BOOKFIRST。THEJACOBINS。
CHAPTERI。THEESTABLISHMENTOFTHENEWPOLITICALORGAN。
Inthisdisorganizedsociety，inwhichthepassionsofthepeoplearethesolerealforce，authoritybelongstothepartythatunderstandshowtoflatterandtakeadvantageofthese。Asthelegalgovernmentcanneitherrepressnorgratifythem，anillegalgovernmentariseswhichsanctions，excites，anddirectsthesepassions。Whiletheformertottersandfallstopieces，thelattergrowsstrongerandimprovesitsorganization，until，becominglegalinitsturn，ittakestheother’splace。
I。
Principleoftherevolutionaryparty。—Itsapplications。
Asajustificationofthesepopularoutbreaksandassaults，wediscoverattheoutsetatheory，whichisneitherimprovised，addedto，norsuperficial，butnowfirmlyfixedinthepublicmind。Ithasforalongtimebeennourishedbyphilosophicaldiscussions。Itisasortofenduring，long—livedrootoutofwhichthenewconstitutionaltreehasarisen。Itisthedogmaofpopularsovereignty。——Literallyinterpreted，itmeansthatthegovernmentismerelyaninferiorclerkorservant。[1]We，thepeople，haveestablishedthegovernment；andeversince，aswellasbeforeitsorganization，weareitsmasters。
Betweenitandusnoinfiniteorlonglasting\"contract\"。\"Nonewhichcannotbedoneawaywithbymutualconsentorthroughtheunfaithfulnessofoneofthetwoparties。\"Whateveritmaybe，orprovidefor，wearenowiseboundbyit；itdependswhollyonus。Weremainfreeto\"modify，restrict，andresumeaswepleasethepowerofwhichwehavemadeitthedepository。\"Throughaprimordialandinalienabletitledeedthecommonwealthbelongstousandtousonly。
IfweputthisintothehandsofthegovernmentitisaswhenkingsdelegateauthorityforthetimebeingtoaministerHeisalwaystemptedtoabuse；itisourbusinesstowatchhim，warnhim，checkhim，curbhim，and，ifnecessary，displacehim。Wemustespeciallyguardourselvesagainstthecraftandmaneuversbywhich，underthepretextofpreservinglawandorder，hewouldtieourhands。Alaw，superiortoanyhecanmake，forbidshimtointerferewithoursovereignty；andhedoesinterferewithitwhenheundertakestoforestall，obstruct，orimpedeitsexercise。TheAssembly，eventheConstituent，usurpswhenittreatsthepeoplelikealazybones（roifainéant），whenitsubjectsthemtolaws，whichtheyhavenotratified，andwhenitdeprivesthemofactionexceptthroughtheirrepresentatives。[2]Thepeoplethemselvesmustactdirectly，mustassembletogetheranddeliberateonpublicaffairs。Theymustcontrolandcensuretheactsofthosetheyelect；theymustinfluencethesewiththeirresolutions，correcttheirmistakeswiththeirgoodsense，atonefortheirweaknessbytheirenergy，standatthehelmalongsideofthem，andevenemployforceandthrowthemoverboard，sothattheshipmaybesaved，which，intheirhands，isdriftingonarock。[3]
Such，infact，isthedoctrineofthepopularparty。ThisdoctrineiscarriedintoeffectJuly14andOctober5and6，1789。Loustalot，CamilleDesmoulins，Fréron，Danton，Marat，Pétion，Robespierreproclaimituntiringlyinthepoliticalclubs，inthenewspapers，andintheassembly。Thegovernment，accordingtothem，whetherlocalorcentral，trespasseseverywhere。Why，afterhavingoverthrownonedespotism，shouldweinstallanother？Wearefreedfromtheyokeofaprivilegedaristocracy，butwestillsufferfrom\"thearistocracyofourrepresentatives。\"[4]AlreadyatParis，\"thepopulationisnothing，whilethemunicipalityiseverything\"。ItencroachesonourimprescriptiblerightsinrefusingtoletadistrictrevokeatwillthefivememberselectedtorepresentitattheH？tel—de—Ville，inpassingordinanceswithoutobtainingtheapprovalofvoters，inpreventingcitizensfromassemblingwheretheyplease，ininterruptingtheout—doormeetingsoftheclubsinthePalaisRoyalwhere\"Patriotsaredrivenawaybethepatrol。\"MayorBailly，\"whokeepsliveriedservants，whogiveshimselfasalaryof110，000livres，\"whodistributescaptains’commissions，whoforcespeddlerstowearmetallicbadges，andwhocompelsnewspaperstohavesignaturestotheirarticlesisnotonlyatyrant，butacrook，thiefand\"guiltyoflése—nation。\"——WorsearetheabusesoftheNationalAssembly。Toswearfidelitytotheconstitution，asthisbodyhasjustdone，toimposeitsworkonus，forcingustotakeasimilaroath，disregardingoursuperiorrightstovetoorratifytheirdecisions，[5]isto\"slightandscornoursovereignty\"。Bysubstitutingthewillof1200
individualsforthatofthepeople，\"ourrepresentativeshavefailedtotreatuswithrespect。\"Thisisnotthefirsttime，anditisnottobethelast。Oftendotheyexceedtheirmandate，theydisarm，mutilate，andgagtheirlegitimatesovereignandtheypassdecreesagainstthepeopleinthepeople’sname。Suchistheirmartiallaw，speciallydevisedfor\"suppressingtheuprisingofcitizens\"，thatistosay，theonlymeanslefttousagainstconspirators，monopolists，andtraitors。Suchadecreeagainstpublishinganykindofjointplacardorpetition，isadecree\"nullandvoid，\"and\"constitutesamostflagrantattackonthenation’srights。\"[6]Especiallyistheelectorallawoneofthese，alawwhich，requiringasmallqualificationtaxforelectorsandalargeroneforthosewhoareeligible，\"consecratesthearistocracyofwealth。\"Thepoor，whoareexcludedbythedecree，mustregarditasinvalid；registerthemselvesastheypleaseandvotewithoutscruple，becausenaturallawhasprecedenceoverwrittenlaw。Itwouldsimplybe\"fairreprisal\"if，attheendofthesession，themillionsofcitizenslatelydeprivedoftheirvoteunjustly，shouldseizetheusurpingmajoritybythethreatandtellthem:
\"Youcutusofffromsocietyinyourchamber，becauseyouarethestrongestthere；we，inourturn，cutyouofffromthelivingsociety，becausewearestrongestinthestreet。Youhavekilleduscivilly—
wekillyouphysically。\"
Accordingly，fromthispointofview，allriotsarelegitimate。
Robespierrefromtherostrum[7]excusesjacqueries，refusestocallcastle—burnersbrigands，andjustifiestheinsurgentsofSoissons，Nancy，Avignon，andthecolonies。Desmoulins，alludingtotwomenhungatDouai，statesthatitwasdonebythepeopleandsoldierscombined，anddeclaresthat:\"Henceforth，——Ihavenohesitationinsayingit——theyhavelegitimatedtheinsurrection；\"theywereguilty，anditwaswelltohangthem。[8]Notonlydothepartyleadersexcuseassassinations，buttheyprovokethem。Desmoulins，\"attorney—generaloftheLantern，insistsoneachofthe83departmentsbeingthreatenedwithatleastonelampposthanging。\"（ThissobriquetisbestowedonDesmoulinsonaccountofhisadvocacyofstreetexecutions，thevictimsofrevolutionarypassionsbeingoftenhungatthenearestlanterne，orstreetlamp，atthattimeinParissuspendedacrossthestreetbyropesorchains。—（Tr。））MeanwhileMarat，inthenameofprinciple，constantlysoundsthealarminhisjournal:
\"Whenpublicsafetyisinperil，thepeoplemusttakepoweroutofthehandsofthosewhomitisentrusted……PutthatAustrianwomanandherbrother—in—lawinprison……Seizetheministersandtheirclerksandputtheminirons……Makesureofthemayorandhislieutenants；keepthegeneralinsight，andarrestshisstaff……Theheirtothethronehasnorightstoadinnerwhileyouwantbread。
Organizebodiesofarmedmen。MarchtotheNationalAssemblyanddemandfoodatonce，suppliedtoyououtofthenationalstocks……
Demandthatthenation’spoorhaveafuturesecuredtothemoutofthenationalcontribution。Ifyouarerefusedjointhearmy，taketheland，aswellasgoldwhichtherascalswhowanttoforceyoutocometotermsbyhungerhaveburiedandshareitamongstyou。Offwiththeheadsoftheministersandtheirunderlings，fornowisthetime；thatofLafayetteandofeveryrascalonhisstaff，andofeveryunpatrioticbattalionofficer，includingBaillyandthosemunicipalreactionaries—allthetraitorsintheNationalAssembly！\"
Marat，indeed，stillpassesforafuriousranteramongpeopleofsomeintelligence。Butforallthat，thisisthesumandsubstanceofhistheory:Itinstallsinthepoliticalestablishment，overtheheadsofdelegated，regular，andlegalpowersananonymous，imbecile，andterrificpowerwhosedecisionsareabsolute，whoseprojectsareconstantlyadopted，andwhoseinterventionissanguinary。Thispoweristhatofthecrowd，ofaferocious，suspicioussultan，who，appointinghisviziers，keepshishandsfreetodirectthemandhisscimitarreadysharpenedtocutoftheirheads。
II。TheJacobins。—
FormationoftheJacobins。—Thecommonhumanelementsofhischaracter。—Conceitanddogmatismaresensitiveandrebelliousineverycommunity。—Howkeptdowninallwell—foundedsocieties。—
Theirdevelopmentintheneworderofthings。—Effectofmilieuonimaginationandambitions。—ThestimulantsofUtopianism，abusesofspeech，andderangementofideas。—Changesinoffice；interestsplayinguponandpervertedfeeling。
Thataspeculatorinhisclosetshouldhaveconcoctedsuchatheoryiscomprehensible；paperwilltakeallthatisputuponit，whileabstractbeings，thehollowsimulacraandphilosophicpuppetsheconcocts，areadaptedtoeverysortofcombination。—Thatalunaticinhiscellshouldadoptandpreachthistheoryisalsocomprehensible；heisbesetwithphantomsandlivesoutsidetheactualworld，and，moreoverinthisever—agitateddemocracyheistheeternalinformerandinstigatorofeveryriotandmurderthattakesplace；heitiswhounderthenameof\"thepeople’sfriend\"becomesthearbiteroflivesandtheveritablesovereign。——Thatapeoplebornedownwithtaxes，wretchedandstarving，indoctrinatedbypublicspeakersandsophists，shouldhavewelcomedthistheoryandactedunderitisagaincomprehensible；necessityknowsnolaw，andwheretheisoppression，thatdoctrineistruewhichservestothrowoppressionoff。
Butthatpublicmen，legislatorsandstatesmen，with，atlast，ministersandheadsofthegovernment，shouldhavemadethistheorytheirown；
*thattheyshouldhavemorefondlyclungtoitasitbecamemoredestructive；
*that，dailyforthreeyearstheyshouldhaveseensocialordercrumblingawaypiecemealunderitsblowsandnothaverecognizeditastheinstrumentofsuchvastruin；
*that，inthelightofthemostdisastrousexperience，insteadofregardingitasacursetheyshouldhaveglorifieditasaboon；
*thatmanyofthem—anentireparty；almostalloftheAssembly—
shouldhavevenerateditasareligiousdogmaandcarriedittoextremeswithenthusiasmandrigoroffaith；
*that，drivenbyitintoanarrowstrait，evergettingnarrowerandnarrower，theyshouldhavecontinuedtocrusheachotherateverystep；
*that，finally，onreachingthevisionarytempleoftheirso—calledliberty，theyshouldhavefoundthemselvesinaslaughter—house，and，withinitsprecincts，shouldhavebecomeinturnbutcherandbrute；
*that，throughtheirmaximsofauniversalandperfectlibertytheyshouldhaveinauguratedadespotismworthyofDahomey，atribunallikethatoftheInquisition，andraisedhumanhecatombslikethoseofancientMexico；
*thatamidsttheirprisonsandscaffoldstheyshouldpersistinbelievingintherighteousnessoftheircause，intheirownhumanity，intheirvirtue，and，ontheirfall，haveregardedthemselvesasmartyrs—
iscertainlystrange。Suchintellectualaberration，suchexcessiveconceitarerarelyencountered，andaconcurrenceofcircumstances，thelikeofwhichhasneverbeenseenintheworldbutonce，wasnecessarytoproduceit。[8]
Extravagantconceitanddogmatism，however，arenotrareinthehumanspecies。ThesetworootsoftheJacobinintellectexistinallcountries，undergroundandindestructible。Everywheretheyarekeptfromsproutingbytheestablishedorderofthings；everywherearetheystrivingtooverturnoldhistoricfoundations，whichpressthemdown。
Now，asinthepast，studentsliveingarrets，bohemiansinlodgings，physicianswithoutpatientsandlawyerswithoutclientsinlonelyoffices，somanyBrissots，Dantons，Marats，Robespierres，andSt。
Justsinembryo；only，forlackofairandsunshine，theynevercometomaturity。Attwenty，onenteringsociety，ayoungman’sjudgmentandprideareextremelysensitive。——Firstly，lethissocietybewhatitwill，itisforhimascandaltopurereason:foritwasnotorganizedbyalegislativephilosopherinaccordancewithasoundprinciple，butistheworkofonegenerationafteranother，accordingtomanifoldandchangingnecessities。Itisnotaproductoflogic，butofhistory，andthenew—fledgedthinkershrugshisshouldersashelooksupandseeswhattheancienttenementis，thefoundationsofwhicharearbitrary，itsarchitectureconfused，anditsmanyrepairsplainlyvisible。——Inthesecondplace，whateverdegreeofperfectionprecedinginstitutions，laws，andcustomshavereached，thesehavenotreceivedhisapproval；others，hispredecessors，havechosenforhim，heisbeingsubjectedbeforehandtomoral，political，andsocialformswhichpleasedthem。Whethertheypleasehimornotisofnoconsequence。Likeahorsetrottingalongbetweenthepolesofawagonintheharnessthathappenstohavebeenputonhisback，hehastomakebestofit。——Besides，whateveritsorganization，asitisessentiallyahierarchy，heisnearlyalwayssubalterninit，andmusteverremainso，eithersoldier，corporalorsergeant。Evenunderthemostliberalsystem，thatinwhichthehighestgradesareaccessibletoall，foreveryfiveorsixmenwhotaketheleadorcommandothers，onehundredthousandmustfolloworbecommanded。Thismakesitvaintotelleveryconscriptthathecarriersamarshal’sbatoninhissack，when，ninehundredandninety—ninetimesoutofathousand，hediscoverstoolate，onrummaginghissack，thatthebatonisnotthere。——Itisnotsurprisingthatheistemptedtokickagainstsocialbarrierswithinwhich，willingornot，heisenrolled，andwhichpredestinehimtosubordination。Itisnotsurprisingthatonemergingfromtraditionalinfluencesheshouldacceptatheory，whichsubjectsthesearrangementstohisjudgmentandgiveshimauthorityoverhissuperiors。Andallthemorebecausethereisnodoctrinemoresimpleandbetteradaptedtohisinexperience，itistheonlyonehecancomprehendandmanageoff—hand。Henceitisthatyoungmenonleavingcollege，especiallythosewhohavetheirwaytomakeintheworld，aremoreorlessJacobin，—itisadisorderofgrowingup。[9]
——Inwellorganizedcommunitiesthisailmentisbeneficial，andsooncured。Thepublicestablishmentbeingsubstantialandcarefullyguarded，malcontentssoondiscoverthattheyhavenotenoughstrengthtopullitdown，andthatoncontendingwithitsguardianstheygainnothingbutblows。Aftersomegrumbling，theytooenteratoneortheotherofitsdoors，findaplaceforthemselves，andenjoyitsadvantagesorbecomereconciledtotheirlot。Finally，eitherthroughimitation，orhabit，orcalculation，theywillinglyformpartofthatgarrisonwhich，inprotectingpublicinterests，protectstheirownprivateinterestsaswell。Generally，aftertenyearshavegoneby，theyoungmanhasobtainedhisrankinthefile，whereheadvancesstepbystepinhisowncompartment，whichhenolongerthinksoftearingtopieces，andundertheeyeofapolicemanwhohenolongerthinksofcondemning。Heevensometimesthinksthatpolicemanandcompartmentareusefultohim。Shouldheconsiderthemillionsofindividualswhoaretryingtomountthesocialladder，eachstrivingtogetaheadoftheother，itmaydawnuponhimthattheworstofcalamitieswouldbealackofbarriersandofguardians。
Heretheworm—eatenbarriershavecrackedallatonce，theireasy—
going，timid，incapableguardianshavingallowedthingstotaketheircourse。Society，accordingly，disintegratedandapell—mell，isturnedintoaturbulent，shoutingcrowd，eachpushingandbeingpushed，allalikeover—excitedandcongratulatingeachotheronhavingfinallyobtainedelbow—room，andalldemandingthenewbarriersshallbeasfragileandthenewguardiansasfeeble，asdefenseless，andasinertaspossible。Thisiswhathasbeendone。Asanaturalconsequence，thosewhowereforemostintherankhavebeenrelegatedtothelast；
manyhavebeenstruckdowninthefray，whileinthispermanentstateofdisorder，whichgoesunderthenameoflastingorder，elegantfootwearcontinuetobestampeduponbyhobnailedbootsandwoodenshoes。—Thefanaticandtheintemperateegoistscannowletthemselvesgo。Theyarenolongersubjecttoanyancientinstitutions，noranyarmedmightwhichcanrestrainthem。Onthecontrary，thenewconstitution，throughitstheoreticaldeclarationsandthepracticalapplicationofthese，invitesthemtoletthemselvesgo。——For，ontheonehand，legally，itdeclarestobebaseduponpurereason，beginningwithalongstringofabstractdogmasfromwhichitspositiveprescriptionsareassumedtoberigorouslydeduced。
Asaconsequencealllawsaresubmittedtotheshallowcommentsofreasonersandquibblerswhowillbothinterpretandbreakthemaccordingtotheprinciples。[10]——Ontheotherhand，asamatteroffact，ithandsoverallgovernmentpowerstotheelectionsandconfersontheclubsthecontroloftheauthorities:whichistoofferapremiumtothepresumptionoftheambitiouswhoputthemselvesforwardbecausetheythinkthemselvescapable，andwhodefametheirrulerspurposelytodisplacethem。—Everygovernmentdepartment，organizationoradministrativesystemislikeahothousewhichservestofavorsomespeciesofthehumanplantandwitherothers。Thisoneisthebestoneforthepropagationandrapidincreaseofthecoffee—
housepolitician，clubharanguer，thestump—speaker，thestreet—
rioter，thecommitteedictator——inshort，therevolutionaryandthetyrant。Inthispoliticalhothousewilddreamsandconceitwillassumemonstrousproportions，and，inafewmonths，brainsthatarenowonlyardentbecomehotheads。
Letustracetheeffectofthisexcessive，unhealthytemperatureonimaginationsandambitions。Theoldtenementisdown；thefoundationsofthenewonearenotyetlaid；societyhastobemadeoveragainfromtoptobottom。Allwillingmenareaskedtocomeandhelp，and，asoneplainprinciplesufficesindrawingaplan，thefirstcomermaysucceed。Henceforthpoliticalfanciesswarminthedistrictmeetings，intheclubs，inthenewspapers，inpamphlets，andineveryhead—long，venturesomebrain。
\"Thereisnotamerchant’sclerkeducatedbyreadingthe’NouvelleHéloise，’[11]notaschoolteacherthathastranslatedtenpagesofLivy，notanartistthathasleafedthroughRollin，notanaestheteconvertedintojournalistsbycommittingtomemorytheriddlesofthe’ContratSocial，’whodoesnotdraftaconstitution……Asnothingiseasierthantoperfectadaydream，allperturbedmindsgather，andbecomeexcited，inthisidealrealm。Theystartoutwithcuriosityandendupwithenthusiasm。Themaninthestreetrushestotheenterpriseinthesamemannerasamisertoaconjurerpromisingtreasures，and，thuschildishlyattracted，eachhopestofindatonce，whathasneverbeenseenundereventhemostliberalgovernments:perpetualperfection，universalbrotherhood，thepowerofacquiringwhatonelacks，andalifecomposedwhollyofenjoyment。\"
Oneofthesepleasures，andakeenone，istodaydream。Onesoarsinspace。Bymeansofeightortenready—madesentences，foundinthesix—pennycatechismscirculatedbythousandsinthecountryandinthesuburbsofthetownsandcities，[12]avillageattorney，acustomsclerk，atheaterattendant，asergeantofasoldier’smess，becomesalegislatorandphilosopher。HecriticizesMalouet，Mirabeau，theMinistry，theKing，theAssembly，theChurch，foreignCabinets，France，andallEurope。Consequently，ontheseimportantsubjects，whichalwaysseemedforeverforbiddentohim，heoffersresolutions，readsaddresses，makesharangues，obtainsapplause，andcongratulateshimselfonhavingarguedsowellandwithsuchbigwords。Toholdfortonquestionsthatarenotunderstoodisnowanoccupation，amatterofprideandprofit。
\"Moreisutteredinoneday，\"saysaneye—witness，[13]\"inonesectionofParisthaninoneyearinalltheSwisspoliticalassembliesputtogether。AnEnglishmanwouldgivesixweeksofstudytowhatwedisposeofinaquarterofanhour。\"
Everywhere，inthetownhalls，inpopularmeetings，inthesectionalassemblies，inthewineshops，onthepublicpromenades，onstreetcornersvanityerectsatribuneofverbosity。
\"Contemplatetheincalculableactivityofsuchamachineinaloquaciousnationwherethepassionforbeingsomethingdominatesallotheraffections，wherevanityhasmorephasesthantherearestartsinthefirmament，wherereputationsalreadycostnomorethanthetroubleofinsistingontheirbeingdeserved，wheresocietyisdividedbetweenmediocritiesandtheirtrumpeterswholaudthemasdivinities；
wheresofewpeoplearecontentwiththeirlot，wherethecornergrocerisprouderofhisepaulettethantheGrandCondéofhisMarshal’sbaton，whereagitationwithoutobjectorresourcesisperpetual，where，fromthefloor—scrubbertothedramatist，fromtheacademiciantothesimpletonwhogetsmuddledovertheeveningnewspaper，fromthewittycourtierdowntohisphilosophiclackey，eachonerevisesMontesquieuwiththeself—sufficiencyofachildwhich，becauseitislearningtoread，deemsitselfwise；whereself—
esteem，indisputation，cavilingandsophistication，destroysallsensibleconversation；wherenooneuttersaword，buttoteach，neverimaginingthattolearnonemustkeepquiet；wherethetriumphsofafewlunaticsenticeeverycrackbrainfromhisden；where，withtwononsensicalideasputtogetheroutofabookthatisnotunderstood，amanassumestohaveprinciples；whereswindlerstalkaboutmorality，womenofeasyvirtueaboutcivism，andthemostinfamousofbeingsaboutthedignityofthespecies；wherethedischargedvaletofagrandseigniorcallshimselfBrutus！\"
—Inreality，heisBrutusinhisowneyes。Letthetimecomeandhewillbesoinearnest，especiallyagainsthislatemaster；allhehastodoistogivehimathrustwithhispike。Untilheactsouttheparthespoutsit，andgrowsexcitedoverhisowntirades；hiscommonsensegiveswaytothebombasticjargonoftherevolutionandtodeclamation，whichcompletestheUtopianperformanceandeaseshisbrainofitslastmodicumofballast。
Itisnotmerelyideaswhichthenewregimehasdisturbed，butithasalsodisorderedsentiments。\"AuthorityistransferredfromtheChateauofVersaillesandthecourtier’santechamber，withnointermediaryorcounterpoise，totheproletariatanditsflatterers。\"[14]Thewholeofthestaffoftheoldgovernmentisbrusquelysetaside，whileageneralelectionhasbrusquelyinstalledanotherinisplace，officesnotbeinggiventocapacity，seniority，andexperience，buttoself—sufficiency，intrigue，andexaggeration。
Notonlyarelegalrightsreducedtoacommonlevel，butnaturalgradesaretransposed；thesocialladder，overthrown，issetupagainbottomupwards；thefirsteffectofthepromisedregenerationis\"tosubstituteintheadministrationofpublicaffairspettifoggersformagistrates，ordinarycitizensforcabinetministers，ex—commonersforex—nobles，rusticsforsoldiers，soldiersforcaptains，captainsforgenerals，curésforbishops，vicarsforcurés，monksforvicars，brokersforfinanciers，empiricistsforadministrators，journalistsforpoliticaleconomists，stump—oratorsforlegislators，andthepoorfortherich。\"—Everyspeciesofcovetousnessisstimulatedbythisspectacle。Theprofusionofofficesandtheanticipationofvacancies\"hasexcitedthethirstforcommand，stimulatedself—esteem，andinflamedthehopesofthemostinept。Arudeandgrimpresumptionrendersthefoolandtheignoramusunconsciousoftheirinsignificance。Theyhavedeemedthemselvescapableofanything，becausethelawgrantedpublicfunctionsmerelytocapacity。Therehasappearedinfrontofoneandallanambitiousperspective；thesoldierthinksonlyofdisplacinghiscaptain，thecaptainofbecominggeneral，theclerkofsupplantingthechiefofhisdepartment，thenew—fledgedattorneyofbeingadmittedtothehighcourt，thecuréofbeingordainedabishop，theshallowscribblerofseatinghimselfonthelegislativebench。Officesandprofessionsvacatedbytheappointmentofsomanyupstartsaffordintheirturnavastfieldfortheambitionofthelowerclasses。\"——Thus，stepbystep，owingtothereversalofsocialpositions，isbroughtaboutageneralintellectualfever。
\"Franceistransformedintoagaming—table，where，alongsideofthediscontentedcitizenofferinghisstakes，sits，bold，blustering，andwithfermentingbrain，thepretentioussubalternrattlinghisdice—
box……Atthesightofapublicofficialrisingfromnowhere，eventhesoulofabootblackwillboundwithemulation。\"——Hehasmerelytopushhimselfaheadandelbowhiswaytosecureaticket\"inthisimmenselotteryofpopularluck，ofprefermentwithoutmerit，ofsuccesswithouttalent，ofapotheoseswithoutvirtues，ofaninfinityofplacesdistributedbythepeoplewholesale，andenjoyedbythepeopleindetail。\"——Politicalcharlatansflockthitherfromeveryquarters，thosetakingtheleadwho，beingmostinearnest，believeinthevirtueoftheirnostrum，andneedpowertoimposeitsrecipeonthecommunity；allbeingsaviors，allplacesbelongtothem，andespeciallythehighest。Theylaysiegetotheseconscientiouslyandphilanthropically；ifnecessary，theywilltakethembyassault，holdthemthroughforce，and，forciblyorotherwise，administertheircure—
alltothehumanspecies。
III。
PsychologyoftheJacobin。——Hisintellectualmethod。——Tyrannyofformulaeandsuppressionoffacts。——Mentalbalancedisturbed。——
Signsofthisintherevolutionarylanguage。——ScopeandexpressionoftheJacobinintellect。——Inwhatrespecthismethodismischievous。——Howitissuccessful。——Illusionsproducedbyit。
SuchareourJacobins，bornoutofsocialdecompositionlikemushroomsoutofcompost。Letusconsidertheirinnerorganization，fortheyhaveoneasformerlythePuritans；wehaveonlytofollowtheirdogmadowntoitsdepths，aswithasounding—line，toreachthepsychologicalstratuminwhichthenormalbalanceoffacultyandsentimentisoverthrown。
Whenastatesman，whoisnotwhollyunworthyofthatgreatname，findsanabstractprincipleinhisway，as，forinstance，thatofpopularsovereignty，heacceptsit，ifheacceptsitatall，accordingtohisconceptionofitspracticalbearings。Hebegins，accordingly，byimaginingitappliedandinoperation。Frompersonalrecollectionsandsuchinformationashecanobtain，heformsanideaofsomevillageortown，somecommunityofmoderatesizeinthenorth，inthesouth，orinthecenterofthecountry，forwhichhehastomakelaws。Hethenimaginesitsinhabitantsactingaccordingtohisprinciple，thatistosay，voting，mountingguard，levyingtaxes，andadministeringtheirownaffairs。Familiarwithtenoradozengroupsofthissort，whichheregardsasexamples，heconcludesbyanalogyastoothersandtherestontheterritory。Evidentlyitisadifficultanduncertainprocess；tobeexact，ornearlyso，requiresrarepowersofobservationand，ateachstep，agreatdealoftact，foranicecalculationhastobemadeongivenquantitiesimperfectlyascertainedandimperfectlynoted！[15]Anypoliticalleaderwhodoesthissuccessfully，doesitthroughtheripestexperienceassociatedwithgenius。Andeventhenhekeepshishandonthecheck—reininpushinghisinnovationorreform；heisalmostalwaystentative；heapplieshislawonlyinpart，graduallyandprovisionally；hewishestoascertainitseffect；heisalwaysreadytostayitsoperation，amendit，ormodifyit，accordingtothegoodorillresultsofexperiment；
thestateofthehumanmaterialhehastodealwithisnevercleartohismind，evenwhensuperior，untilaftermanyandrepeatedgropings。
——NowtheJacobinpursuesjusttheoppositecourse。Hisprincipleisanaxiomofpoliticalgeometry，whichalwayscarriesitsownproofalongwithit；for，liketheaxiomsofcommongeometry，itisformedoutofthecombinationofafewsimpleideas，anditsevidenceimposesitselfatonceonallmindscapableofembracinginoneconceptionthetwotermsofwhichitistheaggregateexpression。Maningeneral，therightsofMan，thesocialcontract，liberty，equality，reason，nature，thepeople，tyrants，areexamplesofthesebasicconcepts:whetherpreciseornot，theyfillthebrainofthenewsectarian。Oftenthesetermsaremerelyvagueandgrandiosewords，butthatmakesnodifference；assoonastheymeetinhisbrainanaxiomspringsoutofthemthatcanbeinstantlyandabsolutelyappliedoneveryoccasionandtoexcess。Mankindasitisdoesnotconcernhim。Hedoesnotobservethem；hedoesnotrequiretoobservethem；withclosedeyesheimposesapatternofhisownonthehumansubstancemanipulatedbyhim；theideaneverentershisheadofforminganypreviousconceptionofthiscomplex，multiform，swayingmaterial—contemporarypeasants，artisans，townspeople，curésandnobles，behindtheirplows，intheirhomes，intheirshops，intheirparsonages，intheirmansions，withtheirinveteratebeliefs，persistentinclinations，andpowerfulwills。
Nothingofthisentersintoorlodgesinhismind；allitsavenuesarestoppedbytheabstractprinciplewhichflourishesthereandfillsitcompletely。Shouldactualexperiencethroughtheeyeorearplantsomeunwelcometruthforciblyinhismind，itcannotsubsistthere；howevernoisyandrelentlessitmaybe，theabstractprincipledrivesitout；[16]ifneedbeitwilldistortandstrangleit，consideringitaslanderersinceitrefutesaprinciplewhichistrueandundeniableinitself。Obviously，amindofthiskindisnotsound；ofthetwofacultieswhichshouldpulltogetherharmoniously，oneisdegeneratedandtheotherovergrown；factscannotturnthescaleagainstthetheory。Chargedononesideandemptyontheother，theJacobinmindturnsviolentlyoveronthatsidetowhichitleans，andsuchisitsincurableinfirmity。
Consider，indeed，theauthenticmonumentsofJacobinthought，the\"JournaldesAmisdelaConstitution，\"thegazettesofLoustalot，Desmoulins，Brissot，Condorcet，FréronandMarat，Robespierre’s，andSt。Just’spamphletsandspeeches，thedebatesintheLegislativeAssemblyandintheConvention，theharangues，addressesandreportsoftheGirondinsandMontagnards，inbrief，thefortyvolumesofextractscompiledbyBuchezandRoux。Neverhassomuchbeensaidtosolittlepurpose；allthetruththatisutteredisdrownedinthemonotonyandinflationofemptyverbiageandvociferousbombast。Oneexperienceinthisdirectionissufficient。[17]Thehistorianwhoresortsthismassofrubbishforaccurateinformationfindsnoneofanyaccount；invainwillhereadkilometersofit:hardlywillhetheremeetonefact，oneinstructivedetail，onedocumentwhichbringsbeforehiseyesadistinctpersonality，whichshowshimtherealsentimentsofavillagerorofagentleman，whichvividlyportraystheinteriorofah？tel—de—ville，ofasoldier’sbarracks，ofamunicipalchamber，orthecharacterofaninsurrection。Todefinefifteenortwentytypesandsituationswhichsumupthehistoryoftheperiod，wehavebeenandshallbeobligedtoseekthemelsewhere—inthecorrespondenceoflocaladministrators，inaffidavitsoncriminalrecords，inconfidentialreportsofthepolice，[18]andinthenarrativesofforeigners，[19]who，preparedforitbyadifferenteducation，lookbehindwordsforthings，andseeFrancebeyondthe\"ContratSocial。\"ThisteemingFrance，thisgrandtragedywhichtwenty—sixmillionsofplayersareperformingonastageof26000
squareleagues，islosttotheJacobin。Hisliterature，aswellashisbrain，containonlyinsubstantialgeneralizationslikethoseabovecited，rollingoutinamereplayofideas，sometimesinconcisetermswhenthewriterhappenstobeaprofessionalreasonerlikeCondorcet，butmostfrequentlyinatangled，knottystylefulloflooseanddisconnectedmesheswhenthespokesmanhappenstobeanimprovisedpoliticianoraphilosophictyroliketheordinarydeputiesoftheAssemblyandthespeakersoftheclubs。Itisapedanticscholasticismsetforthwithfanaticalrant。Itsentirevocabularyconsistsofaboutahundredwords，whileallideasarereducedtoone，thatofmaninhimself:humanunits，allalikeequalandindependent，contractingtogetherforthefirsttime。Thisistheirconceptofsociety。Nonecouldbebriefer，for，toarriveatit，manhadtobereducedtoaminimum。Neverwerepoliticalbrainssowillfullydriedup。Foritistheattempttosystematizeandtosimplifywhichcausestheirimpoverishment。InthatrespecttheygobythemethodsoftheirtimeandinthetrackofJean—JacquesRousseau:theiroutlookonlifeistheclassicview，which，alreadynarrowinthelatephilosophers，hasnowbecomeevenmorenarrowandhardened。ThebestrepresentativesofthetypeareCondorcet，[20]amongtheGirondins，andRobespierre，amongtheMontagnards，bothmeredogmatistsandpurelogicians，thelatterthemostremarkableandwithaperfectionofintellectualsterilityneversurpassed。——Unquestionably，asfarastheformulationofdurablelawsisconcerned，i。e。adaptingthesocialmachinerytopersonalities，conditions，andcircumstances；theirmentalityiscertainlythemostimpotentandharmful。Itisorganicallyshort—sighted，andbyinterposingtheirprinciplesbetweenitandreality，theyshutoffthehorizon。Beyondtheircrowdandtheclubitdistinguishesnothing，whileinthevaguenessandconfusionofthedistanceiterectsthehollowidolsofitsownUtopia。——Butwhenpoweristobeseizedbyassault，andadictatorshiparbitrarilyexercised，themechanicalinflexibilityofsuchamindisusefulratherthandetrimental。Itisnotembarrassedorsloweddown，likethatofastatesman，bytheobligationtomakeinquiries，torespectprecedents，oflookingintostatistics，ofcalculatingandtracingbeforehandindifferentdirectionsthenearandremoteconsequencesofitsworkasthisaffectstheinterests，habits，andpassionsofdiverseclasses。Allthisisnowobsoleteandsuperfluous:theJacobinknowsonthespotthecorrectformofgovernmentandthegoodlaws。
Forbothconstructionaswellasfordestruction，hisrectilinearmethodisthequickestandmostvigorous。For，ifcalmreflectionisrequiredtogetatwhatsuitstwenty—sixmillionsoflivingFrenchmen，amereglancesufficestounderstandthedesiresoftheabstractmenoftheirtheory。Indeed，accordingtothetheory，menareallshapedtoonepattern，nothingbeinglefttothembutanelementarywill；
thusdefined，thephilosophicrobotdemandsliberty，equalityandpopularsovereignty，themaintenanceoftherightsofmanandadhesiontothe\"ContratSocial。\"Thatisenough:fromnowonthewillofthepeopleisknown，andknownbeforehand；aconsultationamongcitizensprevioustoactionisnotessential；thereisnoobligationtoawaittheirvotes。Inanyevents，aratificationbythepeopleissure；andshouldthisnotbeforthcomingitisowingtotheirignorance，disdainormalice，inwhichcasetheirresponsedeservestobeconsideredasnull。Thebestthingtodo，consequently，throughprecautionandtoprotectthepeoplefromwhatisbadforthem，istodictatetothemwhatisgoodforthem。——Here，theJacobinmightbesincere；forthemeninwhosebehalfheclaimsrightsarenotflesh—and—bloodFrenchmen，asweseetheminthestreetsandinthefields，butmeningeneral，astheyoughttobeonleavingthehandsofNature，oraftertheteachingsofReason。Astotheformer，thereisnoneedofbeingscrupulousbecausetheyareinfatuatedwithprejudicesandtheiropinionsaremeredrivel；asforthelatter，itisjusttheopposite:
fullofrespectforthevaingloriousimagesofhisowntheory，ofghostsproducedbyhisownintellectualdevice，theJacobinwillalwaysbowdowntoresponsesthathehimselfhasprovided，for，thebeingsthathehascreatedaremorerealinhiseyesthanlivingonesanditistheirsuffrageonwhichhecounts。Accordingly，viewingthingsintheworstlights，hehasnothingagainsthimbutthemomentaryantipathyofapurblindgeneration。Tooffsetthis，heenjoystheapprovalofhumanity，self—obtained；thatofaposteritywhichhisactshaveregenerated；thatofmenwho，thankstohim，whoareagainbecomewhattheyshouldneverhaveceasedtobe。Hence，farfromlookinguponhimselfasanusurperoratyrant，heconsidershimselfthenaturalmandatoryofaveritablepeople，theauthorizedexecutorofthecommonwill。Marchingalongintheprocessionformedforhimbythisimaginarycrowd，sustainedbymillionsofmetaphysicalwillscreatedbyhimselfinhisownimage，hehastheirunanimousassent，and，likeachorusoftriumphantshouts，hewillfilltheoutwardworldwiththeinwardechoofhisownvoice。
IV。
Whatthetheorypromises。—Howitflatterswoundedself—esteem。——
TherulingpassionoftheJacobin。——Apparentbothinstyleandconduct。——Healoneisvirtuousinhisownestimation，whilehisadversariesarevile。——Theymustaccordinglybeputoutoftheway。
——Perfectionofthischaracter。——Commonsenseandmoralsensebothperverted。
’Whenanideologyattractspeople，itislessduetoitssophisticationthantothepromisesitholdsout。Itappealsmoretotheirdesiresthantotheirintelligence；for，iftheheartsometimesmaybethedupeofthehead，thelatterismuchmorefrequentlythedupeoftheformer。Wedonotacceptasystembecausewedeemitatrueone，butbecausethetruthwefindinitsuitsus。Politicalorreligiousfanaticism，anytheologicalorphilosophicalchannelinwhichtruthflows，alwayshasitssourceinsomeardentlonging，somesecretpassion，someaccumulationofintense，painfuldesiretowhichatheoryaffordsandoutlet。IntheJacobin，aswellasinthePuritan，thereisafountain—headofthisdescription。WhatfeedsthissourcewiththePuritanistheanxietiesofadisturbedconsciencewhich，formingforitselfsomeideaofperfectjustice，becomesrigidandmultipliesthecommandmentsitbelievesthatGodhaspromulgated；
onbeingconstrainedtodisobeytheseitrebels，and，toimposethemonothers，itbecomestyrannicaleventodespotism。ThefirsteffortofthePuritan，however，whollyinternal，isself—control；beforebecomingpoliticalhebecomesmoral。WiththeJacobin，onthecontrary，thefirstpreceptisnotmoral，political；itisnothisdutieswhichheexaggeratesbuthisrights，whilehisdoctrine，insteadofbeingapricktohisconscience，flattershispride。[21]
Howevervastandinsatiatehumanpridemaybe，nowitissatisfied，forneverbeforehasithadsomuchtofeedupon。——Intheprogramofthesect，donotlookfortherestrictedprerogativesgrowingoutofself—respectwhichtheproud—spiritedmanclaimsforhimself，suchascivilrightsaccompaniedbythoselibertiesthatserveassentinelsandguardiansoftheserights—securityforlifeandproperty，thestabilityofthelaw，theintegrityofcourts，equalityofcitizensbeforethelawandundertaxation，theabolitionofprivilegesandarbitraryproceedings，theelectionofrepresentativesandtheadministrationofpublicfunds。Summingitup，thepreciousguaranteeswhichrendereachcitizenaninviolablesovereignonhislimiteddomain，whichprotecthispersonandpropertyagainstallspeciesofpublicorprivateoppressionandexaction，whichmaintainhimcalmanderectbeforecompetitorsaswellasadversaries，uprightandrespectfulinthepresenceofmagistratesandinthepresenceofthegovernment。
AMalouet，aMounier，aMalletduPan，partisansoftheEnglishConstitutionandParliament，maybecontentwithsuchtriflinggifts，buttheJacobintheoryholdsthemallcheap，and，ifneedbe，willtrampletheminthedust。Independenceandsecurityfortheprivatecitizenisnotwhatitpromises，nottherighttovoteeverytwoyears，notamoderateexerciseofinfluence，notanindirect，limitedandintermittentcontrolofthecommonwealth，butpoliticaldominioninthefullandcompletepossessionofFranceandtheFrenchpeople。
Thereisnodoubtonthispoint。InRousseau’sownwords，the\"ContratSocial\"prescribes\"thecompletealienationtothecommunityofeachassociateandallhisrights，\"everyindividualsurrenderinghimselfwholly，\"justashemayactuallybe，hehimselfandallhispowersofwhichhispossessionsformapart，\"sothatthestatenotonlytherecognizedownerofproperty，butofmindsandbodiesaswell，mayforciblyandlegitimatelyimposeoneverymemberofitsucheducation，formofworship，religiousfaith，opinionsandsympathiesasitdeemsbest。[22]Noweachman，solelybecauseheisaman，isbyrightamemberofthisdespoticsovereignty。Whatever，accordingly，myconditionmaybe，myincompetence，myignorance，myinsignificanceinthecareerinwhichIhaveploddedalong，Ihavefullcontroloverthefortunes，lives，andconsciencesoftwenty—sixmillionFrenchpeople，beingaccordinglyCzarandPope，accordingtomyshareofauthority。—
—ButifIadherestrictlytothisdoctrine，Iamyetmoresothanmyquotawarrants。ThisroyalprerogativewithwhichIamendowedisonlyconferredonthosewho，likemyself，signtheSocialContractinfull；
others，merelybecausetheyrejectsomeclauseofit，incuraforfeiture；noonemustenjoytheadvantagesofapactofwhichsomeoftheconditionsarerepudiated。—Evenbetter，asthispactisbasedonnaturalrightandisobligatory，hewhorejectsitorwithdrawsfromit，becomesbythatactamiscreant，apublicwrong—doerandanenemyofthepeople。Therewereoncecrimesofroyallèse—majesty；nowtherearecrimesofpopularlèse—majesty。Suchcrimesarecommittedwhenbydeed，word，orthought，anyportionwhateverofthemorethanroyalauthoritybelongingtothepeopleisdeniedorcontested。Thedogmathroughwhichpopularsovereigntyisproclaimedthusactuallyendsinadictatorshipofthefew，andaproscriptionofthemany。
Outsideofthesectyouareoutsideofthelaws。We，thefiveorsixthousandJacobinsofParis，arethelegitimatemonarch，theinfalliblePontiff，andwoebetidetherefractoryandthelukewarm，allgovernmentagents，allprivatepersons，theclergy，thenobles，therich，merchants，traders，theindifferentamongallclasses，who，steadilyopposingoryieldinguncertainadhesion，daretothrowdoubtonourunquestionableright。
Onebyonetheseconsequencesaretocomeintolight，anditisevidentthat，letthelogicalmachinerybywhichtheyunfoldthemselvesbewhatitmay，noordinaryperson，unlessofconsummatevanity，willfullyadoptthem。Hemusthaveanexaltedopinionofhimselftoconsiderhimselfsovereignotherwisethanbyhisvote，toconductpublicbusinesswithnomoremisgivingsthanhisprivatebusiness，todirectlyandforciblyinterferewiththis，tosethimselfup，heandhisclique，asguides，censorsandrulersofhisgovernment，topersuadehimselfthat，withhismediocreeducationandaverageintellect，withhisfewscrapsofLatinandsuchinformationasisobtainedinreading—rooms，coffee—houses，andnewspapers，withnootherexperiencethanthatofaclub，oramunicipalcouncil，hecoulddiscoursewiselyandwellonthevast，complexquestionswhichsuperiormen，speciallydevotedtothem，hesitatetotakeup。Atfirstthispresumptionexistedinhimonlyingerm，and，inordinarytimes，itwouldhaveremained，forlackofnourishment，asdry—rotorcreepingmold，Buttheheartknowsnotwhatstrangeseedsitcontains！
Anyofthese，feebleandseeminglyinoffensive，needsonlyairandsunshinetobecomeanoxiousexcrescenceandacolossalplant。Whetherthirdorfourthrateattorney，counselor，surgeon，journalist，curé，artist，orauthor，theJacobinisliketheshepherdthathasjustfound，inonecornerofhishut，alotofoldparchmentswhichentitlehimtothethrone。Whatacontrastsbetweenthemeannessofhiscallingandtheimportancewithwhichthetheoryinvestshim！Withwhatraptureheacceptsadogmathatraiseshimsohighinhisownestimation！DiligentlyconningtheDeclarationofRights，theConstitution，alltheofficialdocumentsthatconferonhimsuchgloriousprerogatives，charginghisimaginationwiththem，heimmediatelyassumesatonebefittinghisnewposition。[23]——Nothingsurpassesthehaughtinessandarroganceofthistone。ItdeclaresitselfattheoutsetintheharanguesoftheclubsandinthepetitionstotheConstituentAssembly。Loustalot，Fréron，Danton，Marat，Robespierre，St。Just，alwaysemploydictatoriallanguage，thatofthesect，andwhichfinallybecomesthejargonoftheirmeanestvalets。Courtesyortoleration，anythingthatdenotesregardorrespectforothers，findnoplaceintheirutterancesnorintheiracts；aswaggering，tyrannicalconceitcreatesforitselfalanguageinitsownimage，andweseenotonlytheforemostactors，buttheirminorassociates，enthronedontheirgrandiloquentplatform。EachinhisowneyesisRoman，savior，hero，andgreatman。
\"Istoodinthetribuneofthepalace，\"writesAnarcharsisClootz，[24]\"attheheadoftheforeigners，actingasambassadorofthehumanspecies，whiletheministersofthetyrantsregardedmewithajealousanddisconcertedair。\"
AschoolmasteratTroyes，ontheopeningoftheclubinthattown，advisesthewomen\"toteachtheirchildren，assoonastheycanutteraword，thattheyarefreeandhaveequalrightswiththemightiestpotentatesoftheuniverse。\"[25]Pétion’saccountofthejourneyintheking’scarriage，onthereturnfromVarennes，mustbereadtoseehowfarself—importanceofapedantandtheself—conceitofaloutcanbecarried。[26]Intheirmemoirsandevendowntotheirepitaphs，Barbaroux，Buzot，Pétion，Roland，andMadameRoland[27]givethemselvescertificatesofvirtueand，ifwecouldtaketheirwordforit，theywouldpassforPlutarch’smodelcharacters。——Thisinfatuation，fromtheGirondinstotheMontagnards，continuestogrow。
St。Just，attheageoftwenty—four，andmerelyaprivateindividual，isalreadyconsumedwithsuppressedambition。Maratsays:
\"IbelievethatIhaveexhaustedeverycombinationofthehumanintellectinrelationtomorality，philosophyandpoliticalscience。\"
Robespierre，fromthebeginningtotheendoftheRevolution，isalways，inhisowneyes，Robespierretheunique，theonepureman，theinfallibleandtheimpeccable；nomaneverburnttohimselftheincenseofhisownpraisesoconstantlyandsodirectly。—Atthislevel，conceitmaydrinkthetheorytothebottom，howeverrevoltingthedregsandhoweverfatalitspoisoneventothosedefyitsnauseaforthesakeofswallowingit。And，sinceitisvirtue，noonemayrefuseitwithoutcommittingacrime。Thusconstrued，thetheorydividesFrenchmenintotwogroups:oneconsistingofaristocrats，fanatics，egoists，thecorrupt，badcitizensinshort，andtheotherpatriots，philosophers，andthevirtuous，thatistosay，thosebelongingtothesect。[28]Thankstothisreduction，thevastmoralandsocialworldwithwhichtheydealfindsitsdefinition，expression，andrepresentationinaready—madeantithesis。Theaimofthegovernmentisnowclear:thewickedmustsubmittothegood，or，whichisbriefer，thewickedmustbesuppressed。Tothisendletusemployconfiscation，imprisonment，exile，drowningandtheguillotineandalargescale。Allmeansarejustifiableandmeritoriousagainstthesetraitors；nowthattheJacobinhascanonizedhisslaughter，heslaysthroughphilanthropy。——Thusistheformingofhispersonalitycompletedlikethatofatheologianwhobecomesinquisitor。
Extraordinarycontrastsaregatheredtoconstructit:—alunaticthatislogical，andamonsterthatpretendstohaveaconscience。Underthepressureofhisfaithandegotism，hehasdevelopedtwodeformities，oneoftheheadandtheotheroftheheart；hiscommonsenseisgone，andhismoralsenseisutterlyperverted。Infixinghismindonabstractformulas，heisnolongerabletoseemenastheyare。Hisself—admirationmakeshimconsiderhisadversaries，andevenhisrivals，asmiscreantsdeservingofdeath。Onthisdownhillroadnothingstopshim，for，inqualifyingthingsinverselytotheirtruemeaning，hehasviolatedwithinhimselfthepreciousconceptswhichbringsusbacktotruthandjustice。Nolightreacheseyeswhichregardblindnessasclear—sightedness；noremorseaffectsasoulwhicherectsbarbarismintopatriotism，andwhichsanctionsmurderwithduty。
_
NOTES:
[1]Cf。\"TheAncientRégime，\"p。242。Citationsfromthe\"ContratSocial。\"—BuchezetRoux，\"HistoireParlementaire，\"XXVI。96。
DeclarationofrightsreadbyRobespierreintheJacobinclub，April21，1793，andadoptedbytheclubasitsown。\"Thepeopleissovereign，thegovernmentisitsworkanditsproperty，andpublicfunctionariesareitsclerks。Thepeoplecandisplaceitsmandatoriesandchangeitsgovernmentwhenitpleases。
[2]Lenin，Stalin，Mao，PolPot，andotherdictatorsthatlikethatalsoorganizedelectionsandsawthemselvesasbeingthepeople，speakingandactingontheirbehalfandthereforeentitledtodoanythingtheypleased。（SR）。
[3]Rightlyso，mightLeninhavethoughtwhenhefirstreadthistext。
Later，underhisandStalin’sleadershiptheParty，guidedbythefirstsecretaryofitscentralcommittee，aidedbythesecretpolice，shouldpenetrateallaffairsslowlyextendingtheirpowerorinfluencetotheentireworldthroughtheirsecretpartymembers，mutuallyensuringtheirpromotionintothehighestposts，thepartywilleventuallycometogoverntheworld。（SR）。
[4]BuchezandRoux，III，324……（AnarticlebyLoustalot，Sept。8，1789）。Ibid。331MotionoftheDistrictofCordéliers，presidedoverbyDanton。—Ibid239……DenunciationofthemunicipalitybyMarat。—V。，128，Vi。24—41（March，1790）。Themajorityofthedistrictsdemandthepermanentauthorityofthedistricts，thatistosay，ofthesovereignpoliticalassemblies[5]BuchezetRoux。IV。458。MeetingofFeb。24，1790，anarticlebyLoustalot。—III202。SpeechbyRobespierre，meetingofOct。21，1789。
Ibid。219。ResolutionofthedistrictofSt。Martindeclaringthatmartiallawshallnotbeenforced。Ibid。222。ArticlebyLoustalot。
[6]BuchezetRoux，X。124，anarticlebyMarat。—X。1—22，speechbyRobespierreatthemeetingofMay9，1791。—III。anarticlebyLoustalot。III。217，speechbyRobespierre，meetingofOct。22，1789。
Ibid。431，articlebyLoustalotandDesmoulins，Nov。，1789。——VI。336，articlesbyLoustalotandMarat，July，1790。
[7]ErnestHamel，\"HistoiredeRobespierre\"，passim，（I。436）。
Robespierreproposedtoconferpoliticalrightsontheblacks。—
BuchezetRoux，IX。264（March，1791）。
[8]BuchezetRoux，V。146（March，1790）；VI。436（July26，1790）；
VIII。247（Dec1790）；X。224（June，1791）。
[9]GustaveFlaubert。\"Toutnotairearêvédessultanes。\"（Allbarristershavedreamsofbeingsultans！）（MadameBovary\"）。——
\"Frédérictrouvaitquelebonheurméritépar1’excellencedesonametardaitàvenir。\"（Frédéricfoundthatthehappinesshedeservedduetohisbrilliancywasalongtimecoming。）（\"L’Educationsentimentale。）
[10]SuchhasalsobeentheeffectofsimilardeclarationssetforthintheConstitutionsoftheUnitedNations，theEuropeanCommunity，aswellasmanyindividualnations。AllthatwasrequiredfortheinternationalCommunistmovementwasthentoawaittheslowpromotionofthesecretpartymembersdirectedtoseekacareerinsidethevariouslegaladministrationsfor，oneday，toseeallsuperiorcourtsstaffedbytheirmen。（SR）。
[11]MalletduPan，\"Correspondancepolitique。\"1796。
[12]\"EntretiensduPèreGérard，\"byCollotd’Herbois。——\"LesEtrennesauPeuple，\"byBarrère。—\"LaConstitutionfran？aisepourleshabitantsdescampagnes，\"etc。—Later\"L’AlphabetdesSans—Culottes，leNouveauCatéchismerépublicain，lesCommandementsdelaPatrieetdelaRépublique（inverse），etc。
[13]MercuredeFrance，anarticlebyMalletduPan，April7，1792。
（Summingupoftheyear1791。）
[14]MercuredeFrance，seethenumbersofDec。30，1791，andApril7，1792。（Notethephrase，itisclosetoMarxstatementin1850’thattheclassstrugglenecessarilyleadstothedictatorshipoftheproletariat。’SR。）
[15]Fox，beforedecidingonanymeasure，consultedaMr。H。———，oneofthemostuninfluential，andevennarrow—mindedmembersoftheHouseofCommons。Someastonishmentbeingexpressedatthis，herepliedthatheregardedMr。H。————asaperfecttypeofthefacultiesandprejudicesofacountrygentleman，andheusedhimasathermometer。
Napoleonlikewisestatedthatbeforeframinganimportantlaw，heimaginedtohimselftheimpressionitwouldmakeonthemindofaburlypeasant。
[16]Justlikethestronginfluencewhichthecurrentfashionableprinciplesandbuzz—wordsintroducedbythemediahaveovertoday’saudiences。（SR）。
[17]Alas！ThisphenomenonshouldberepeatedwiththeinterminablespeechesheldbyLenin，Stalin，Hitler，Castro，MaoandalltheotherinheritorsoftheJacobincreed。（SR）。
[18]TableauxdelaRévolutionFran？aise，\"bySchmidt（especiallythereportsbyDutard），3vols。
[19]\"CorrespondenceofGouverneurMorris，\"——\"MemoirsofMalletduPan，\"JohnMoore’
[20]See，in\"Progrèsdel’esprithumaine，\"thesuperiorityawardedtotherepublicanconstitutionof1793。（BookIX。）\"TheprinciplesfromwhichtheconstitutionandlawsofFrancehavebeencombinedarepurer，moreexact，anddeeperthanthosewhichgovernedtheAmericans:
theyhavemorecompletelyescapedtheinfluenceofeverysortofprejudice，etc。\"
[21]CamilleDesmoulins，theenfantterribleoftheRevolution，confessesthis，aswellasothertruths。AftercitingtheRevolutionsofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies，\"whichderivedtheirvirtuefromandhadtheirrootsinconscience，whichweresustainedbyfanaticismandthehopesofanotherworld，\"hethusconcludes:\"OurRevolution，purelypolitical，iswhollyrootedinegotism，ineverybody’samourpropre，inthecombinationsofwhichisfoundthecommoninterest。\"（\"Brissotdévoilé，\"byCamilleDesmoulins，January，1792）——BouchezetRoux，XIII，207。）
[22]Rousseau’sideaoftheomnipotenceoftheStateisalsothatofLouisXIVandNapoleon……Itiscurioustoseethedevelopmentofthesameideainthemindofacontemporarybourgeois，likeRétifdelaBretonne，halfliteraryandhalfoneofthepeople（\"NuitsdeParis，\"
XVenuit，377，ontheSeptemberMassacres）\"No，Idonotpitythosefanaticalpriests；theyhavedonethecountrytoomuchmischief。
Whateverasociety，oramajorityofit，desires，thatisright。Hewhoopposesthis，whocallsdownwarandvengeanceontheNation，isamonster。Orderisalwaysfoundintheagreementofthemajority。Theminorityisalwaysguilty，Irepeatit，evenifitismorallyright。
Nothingbutcommonsenseisneededtoseethattruth。\"——Ibid。（OntheexecutionofLouisXVI。），p。447。\"Hadthenationtherighttocondemnandexecutehim？Nothinkingpersoncanasksuchaquestion。
Thenationiseverythinginitself；itspoweristhatwhichthewholehumankindwouldhaveifbutonenation，onesinglegovernmentgovernedtheglobe。Whowoulddarethendisputethepowerofhumanity？
Itisthisindisputablepowerthatanationhas，tohangevenaninnocentman，feltbytheancientGreeks，whichledthemtoexileAristotelesandputPhociontodeath。’Ohtruth，unrecognizedbyourcontemporaries，whatevilhasarisenthroughforgettingit！’\"
[23]Moniteur，XI。46。SpeechbyIsnardintheAssembly，Jan。5，1792。
\"Thepeoplearenowconsciousoftheirdignity。Theyknow，accordingtotheconstitution，thateveryFrenchman’smottois:’Livefree，theequalofall，andoneofthecommonsovereignty。’\"——GuillondeMontléon，I。445。SpeechbyChalier，intheLyonsCentralClub，March21，1793。\"Knowthatyouarekings，andmorethankings。Doyounotfeelsovereigntycirculatinginyourveins？\"
[24]Moniteur，V。136。（CelebrationoftheFederation，July14，1790。）
[25]AlbertBabeau，\"HistoiredeTroyespendantlaRévolution，\"I。436
（April10，1790）。
[26]Mortimer—Ternaux，\"HistoiredelaTerreur，\"I。353。（Pétion’sownnarrativeofthisjourney。）Thispertblockheadcannotevenspell:hewritesaselleforaisselle，etc。HeisconvincedthatMadameElizabeth，theking’ssister，wantstoseducehim，andthatshemakesadvancestohim:\"Ifwehadbeenalone，Ibelievethatshewouldhavefallenintomyarms，andlettheimpulsesofnaturehavetheirway。\"
Hemakesadisplayofvirtuehowever，andbecomesonlythemoresuperciliousashetalkswiththeking，theyoungdauphin，andtheladiesheisfetchingback。
[27]The\"MémoiresdeMadameRoland\"isamasterpieceofthatconceitsupposedtobesocareflillyconcealedasnottobevisibleandneveroffitsstilts。\"Iambeautiful，Iamaffectionate，Iamsensitive，I
inspirelove，Ireciprocate，Iremainvirtuous，mymindissuperior，andmycourageindomitable。Iamphilosopher，statesman，andwriter，worthyofthehighestsuccess，\"isconstantlyinhermind，andalwaysperceptibleinherphraseology。Realmodestynevershowsitself。Onthecontrary，manyindecorousthingsaresaidanddonebyherfrombravado，andtosetherselfabovehersex。Cf。the\"MemoirsofMirs。
Hutchinson，\"whichpresentagreatcontrast。MadameRolandwrote:\"I
seenopartinsocietywhichsuitsmebutthatofProvidence。\"——Thesamepresumptionshinesoutinothers，withlessrefinedpretensions。
ThedeputyRouyeraddressesthefollowingletter，foundamongthepapersoftheironwardrobe，totheking，\"Ihavecompared，examined，andforeseeneverything。AllIasktocarryoutmynoblepurposes，isthatdirectionofforces，whichthelawconfersonyou。Iamawareofandbravethedanger；weaknessdeferstothis，whilegeniusovercomesitIhaveturnedmyattentiontoallthecourtsofEurope，andamsurethatIcanforcepeaceonthem。\"——Robert，anobscurepamphleteer，asksDumourieztomakehimambassadortoConstantinople，whileLouvet，theauthorof\"Faublas，\"declaresinhismemoirsthatlibertyperishedin1792，becausehewasnotappointedMinisterofJustice。
[28]Moniteur，p。189。SpeechbyCollotd’Herbois，onthemitrailladesatLyons。\"Wetoo，possesssensibility！TheJacobinshaveeveryvirtue；theyarecompassionate，humane，andgenerous。Thesevirtues，however，arereservedforpatriots，whoaretheirbrethren，butneverforaristocrats。\"——Meillan，\"Mémoires，\"p。4。\"RobespierrewasonedayeulogizingamannamedDesfieux，wellknownforhislackofintegrity，andwhomhefinallysacrificed。’But，Isaidtohim，yourmanDesfieuxisknowntobearascal。’—’Nomatter，’hereplied，’heisagoodpatriot。’—’Butheisafraudulentbankrupt。’—’Heisagoodpatriot。’——’Butheisathief。’—’Heisagoodpatriot。’Icouldnotgetmorethanthesethreewordsoutofhim。\"
CHAPTERII。
I。
Formationoftheparty。——Itsrecruits——Thesearerareintheupperclassandamongstthemasses。——Theyarenumerousinthelowbourgeoisclassandintheupperstratumofthepeople。——Thepositionandeducationwhichenrollamanintheparty。
PERSONALITIESlikethesearefoundinallclassesofsociety；nosituationorpositioninlifeprotectsonefromwildUtopiaorfranticambition。WefindamongtheJacobinsaBarrasandaChateauneuf—
Randon，twonoblesoftheoldestfamilies；Condorcet，amarquis，mathematician，philosopherandmemberoftworenownedacademies；
Gobel，bishopofLyddaandsuffragantothebishopofBale；HéraultdeSéchellles，aprotégéoftheQueen’sandattorney—generaltotheParisparliament；LepelletierdeSt。Fargeau，chief—justiceandoneoftherichestland—ownersinFrance；CharlesdeHesse，major—general，bornintheroyalfamily；and，lastofall，aprinceofthebloodandfourthpersonageintherealm，theDukeofOrleans。——But，withtheexceptionoftheseraredeserters，neitherthehereditaryaristocracynortheuppermagistracy，northehighestofthemiddleclass，noneoftheland—ownerswholiveontheirestates，ortheleadersofindustrialandcommercialenterprises，noonebelongingtotheadministration，noneofthose，ingeneral，whoareordeservetobeconsideredsocialauthorities，furnishthepartywithrecruits。Allhavetoomuchatstakeinthepoliticalestablishment，shatteredasitis，towishitsentiredemolition。Theirpoliticalexperience，briefasitis，enablesthemtoseeatoncethatahabitablehouseisnotbuiltbymerelytracingaplanofitonpaperaccordingthetheoremsofschoolgeometry。——Ontheotherhand，amongtheordinaryruralpopulationtheideologyfinds，unlessitcanbechangedintoalegend，nolisteners。Sharecroppers，smallholdersandfarmerslookingaftertheirownplotsofground，peasantsandcraftsmenwhoworktoohardtothinkandwhosemindsneverrangebeyondavillagehorizon，busyonlywiththatwhichbringsintheirdailybread，findabstractdoctrinesunintelligible；shouldthedogmasofthenewcatechismarresttheirattentionthesamethinghappensaswiththeoldone，theydonotunderstandthem；thatmentalfacultybywhichanabstractionisreachedisnotyetformedinthem。Onbeingtakentoapoliticalclubtheyfallasleep；theyopentheireyesonlywhensomeoneannouncesthattithesandfeudalprivilegesaretoberestored；
theycanbedependedonfornothingmorethanabrawlandajacquerie；
lateron，whentheirgraincomestobetaxedoristaken，theyproveasunrulyundertherepublicasunderthemonarchy。
Thebelieversinthistheorycomefromotherquarters，fromthetwoextremesofthelowerstratumofthemiddleclassandtheupperstratumofthelowclass。Again，inthesetwocontiguousgroups，whichmergeintoeachother，thosemustbeleftoutwho，absorbedintheirdailyoccupationsorprofessions，havenotimeorthoughttogivetopublicmatters，whohavereachedafairpositioninthesocialhierarchyandarenotdisposedtorunrisks，almostallofthemwell—
established，steady—going，mature，marriedfolkswhohavesowntheirwildoatsandwhomexperienceinlifehasrendereddistrustfulofthemselvesandoftheories。Overweeningconceitis，mostofthetime，onlyaverageintheaveragehumanbeing，sospeculativeideaswillwithmostpeopleonlyobtainaloose，transientandfeeblehold。
Moreover，inthissocietywhich，formanycenturiesconsistsofpeopleaccustomedtobeingruled，thehereditaryspiritisbourgeoisthatistosay，usedtodiscipline，fondoforder，peaceableandeventimid。
——Thereremainsaminority，averysmallone，[1]innovatingandrestless。Thisconsisted，ontheonehand，ofpeoplewhowerediscontentedwiththeircallingorprofession，becausetheywereofsecondaryorsubalternrankinit。[2]Someweredebutantesnotfullyemployedandothersaspirantsforcareersnotyetenteredupon。Then，ontheotherhand，therewerethemenofunstablecharacterandallthosewhowereuprootedbytheimmenseupheavalofthings:intheChurch，throughthesuppressionofconventsandthroughschism；inthejudiciary，intheadministration，inthefinancialdepartments，inthearmy，andinvariousprivateandpubliccareers，throughthereorganizationofinstitutions，throughthenoveltyoffreshresourcesandoccupations，andthroughthedisturbancecausedbythechangedrelationshipsofpatronsandclients。Manywho，inordinarytimes，wouldotherwiseremainquiet，becomeinthiswaynomadicandextravagantinpolitics。Amongtheforemostofthesearefoundthosewho，throughaclassicaleducation，cantakeinanabstractpropositionanddeduceitsconsequences，butwho，forlackofspecialpreparationforit，andconfinedtothenarrowcircleoflocalaffairs，areincapableofformingaccurateconceptionsofavast，complexsocialorganization，andoftheconditionswhichenableittosubsist。Theirtalentliesinmakingaspeech，indashingoffaneditorial，incomposingapamphlet，andindrawingupreportsinmoreorlesspompousanddogmaticstyle；thegenreadmitted，afewofthemwhoaregiftedbecomeeloquent，butthatisall。Amongthosearethelawyers，notaries，bailiffsandformerpettyprovincialjudgesandattorneyswhofurnishtheleadingactorsandtwo—thirdsofthemembersoftheLegislativeAssemblyandoftheConvention:Therearesurgeonsanddoctorsinsmalltowns，likeBo，Levasseur，andBaudot，secondandthird—rateliterarycharacters，likeBarrère，Louvet，Garat，Manuel，andRonsin，collegeprofessorslikeLouchetandRomme，schoolmasterslikeLeonardBourdon，journalistslikeBrissot，DesmoulinsandFreron，actorslikeCollotd’Herbois，artistslikeSergent，Oratoriens[3]likeFouché，capuchinslikeChabot，moreorlesssecularizedpriestslikeLebon，Chasles，Lakanal，andGrégoire，studentsscarcelyoutofschoollikeSt。Just，MonetofStrasbourg，RousselineofSt。Albin，andJulienoftheDr？me——inshort，thepoorlysownandbadlycultivatedminds，andonwhichthetheoryhadonlytofalltosmotherthegoodgrainandthrivelikeanettle。Addtothesecharlatansandotherswholivebytheirwits，thevisionaryandmorbidofallsorts，fromFanchetandKlootztoChalierorMarat，thewholeofthatneedy，chattering，irresponsiblecrowd，everswarmingaboutlargecitiesventilatingitsshallowconceitsandabortivepretensions。Fartherinthebackgroundappearthosewhosescantyeducationqualifiesthemtohalfunderstandanabstractprincipleandimperfectlydeduceitsconsequences，butwhoseroughly—polishedinstinctatonesforthefeeblenessofacoarseargumentation。Throughcupidity，envyandrancor，theydivinearichpasture—groundbehindthetheory，andJacobindogmasbecomedearertothem，becausetheimaginationseesuntoldtreasuresbeyondthemistsinwhichtheyareshrouded。Theycanlistentoaclubharanguewithoutfallingasleep，applauditstiradesintherightsplace，offeraresolutioninapublicgarden，shoutinthetribunes，penaffidavitsforarrests，composeorders—of—the—dayforthenationalguard，andlendtheirlungs，arms，andsaberstowhoeverbidsforthem。Butheretheircapacityends。Inthisgroupmerchants’andnotaries’clerksabound，likeHébertandHenriot，VincentandChaumette，butcherslikeLegendre，postmasterslikeDrouet，boss—joinerslikeDuplay，school—teacherslikethatBuchotwhobecomesaminister，andmanyothersofthesamesort，accustomedtojottingdownideas，withvaguenotionsoforthographyandwhoareaptinspeech—making，[4]foremen，sub—officers，formerbeggingfriars，peddlers，tavern—keepers，retailers，market—porters，andcity—
journeymenfromGouchon，theoratorofthefaubourgSt。Antoine，downtoSimon，thecobbleroftheTemple，fromTrinchard，thejurymanoftheRevolutionaryTribunal，downtogrocers，tailors，shoemakers，tapster，waiters，barbers，andothershopkeepersorartisanswhodotheirworkathome，andwhoareyettodotheworkoftheSeptembermassacres。Addtothesethefoulremnantsofeverypopularinsurrectionanddictatorship，beastsofpreylikeJourdainofAvignon，andFourniertheAmerican，womenlikeThéroigne，RoseLacombe，andthetricoteusesoftheConventionwhohaveunsexedthemselves，theamnestiedbanditsandothergallowsbirdswho，forlackofapolice，haveawiderange，street—rollersandvagabonds，rebelsagainstlaboranddiscipline，thewholeofthatclassinthecenterofcivilizationwhichpreservestheinstinctsofsavages，andassertsthesovereigntyofthepeopletoglutanaturalappetiteforlicense，laziness，andferocity。——Thusisthepartyrecruitedthroughanenlistingprocessthatgleansitssubjectsfromeverystationinlife，butwhichreapsthemdowningreatswaths，andgathersthemtogetherinthetwogroupstowhichdogmatismandpresumptionnaturallybelong。Here，educationhasbroughtmantothethreshold，eventotheheartofgeneralideas；consequently，hefeelshamperedwithinthenarrowboundsofhisprofessionoroccupation，andaspirestosomethingbeyond。Butashiseducationhasremainedsuperficialorrudimentary，consequently，outsideofhisnarrowcirclehefeelsoutofhisplace。Hehasaperceptionorobtainsaglimpseofpoliticalideasand，therefore，assumesthathehascapacity。Buthisperceptionisconfidedtoaformula，andheseesthemdimlythroughacloud；hencehisincapacity，andthereasonwhyhismentallacunaeaswellashisattainmentsbothcontributetomakehimaJacobin。