeveryspeciesanddimension，temporaryorpermanent，voluntaryorinvoluntary，inbrief，amultitudeofsocialenginesconstructedoutofhumanbeingswho，onaccountofpersonalinterest，habit，andconstraint，orthroughinclination，conscience，andgenerosity，co—operateaccordingtoapublicortacitstatuteineffectinginthematerialorspiritualorderofthingsthisorthatdeterminateundertaking。InFrance，to—
day，thereare，besidestheState，eighty—sixdepartments，thirty—sixthousandcommunes，fourchurchbodies，fortythousandparishes，sevenoreightmillionsoffamilies，millionsofagricultural，industrial，andcommercialestablishments，hundredsofinstitutionsofscienceandart，thousandsofeducationalandcharitableinstitutions，benevolentandmutual—aidsocieties，andothersforbusinessorforpleasurebytensandhundredsandthousands，inshort，innumerableassociationsofeverykind，eachwithapurposeofitsown，and，likeatooloraspecialorgan，carryingoutadistinctwork。
Now，eachoftheseassociationssofarasitisatooloranorganissubjecttothesamelaw；thebetteritisinonedirection，themoremediocreitisinotherdirections；itsspecialcompetencyconstitutesitsgeneralincompetence。Thisiswhy，amongdevelopednations，nospecializedorganizationcanreplaceanotherinasatisfactorymanner。
\"Anacademyofpaintingwhichshouldalsobeabankwould，inallprobability，exhibitverybadpicturesanddiscountverybadbills。A
gascompanywhichshouldalsobeakindergartenwould，weexpect，lightthestreetspoorlyandteachthechildrenbadly。\"[1]Andthereasonisthataninstrument，whateveritmaybe，amechanicaltool，orphysiologicalorgan，orhumanassociation，isalwaysasystemofpieceswhoseeffectsconvergetoagivenend；itmatterslittlewhetherthepiecesarebitsofwoodandmetal，asinthetool，cellsandfibers，asintheorgan，soulsandunderstandings，asintheassociation；theessentialthingistheconvergenceoftheireffects；
forthemoreconvergenttheseeffects，themoreefficientistheinstrumentintherealizationofitsend。But，throughthisconvergence，ittakesonedirectionexclusivelyandcannottakeanyother；itcannotoperateatonceintwodifferentsenses；itcannotpossiblyturntotherightandatthesametimeturntotheleft。Ifanysocialinstrumentdevisedforaspecialserviceismadetoactadditionallyforanother，itwillperformitsownofficebadlyaswelltheoneitusurps。Ofthetwoworksexecutedbyit，thefirstinjuresthesecondandthesecondinjuresthefirstone。Theend，ordinarily，isthesacrificeofonetotheother，and，mostfrequently，thefailureofboth。
II。AbusiveGovernmentIntervention。
Applicationofthislawtothepublicpower。—Generaleffectofitsintervention。
Letusfollowouttheeffectsofthislawwhenitisthepublicpowerwhich，beyonditsprincipalandpeculiartask，undertakesadifferenttaskandputsitselfintheplaceofcorporatebodiestodotheirwork；whentheState，notcontentwithprotectingthecommunityandindividualsagainstexternalorinternaloppression，takesuponitselfadditionallythegovernmentofchurches，education，orcharity，thedirectionofart，science，andofcommercial，agricultural，municipal，ordomesticaffairs。—Undoubtedly，itcaninterveneinallcorporatebodiesotherthanitself；ithasboththerightandthedutytointerfere；itisboundtodothisthroughitsveryofficeasdefenderofpersonsandproperty，torepressinthesebodiesspoliationandoppression，tocompelinthemtheobservanceoftheprimordialstatute，charter，orcontract，tomaintaininthethemrightsofeachmemberfixedbythisstatute，todecideaccordingtothisstatuteallconflictswhichmayarisebetweenadministratorsandtheadministrated，betweendirectorsandstockholders，betweenpastorsandparishioners，betweendeceasedfoundersandtheirlivingsuccessors。
Indoingthis，itaffordsthemitstribunals，itsconstables，anditsgendarmes，anditaffordsthesetothemonlywithfullconsentafterhavinglookingintoandacceptedthestatute。This，too，isoneoftheobligationsofitsoffice:itsmandatehindersitfromplacingthepublicpowerattheserviceofdespoilingandoppressiveenterprises；
itisinterdictedfromauthorizingacontractforprostitutionorslavery，andaboveall，forthebestofreasons，asocietyforbrigandageandinsurrections，anarmedleague，orreadytoarmitself，againstthecommunity，orapartofthecommunity，oragainstitself。
—But，betweenthislegitimateinterventionwhichenablesittomaintainrights，andtheabusiveinterferencebywhichitusurpsrights，thelimitisvisibleanditoverstepsthislimitwhen，toitsfunctionofjusticiary，itaddsasecond，thatofgoverningorsupportinganothercorporation。Inthiscasetwoseriesofabusesunfoldthemselves；ontheoneside，theStateactscontrarytoitsprimaryoffice，and，ontheother，itdischargesthedutiesofitssuperaddedofficebadly。[2]
III。TheStateattackspersonsandproperty。
Itactsagainstitsfunction。Itsencroachmentsareattacksonpersonsandproperty。
For，inthefirstplace，togovernanothercorporatebody，forexampletheChurch，theStateatonetimeappointsitsecclesiasticalheads，asundertheoldmonarchyaftertheabolitionofthePragmaticSanctionbytheConcordatof1516；atanother，aswiththeConstituentAssemblyin1791，withoutappointingitsheads，itinventsanewmodeofappointmentbyimposingontheChurchadisciplinecontrarytoitsspiritandeventoitsdogmas。Sometimesitgoesfurtherstillandreducesaspecialbodyintoamereadministrativebranch，transformingitsheadsintorevocablefunctionarieswhoseactsitordersanddirects；suchundertheEmpireaswellasundertheRestoration，werethemayorandcommon—councilorsinacommune，andtheprofessorsandhead—mastersoftheUniversity。Onestepmoreandtheinvasioniscomplete:naturally，eitherthroughambitionorprecaution，orthroughtheoryorprejudice，onundertakinganewserviceitistemptedtoreservetoitselfordelegateitsmonopoly。Before1789thereexistedoneofthesemonopoliestotheadvantageoftheCatholicChurch，throughtheinterdictionofothercults，alsoanothertotheadvantageofeachcorporationof\"ArtsetMétiers，\"throughtheinterdictionoffreelabor；after1800，thereexistedoneforthebenefitoftheUniversitythroughallsortsofshacklesandconstraintsimposedontheestablishmentandmaintenanceofprivateschools。—Now，througheachoftheseconstraintstheStateencroachesonthedomainoftheindividual；themoreextendeditsencroachmentsthemoredoesitpreyuponandreducethecircleofspontaneousinitiationandofindependentaction，whichconstitutethetruelifeoftheindividual；
if，inconformitywiththeJacobinprogram，itpushesitsinterferencetotheend，itabsorbsinitselfallotherlives；[3]henceforth，thecommunityconsistsonlyofautomatamaneuveredfromabove，infinitelysmallresiduesofmen，passive，mutilated，and，sotosay，deadsouls；
theState，institutedtopreservepersons，hasreducedthemtononentities。