theyacknowledgenothingbut，ontheonehand，theState，thedepositaryofallpublicpowers，and，ontheotherhand，amyriadofsolitaryindividuals。Specialassociations，specificgroups，collateralcorporationsarenotwanted，eventofulfillfunctionswhichtheStateisincapableoffulfilling。\"Assoonasoneentersacorporation，\"saysandorator，\"onemustloveitasonelovesafamily；\"[49]whereastheaffectionsandobediencearealltobemonopolizedbytheState。Moreover，onenteringintoanorderamanreceivesspecialaidandcomfortfromit，andwhateverdistinguishesonemanfromanother，isopposedtocivilequality。Hence，ifmenaretoremainequalandbecomecitizenstheymustbedeprivedofeveryrallyingpointthatmightcompetewiththatoftheState，andgivetosomeanadvantageoverothers。Allnaturaloracquiredties，consequently，whichboundmentogetherthroughgeographicalposition，throughclimate，history，pursuits，andtrade，aresundered。Theoldprovinces，theoldprovincialgovernments，theoldmunicipaladministrations，parliaments，guildsandmasterships，allaresuppressed。Thegroupswhichspringupmostnaturally，thosewhicharisethroughacommunityofinterests，arealldispersed，andthebroadest，mostexpress，andmostpositiveinterdictionsarepromulgatedagainsttheirrevivalunderanypretextwhatever。[50]
Franceiscutupintogeometricalsectionslikeachess—board，and，withintheseimprovisedlimits，whicharedestinedforalongtimetoremainartificial，nothingisallowedtosubsistbutisolatedindividualsinjuxtaposition。Thereisnodesiretospareorganizedbodieswherethecohesionisgreat，andleastofallthatoftheclergy。
\"Specialassociations，\"saysMirabeau，[51]\"inthecommunityatlarge，breakuptheunityofitsprinciplesanddestroytheequilibriumofitsforces。LargepoliticalbodiesinaStatearedangerousthroughthestrengthwhichresultsfromtheircoalitionandtheresistancewhichisbornoutoftheirinterests。\"ii——
Thatoftheclergy，besides，isinherentlybad，[52]because\"itssystemisinconstantantagonismtotherightsofman。\"Aninstitutioninwhichavowofobedienceisnecessaryis\"incompatible\"withtheconstitution。Congregations\"subjecttoindependentchiefsareoutofthesocialpaleandincompatiblewithpublicspirit。\"Astotherightofsocietyoverthese，andalsoovertheChurch，thisisnotdoubtful。\"Corporatebodiesexistonlythroughsociety，and，indestroyingthem，societymerelytakesbackthelifeshehasimpartedtothem。\"\"Theyaresimplyinstrumentsfabricatedbythelaw。[53]Whatdoestheworkmandowhenthetoolheworkswithnolongersuitshim？Hebreaksoraltersit。\"——Thisprimarysophismbeingadmittedtheconclusionisplain。Sincecorporatebodiesareabolishedtheynolongerexist，andsincetheynolongerexist，theycannotagainbecomeproprietors。
\"Youraimwastodestroyecclesiasticalorders，[54]becausetheirdestructionwasessentialtothesafetyoftheState。Iftheclergypreservetheirproperty，theclericalorderisnotdestroyed:younecessarilyleaveittherightofassembling；yousanctionitsindependence。\"Innocasemustecclesiasticsholdpossessions。\"Iftheyareproprietorstheyareindependent，andiftheyareindependenttheywillassociatethisindependencewiththeexerciseoftheirfunctions。\"Theclergy，costwhatitwill，mustbeinthehandsoftheState，assimplefunctionariesandsupportedbyitssubsidies。Itwouldbetoodangerousforanation，\"toadmitinitsbosomasproprietorsalargebodyofmentowhomsomanysourcesofcreditalreadygivesogreatpower。Asreligionisthepropertyofall，itsministers，throughthisfactalone，shouldbeinthepayofthenation；\"theyareessentially\"officersofmoralityandinstruction，\"and\"salaried\"likejudgesandprofessors。Letusfetchthembacktothisconditionofthings，whichistheonlyonecompatiblewiththerightsofman，andordainthat\"theclergy，aswellasallcorporationsandbodieswithpowerofinheritance，arenow，andshallbeforeverincapableofholdinganypersonalorlandedestate。\"[55]
Who，now，isthelegitimateheirofallthesevacatedpossessions？
Throughanothersophism，theState，atoncejudgeandpartyinthecause，assignsthemtotheState:
\"ThefounderspresentedthemtotheChurch，thatistosay，tothenation。\"[56]\"Sincethenationhaspermittedtheirpossessionbytheclergy，shemayre—demandthatwhichispossessedonlythroughherauthorization。\"\"Theprinciplemustbemaintainedthateverynationissolelyandveritablyproprietorofthepossessionsofitsclergy。\"
Thisprinciple，itmustbenoted，asitislaiddown，involvesthedestructionofecclesiasticalandlaycorporations，alongwiththeconfiscationofalltheirpossessions，andsoonweshallseeappearingonthehorizonthefinalandcompletedecree[57]bywhichtheLegislativeAssembly，\"consideringthataStatetrulyfreeshouldnotsufferanycorporationwithinitsbosom，noteventhosewhich，devotedtopublicinstruction，deservewellofthecountry，\"noteventhose\"whicharesolelydevotedtotheserviceofthehospitals—andthereliefofthesick，\"
suppressesallcongregations，allassociationsofmenorofwomen，layorecclesiastical，allendowmentsforpious，charitable，andmissionarypurposes，allhousesofeducation，allseminariesandcolleges，andthoseoftheSorbonneandNavarre。Addtothesethelastsweepofthebroom:undertheLegislativeAssemblythedivisionofallcommunalproperty，exceptwoods:undertheConvention，theabolitionofallliterarysocieties，academiesofscienceandofliterature，theconfiscationofalltheirproperty，theirlibraries，museums，andbotanicalgardens；theconfiscationofallcommunalpossessionsnotpreviouslydivided；andtheconfiscationofallthepropertyofhospitalsandotherphilanthropicestablishments。[58]——
Theabstractprinciple，proclaimedbytheConstituentAssembly，reveals，bydegrees，itsexterminatingvirtues。Francenow，owingtoit，containsnothingbutdispersed，powerless，ephemeralindividuals，andconfrontingthem，theState，thesole，theonlypermanentbodythathasdevouredalltheothers，averitableColossus，aloneerectinthemidstoftheseinsignificantdwarfs。
Substitutedfortheothers，itishenceforthtoperformtheirduties，andspendthemoneywellwhichtheyhaveexpendedbadly。——
Inthefirstplace，itabolishestithes，notgraduallyandbymeansofaprocessofredemption，asinEngland，butatonestroke，andwithnoindemnity，onthegroundthatthetax，beinganabusive，illegitimateimpost，aprivatetaxleviedbyindividualsincowlandcassockonothersinsmockfrocks，isavexatioususurpation，andresemblesthefeudaldues。Itisaradicaloperation，andinconformitywithprinciple。Unfortunately，thepuerilityofthethingissogrossastodefeatitsownobject。Ineffect，sincethedaysofCharlemagne，alltheestatesinthecountrywhichhavebeensoldandresoldoverandoveragainhavealwayspaidtithes，andhaveneverbeenpurchasedexceptwiththischargeuponthem，whichamountstoaboutone—seventhofthenetrevenueofthecountry。
Takeoffthistaxandone—seventhisaddedtotheincomeoftheproprietor，and，consequently，aseventhtohiscapital。Apresentismadetohimofonehundredfrancsifhislandisworthsevenhundred—francs，andofonethousandifitisworthseventhousand，oftenthousandifitisworthseventythousand，andofonehundredthousandifitisworthsevenhundredthousand。Somepeoplegainsixhundredthousandfrancsbythisact，andthirtythousandfrancsinIncome。[59]Throughthisgratuitousandunexpectedgift，onehundredandtwenty—threemillionsofrevenue，andtwomilliardsandahalfofcapital，isdividedamongtheholdersofrealestateinFrance，andinamannersoingeniousthattherichreceivethemost。
Suchistheeffectofabstractprinciples。Toaffordareliefofthirtymillionsayeartothepeasantsinwoodenshoes，anassemblyofdemocratsaddsthirtymillionsayeartotherevenueofwealthybourgeoisandthirtymillionsayeartoopulentnobles。Thefirstpartofthisoperationmoreover，isbutanotherburdentotheState；
for，intakingofftheloadfromtheholdersofrealproperty，ithasencumbereditself，theStatehenceforth，withoutpocketingapenny，beingobligedtodefraytheexpensesofworshipintheirplace。—Astothesecondpartoftheoperation，whichconsistsintheconfiscationoffourmilliardsofrealestate，itproves，afterall，toberuinous，althoughpromisingtobelucrative。Itmakesthesameimpressiononourstatesmenthattheinheritanceofagreatestatemakesonaneedyandfancifulupstart。Regardingitasabottomlesswellofgold，hedrawsuponitwithoutstintandstrivestorealizeallhisfancies；ashecanaffordtopayforitall，heisfreetosmashitall。ItisthusthattheAssemblysuppressesandcompensatesmagisterialofficestotheamountoffourhundredandfiftymillions；financialsecuritiesandobligationstotheamountofthreehundredandtwenty—onemillions；thehouseholdchargesoftheKing，Queen，andprinces，fifty—twomillions；
militaryservicesandencumbrances，thirty—fivemillions；enfeoffedtithes，onehundredmillions，andsoon。[60]\"InthemonthofMay，1789，\"saysNecker，\"there—establishmentoforderinthefinancesweremerechild’s—play。\"Attheendofayear，bydintofinvolvingitselfindebt，byincreasingitsexpenses，andbyabolishingorabandoningitsincome，theStatelivesnowonthepaper—currencyitissues，eatsupitscapital，andrapidlymarchesonwardtobankruptcy。Neverwassuchavastinheritancesoquicklyreducedtonothing，andtolessthannothing。
Meanwhile，wecandemonstrate，fromthefirstfewmonths，whatusetheadministratorswillbeabletomakeofit，andthemannerinwhichtheywillendowtheservicetowhichitbindsthem。——Noportionofthisconfiscatedpropertyisreservedforthemaintenanceofpublicworship，ortokeepupthehospitals，asylums，andschools。Notonlydoallobligationsandallproductiverealpropertyfindtheirwayintothegreatnationalcrucibletobeconvertedintoassignats[61]，butanumberofspecialbuildings，allmonasticrealestateandaportionoftheecclesiasticalrealestate，divertedfromitsnaturalcourse，becomesswallowedupinthesamegulf。AtBesan？on，[62]threechurchesoutofeight，withtheirlandandtreasure，thefundsofthechapter，allthemoneyofthemonasticchurches，thesacredvessels，shrines，crosses，reliquaries，votiveofferings，ivories，statues，pictures，tapestry，sacerdotaldressesandornaments，plate，jewelsandpreciousfurniture，libraries，railings，bells，masterpiecesofartandofpiety，allarebrokenupandmeltedintheMint，orsoldbyauctionforalmostnothing。Thisisthewayinwhichtheintentionsofthefoundersanddonorsarecarriedout。——Howaresomanycommunities，whicharedeprivedoftheirrentals，tosupporttheirschools，hospices，andasylums？Evenafterthedecree[63]which，exceptionallyandprovisionally，ordersthewholeoftheirrevenuetobeaccountedfortothem，willitbepaidovernowthatitiscollectedbyalocaladministrationwhosecoffersarealwaysempty，andwhoseintentionsarealmostalwayshostile？Everyestablishmentforbenevolentandeducationalpurposesisevidentlysinking，nowthatthespecialstreamswhichnourishedthemrunintoandarelostinthedrybedofthepublictreasury。[64]Already，in1790，therearenofundswithwhichtopaythemonksandnunstheirsmallpensionsfortheirmaintenance。InFranche—ComtétheCapuchinsofBaumehavenobread，and，tolive，theyareobligedtore—sell，withtheconsentofthedistrict，aportionofthestoresoftheirmonasterywhichhadbeenconfiscated。TheUrsulinenunsofOrnansliveonthemeansfurnishedthembyprivateindividualsinordertokeepuptheonlyschoolwhichthetownpossesses。TheBernardinenunsofPontarlierarereducedtotheloweststageofwant:\"Wearesatisfied，\"thedistrictreports，\"thattheyhavenothingtoputintotheirmouths。Wehavetocontributesomethingeverydayamongstourselvestokeepthemfromstarving。\"[65]Onlytoothankfularetheywhenthelocaladministrationgivesthemsomethingtoeat，orallowsotherstogivethemsomething。Inmanyplacesitstrivestofamishthem，ortakesdelightinannoyingthem。InMarch，1791，thedepartmentofDoubs，inspiteoftheentreatiesofthedistrict，reducesthepensionoftheVisitantnunstoonehundredandonelivresforthechoristers，andfiftyforthelay—
sisters。Twomonthsbeforethis，themunicipalityofBesan？on，puttingitsowninterpretationonthedecreewhichallowednunstodressastheypleased，enjoinsthemall，includingeventhesistersofcharity，toabandontheiroldcostume，whichfewamongthemhadthemeansofreplacing。——Helplessness，indifference，ormalevolence，sucharethevariousdispositionswhichareencounteredamongthenewauthoritieswhosedutyitistosupportandprotectthem。Toletloosepersecutionthereisnowonlyneededadecreewhichputsthecivilpowerinconflictwithreligiousconvictions。
Thatdecreeispromulgated，and，onthe12thofJuly，1790，theAssemblyestablishesthecivilconstitutionoftheclergy。
Notwithstandingtheconfiscationofecclesiasticalproperty，andthedispersionofthemonasticcommunities，themainbodyoftheecclesiasticalcorpsremainsintact:seventythousandpriestsrangedunderthebishops，withthePopeinthecenterasthecommander—in—
chief。Thereisnocorporationmoresolid，moreincompatible，ormoreattacked。For，againstitareopposedimplacablehatredsandfixedopinions:theGallicanismofthejuristswho，fromSt。Louisdownwards，aretheadversariesofecclesiasticalpower；thedoctrineoftheJansenistswho，sinceLouisXIII。，desiretobringbacktheChurchtoitsprimitiveform；andthetheoryofthephilosopherswho，forsixtyyears，haveconsideredChristianityasamistakeandCatholicismasascourge。AttheveryleasttheinstitutionofaclergyinCatholicismiscondemned，andtheythinkthattheyaremoderateiftheyrespecttherest。
\"WEMIGHTCHANGETHERELIGION，\"
saythedeputiesinthetribune。[66]Now，thedecreeaffectsneitherdogmanorworship；itisconfinedtoarevisionofmattersofdiscipline，andonthisparticulardomainwhichisclaimedforthecivilpower，itispretendedthatdemolitionandre—constructionmaybeeffectedatdiscretionwithouttheconcurrenceoftheecclesiasticalpower。
Herethereisanabuseofpower，foranecclesiasticalaswellascivilsocietyhastherighttochooseitsownform，itsownhierarchy，itsowngovernment。—Onthispoint，everyargumentthatcanbeadvancedinfavoroftheformercanberepeatedinfavorofthelatter，andthemomentonebecomeslegitimatetheotherbecomeslegitimatealso。Thejustificationforacivilorofareligiouscommunityorsocietymaybetheperformanceofalongseriesofserviceswhich，forcenturies，ithasrenderedtoitsmembers，thezealandsuccesswithwhichitdischargesitsfunctions，thefeelingsofgratitudetheyentertainforit，theimportancetheyattributetoitsoffices，theneedtheyhaveofit，andtheirattachmenttoit，theconvictionimprintedintheirmindsthatwithoutittheywouldbedeprivedofabenefituponwhichtheysetmorestorethanuponanyother。Thisbenefit，inacivilsociety，isthesecurityofpersonsandproperty。Inthereligioussocietyitistheeternalsalvationofthesoul。iiiInallotherparticularstheresemblanceiscomplete，andthetitlesoftheChurchareasgoodasthoseoftheState。Hence，ifitbejustforonetobesovereignandfreeonitsowndomain，itisjustfortheothertobeequallysovereignandfree，IftheChurchencroacheswhenitassumestoregulatetheconstitutionoftheState，thentheStatealsoencroacheswhenitpretendstoregulatetheconstitutionoftheChurch。Iftheformerclaimstherespectofthelatteronitsdomain，thelattermustshowequalrespectfortheformeronitsground。Theboundary—linebetweenthetwoterritoriesis，undoubtedly，notclearlydefinedandfrequentcontestsarisebetweenthetwo。Sometimesthesemaybeforestalledorterminatedbyeachshuttingitselfupwithinawallofseparation，andbytheirremainingasmuchaspossibleindifferenttoeachother，asisthecaseinAmerica。Atanother，theymay，byacarefullyconsideredcontract，[67]eachaccordtotheotherspecificrightsontheintermediatezone，andbothexercisetheirdividedauthorityonthatzone，whichisthecaseinFrance。Inbothcases，however，thetwopowers，likethetwosocieties，mustremaindistinct。Itisnecessaryforeachofthemthattheothershouldbeanequal，andnotasubordinatetowhichitprescribesconditions。Whateverthecivilsystemmaybe，whethermonarchicalorrepublican，oligarchicordemocratic，theChurchabusesitscreditwhenitcondemnsorattacksit。Whatevermaybetheecclesiasticalsystem，whetherpapal，Episcopalian，Presbyterian，orcongregational，theStateabusesitsstrengthwhen，withouttheassentofthefaithful，itabolishestheirsystemsorimposesanewoneuponthem。Notonlydoesitviolateright，butitsviolence，mostfrequently，isfruitless。Itmaystrikeasitwill，therootofthetreeisbeyonditsreach，and，intheunjustwarwhichitwagesagainstaninstitutionasvitalasitself，itoftenendsingettingtheworstofit。
Unfortunately，theAssembly，inthisasinothermatters，beingpreoccupiedwithprinciples，failstolookatpracticalfacts；and，aimingtoremoveonlythedeadbark，itinjuresthelivingtrunk。——
Formanycenturies，andespeciallysincetheCouncilofTrent，thevigorouselementofCatholicismismuchlessreligionitselfthantheChurch。Theologyhasretiredintothebackground，whiledisciplinehascometothefront。Believerswho，accordingtoChurchlaw，arerequiredtoregardspiritualauthorityasdogma，infactattachtheirfaithtothespiritualauthoritymuchmorethantothedogma。—
CatholicFaithinsists，inrelationtodisciplineaswellastodogma，thatifonerejectsthedecisionoftheRomanChurchoneceasestobeaCatholic；thattheconstitutionoftheChurchismonarchical，thattheordainingofpriestsandbishopsismadefromabovesothatwithoutcommunionwiththePope，itssupremehead，oneisschismaticandthatnoschismaticpriestlegitimatelycanperformaholyservice，andthatnotruefaithfulmayattendhisserviceorreceivehisblessingswithoutcommittingasin。—Itisafactthatthefaithful，apartfromafewJansenists，areneithertheologiansnorcanonists；thattheyreadneitherprayersnorscriptures，andiftheyacceptthecreed，itisinalump，withoutinvestigation，confidinginthehandwhichpresentsit；thattheirobedientconscienceisinthekeepingofthispastoralguide；thattheChurchofthethirdcenturyisoflittleconsequencetothem；andthat，asfarasthetrueformoftheactualChurchgoes，thedoctorwhoseadvicetheyfollowisnotSt。Cyprian，ofwhomtheyknownothing，buttheirvisiblebishopandtheirlivingcuré。
Putthesetwopremisestogetherandtheconclusionisself—evident:
itisclearthattheywillnotbelievethattheyarebaptized，absolved，ormarriedexceptbythiscuréauthorizedbythisbishop。
Letothersbeputintheirplaceswhomtheycondemn，andyousuppressworship，sacraments，andthemostpreciousfunctionsofspirituallifetotwenty—fourmillionsofFrenchpeople，toallthepeasantry，allthechildren，andtoalmostallthewomen；youstirupinrebellionagainstyouthetwogreatestforceswhichmovethemind，conscienceandhabit。——Andobservetheresultofthis。
YounotonlyconverttheStateintoapolicemanintheserviceofheresy，butalso，throughthisfruitlessandtyrannousattemptofGallicanJansenism，youbringintopermanentdiscreditGallicanmaximsandJansenistdoctrines。YoucutawaythelasttworootsbywhichaliberalsentimentstillvegetatedinorthodoxCatholicism。
YouthrowtheclergybackonRome；youattachthemtothePopefromwhomyouwishtoseparatethem，anddeprivethemofthenationalcharacterwhichyouwishtoimposeonthem。TheywereFrench，andyourenderthemUltramontane。[68]Theyexcitedill—willandenvy，andyourenderthemsympatheticandpopular。Theywereadividedbody，andyougivethemunanimity。Theywereastragglingmilitia，scatteredaboutunderseveralindependentauthorities，androotedtothesoilthroughthepossessionoftheground；thankstoyou，theyaretobecomearegular，manageablearmy，emancipatedfromeverylocalattachment，organizedunderonehead，andalwayspreparedtotakethefieldatthewordofcommand。Comparetheauthorityofabishopinhisdiocesein1789withthatofabishopsixtyyearslater。In1789，theArchbishopofBesan？on，outoffifteenhundredofficesandbenefices，hadthepatronageofonehundred，Inninety—
threeincumbenciestheselectionsweremadebythemetropolitanchapter；ineighteenitwasmadebythechapteroftheMadeleine；inseventyparishesbythenoblefounderorbenefactor。Oneabbéhadthirteenincumbenciesathisdisposal，anotherthirty—four，anotherthirty—five，apriornine，anabbesstwenty；fivecommunesdirectlynominatedtheirownpastor，whileabbeys，prioriesandcanonrieswereinthehandsoftheKing。[69]Atthepresentday（1880）inadiocesethebishopappointsallthecurésorofficiatingpriests，andmaydeprivenineoutoftenofthem；inthedioceseabovenamed，from1850to1860，scarcelyonelayfunctionarywasnominatedwithouttheconsentorinterventionofthecardinal—archbishop。[70]
Tocomprehendthespirit，discipline，andinfluenceofourcontemporaryclergy，gobacktothesourceofit，andyouwillfinditinthedecreeoftheConstituentAssembly。Anaturalorganizationcannotbebrokenupwithimpunity；itformsanew，adaptingitselftocircumstances，andclosesupitsranksinproportiontoitsdanger。
Butevenif，accordingtothemaximsoftheAssembly，faithandworshiparefree，asfarasthesovereignStateisconcerned，thechurchesaresubjects。——Forthesearesocieties，administrations，andhierarchies，andnosociety，administration，orhierarchymayexistintheStatewithoutenteringintoits———departmentsunderthetitleofsubordinate，delegate，oremployee。Apriestisnowessentiallyasalariedofficerliketherest，afunctionary[71]
presidingovermatterspertainingtoworshipandmorality。IftheStateisdisposedtochangethenumber，themodeofnomination，thedutiesandthepostsofitsengineers，itisnotboundtoassembleitsengineersandasktheirpermission，leastofallthatofaforeignengineerestablishedatRome。Ifitwishestochangetheconditionof\"itsecclesiasticalofficers，\"itsrighttodosoisthesame，andthereforeunquestioned。Thereisnoneedofaskinganybody’sconsentintheexerciseofthisright，anditallowsnointerferencebetweenitanditsclerks。TheAssemblyrefusestocallaGallicancouncil；itrefusestonegotiatewiththePope，and，onitsownauthorityalone，itrecaststhewholeConstitutionoftheChurch。Henceforththisbranchofthepublicadministrationistobeorganizedonthemodeloftheothers。——Inthefirstplace[72]thedioceseistobeinextentandlimitsthesameastheFrenchdepartment；consequently，allecclesiasticaldistrictsaremarkedoutanew，andforty—eightepiscopalseesdisappear。——Inthesecondplace，theappointedbishopisforbidden\"torefertothePopetoobtainanyconfirmationwhatever。\"Allhecandoistowritetohim\"intestimonyoftheunityoffaithandofthecommunionwhichheistomaintainwithhim。\"Thebishopisthusnolongerinstalledbyhiscanonicalchief，andtheChurchofFrancebecomesschismatic。——Inthethirdplace，themetropolitanorbishopisforbiddentoexactfromthenewbishopsorcurés\"anyoathotherthanthattheyprofesstheCatholic，Apostolic，andRomanreligion。\"
Assistedbyhiscouncilhemayexaminethemontheirdoctrineandmorals，andrefusethemcanonicalinstallation，butinthiscasehisreasonsmustbegiveninwriting，andbesignedbyhimselfandhiscouncil。Hisauthority，inotherrespects，doesnotextendbeyondthisforitistheciviltribunalwhichdecidesbetweencontendingparties。Thusisthecatholichierarchybrokenup；theecclesiasticalsuperiorhashishandstied；ifhestilldelegatessacerdotalfunctionsitisonlyasamatterofform。BetweenthecuréandthebishopsubordinationceasestoexistjustasithasceasedtoexistbetweenthebishopandthePope，andtheChurchofFrancebecomesPresbyterian。——Thepeoplenow，ineffect，choosetheirownministers，astheydointhePresbyterianchurch；thebishopisappointedbytheelectorsofthedepartment，thecurebythedistrictelectors，and，whatisanextraordinaryaggravation，theseneednotbeofhiscommunion。ItisofnoconsequencewhethertheelectoralAssemblycontains，asatN？mes，Montauban，Strasbourg，andMetz，anotableproportionofCalvinists，Lutherans，andJews，orwhetheritsmajority，furnishedbytheclub，isnotoriouslyhostiletoCatholicism，andeventoChristianityitself。Thebishopandthecurémustbechosenbytheelectoralbody；theHolyGhostdwellswithit，andwiththeciviltribunals，andthesemayinstallitselectinspiteofanyresistance。——Tocompletethedependenceoftheclergy，everybishopisforbiddentoabsenthimselfmorethanfifteendayswithoutpermissionfromthedepartment；everycuréthesamelengthoftimewithoutthepermissionofthedistrict，eventoattenduponadyingfatherortoundergotheoperationoflithotomy。Indefaultofthispermissionhissalaryissuspended:asafunctionaryundersalary，heowesallhistimetohisbureau，andifhedesiresaleaveofabsencehemustaskforitfromhischiefsintheH？tel—de—Ville。[73]——Hemustassenttoalltheseinnovations，notonlywithpassiveobedience，butbyasolemnoath。Alloldornewecclesiastics，archbishops，bishops，curés，vicars，preachers，hospitalandprisonchaplains，superiorsanddirectorsofseminaries，professorsofseminariesandcolleges，aretostateinwritingthattheyarereadytotakethisoath:moreover，theymusttakeitpublicly，inchurch，\"inthepresenceofthegeneralcouncil，thecommune，andthefaithful，\"andpromise\"tomaintainwithalltheirpower\"aschismaticandPresbyterianChurch。——Fortherecanbenodoubtaboutthesenseandbearingoftheprescribedoath。Itwasallverywelltoincorporateitwithabroaderone，thatofmaintainingtheConstitution。ButtheConstitutionoftheclergyistooclearlycomprisedinthegeneralConstitution，likeachapterinabook，andtosignthebookistosignthechapter。Besides，intheformulatowhichtheecclesiasticsintheAssemblyareobligedtoswearinthetribune，thechapterispreciselyindicated，andnoexceptionorreservationisallowed。[74]TheBishopofClermont，withallthosewhohaveacceptedtheConstitutioninfull，savethedecreesaffectingspiritualmatters，aresilenced。WherethespiritualbeginsandwhereitendstheAssemblyknowsbetterthanthey，forithasdefinedthis，anditimposesitsdefinitiononcanonistandtheologian；itis，initsturn，thePope，andallconsciencesmustbowtoitsdecision。Letthemtakethe\"oath，pureandsimple，\"oriftheydonottheyare’refractory。\"Thefiatgoesforth，andtheeffectofitisimmense，for，alongwiththeclergy，thelawreachestolaymen。Ontheonehand，alltheecclesiasticswhorefusetheoatharedismissed。Iftheycontinue\"tointerferewithpublicfunctionswhichtheyhavepersonallyorcorporatelyexercised\"they\"shallbeprosecutedasdisturbersofthepeace，andcondemnedasrebelsagainstthelaw，\"deprivedofallrightsasactivecitizens，anddeclaredincompetenttoholdanypublicoffice。Thisisthepenaltyalreadyinflictedonthenonjuringbishopwhopersistsinconsideringhimselfabishop，whoordainspriestsandwhoissuesapastoralletter。Suchissoontobethepenaltyinflictedonthenonjuringcuréwhopresumestohearconfessionorofficiateatamass。[75]Ontheotherhand，allcitizenswhorefusetotaketheprescribedoath，allelectors，municipalofficers，judgesandadministrativeagents，shalllosetheirrightofsuffrage，havetheirfunctionsrevoked，andbedeclaredincompetentforallpublicduties。[76]TheresultisthatscrupulousCatholicsareexcludedfromeveryadministrativepost，fromallelections，andespeciallyfromecclesiasticalelections；fromwhichitfollowsthat，thestrongerone’sfaiththelessone’sshareinthechoiceofapriest。[77]——Whatanadmirablelaw，thatwhich，underthepretextofdoingawaywithecclesiasticalabuses，placesthefaithful，layorclerical，outsidethepaleofthelaw！
Thissoonbecomesapparent。Onehundredandthirtyfourarchbishops，bishops，andcoadjutorsrefusetotaketheoath；thereareonlyfourofthemwhodoso，threeofwhom，MM。deTalleyrand，deJarente，anddeBrienne，areunbelieversandnotoriousfortheirlicentiousness；theothersareinfluencedbytheirconsciences，aboveall，bytheirespritdecorpsandapointofhonor。Mostofthecurésrallyaroundthisstaffofofficers。InthedioceseofBesan？on，[78]outoffourteenhundredpriests，threehundredtaketheoath，athousandrefuseit，andeightyretract。InthedepartmentofDoubs，onlyfourconsenttoswear。InthedepartmentofLozère，thereareonly\"tenoutoftwohundredandfifty。\"Itisstatedpositively，\"writesthebestinformedofallobserversthateverywhereinFrancetwo—thirdsoftheecclesiasticshaverefusedtheoath，orhaveonlytakenitwiththesamereservationsastheBishopofClermont。\"
Thus，outofseventythousandpriests，forty—sixthousandareturnedoutofoffice，andthemajorityoftheirparishionersareontheirside。Thisisapparentintheabsenceofelectorsconvokedtoreplacethem:atBordeauxonlyfourhundredandfiftycametothepolloutofninehundred，whileelsewherethesummonsbringstogetheronly\"athirdoraquarter\"Inmanyplacestherearenocandidates，orthoseelecteddeclinetoaccept。Theyareobliged，inordertosupplytheirplaces，tohuntupunfrockedmonksofaquestionablecharacter。Therearetwoparties，afterthis，ineachparish；twofaiths，twosystemsofworship，andpermanentdiscord。
Evenwhenthenewandtheoldcurésareaccommodating，theirsituationsbringthemintoconflict。Totheformerthelatterare\"intruders。\"Tothelattertheformerare\"refractories。\"Byvirtueofhisbeingaguardianofsouls，theformercannotdispensewithtellinghisparishionersthattheintruderisexcommunicated，thathissacramentsarenullorsacrilegious，andthatitisasintoattendhismass。Byvirtueofhisbeingapublicfunctionary，thelatterdoesnotfailtowritetotheauthoritiesthatthe\"
refractory\"entrapsthefaithful，excitestheirconsciences，sapstheConstitution，andthatheoughttobeputdownbyforce。Inotherwords，theformerdrawseverybodyawayfromthelatter，whilethelattersendsthegendarmesagainsttheformer，andpersecutionbegins。—Inastrangereversal，itisthemajoritywhichundergoespersecution，andtheminoritywhichcarriesitout。Themassoftheconstitutionalcuréis，everywhere，deserted。[79]InLaVendéetherearetenortwelvepresentinthechurchoutoffiveorsixhundredparishioners；onSundaysandholidayswholevillagesandmarket—
townstravelfromonetotwoleaguesofftoattendtheorthodoxmass，thevillagersdeclaringthat\"iftheoldcurécanonlyberestoredtothem，theywillgladlypayadoubletax。\"InAlsace，\"ninetenths，atleast，oftheCatholicsrefusetorecognizethelegallyswornpriests。\"ThesamespectaclepresentsitselfinFranche—Comté，Artois，andintenoftheotherprovinces。——
Finally，asinachemicalcomposition，theanalysisiscomplete。
Thosewhobelieve，orwhorecovertheirbelief，arerangedaroundtheoldcuré；allwho，throughconvictionortradition，holdtothesacraments，allwho，throughfaithorhabit，wishorfeelaneedtoattendthemass。Theauditorsofthenewcuréconsistofunbelievers，deists，theindifferentmembersoftheclubsandoftheadministration，whoresorttothechurchastotheH？tel—de—villeortoapopularmeeting，notthroughreligiousbutthroughpoliticalzeal，andwhosupportthe\"intruder\"inordertosustaintheConstitution。Allthisdoesnotsecuretohimveryferventfollowers，butitprovideshimwithveryzealousdefenders；and，indefaultofthefaithwhichtheydonotpossess，theygivetheforcewhichisattheirdisposal。Allmeansareproperagainstanintractablebishoporcuré；notonlythelawwhichtheyaggravatethroughtheirforcedinterpretationofitandthroughtheirarbitraryverdicts，butalsotheriotswhichtheystirupbytheirinstigationandwhichtheysanctionbytheirtoleration。[80]Heisdrivenoutofhisparish，consignedtothecountytown，andkeptinasafeplace。TheDirectoryofAisnedenounceshimasadisturberofthepublicpeace，andforbidshim，underseverepenalties，fromadministeringthesacraments。ThemunicipalityofCahorsshutsupparticularchurchesandordersthenonjuringecclesiasticstoleavethetownintwenty—fourhours。TheelectoralcorpsofLotdenouncesthempubliclyas\"ferociousbrutes，\"incendiaries，andprovokersofcivilwar。TheDirectoryoftheBas—RhinbanishesthemtoStrasbourgortofifteenleaguesfromthefrontier。AtSaint—Leonthebishopisforcedtofly。AtAuchthearchbishopisimprisoned；
atLyonsM。deBoisboissel，grandvicar，isconfinedinPierre—
Encize，forhavingpreservedanarchiepiscopalmandateinhishouse；
brutalityiseverywheretheministerofintolerance。AcertaincureofAisnewho，in1789，hadfedtwothousandpoor，havingpresumedtoreadfromhispulpitapastoralchargeconcerningtheobservanceofLent，themayorseizeshimbythecollarandpreventshimfromgoingtothealtar；\"twooftheNationalYeomanry\"drawtheirsabersonhim，andforthwithleadhimawaybareheaded，notallowinghimtoreturntohishouse，anddrivehimtoadistanceoftwoleaguesbybeatofdrumandunderescort。AtParis，inthechurchofSaint—
Eustache，thecuréisgreetedwithoutcries，apistolispointedathishead，heisseizedbythehair，struckwithfists，andonlyreachesthesacristythroughtheinterventionoftheNationalGuard。
InthechurchoftheThéatins，rentedbytheorthodoxwithalllegalformality，afuriousbanddispersesthepriestsandtheirassistants，upsetsthealtarandprofanesthesacredvessels。A
placard，postedupbythedepartment，callsuponthepeopletorespectthelaw，\"Isawit，\"saysaneye—witness，\"torndownamidstimprecationsagainstthedepartment，thepriests，andthedevout。
Oneofthechiefharanguers，standingonthestepsterminatedhisspeechbystatingthatschismoughttobestoppedatanycost，thatnoworshipbuthisshouldbeallowed，thatwomenshouldbewhippedandpriestsknockedonthehead。\"And，infact，\"ayoungladyaccompaniedbyhermotheriswhippedonthestepsofthechurch。\"
Elsewherenunsarethesufferers，eventhesistersofSaint—VincentdePaul；and，fromApril，1793，onward；thesameoutragesonmodestyandagainstlifearepropagatedfromtowntotown。AtDijon，rodsarenailedfasttothegatesofalltheconvents；atMontpellier，twoorthreehundredruffians，armedwithlargeiron——boundsticks，murderthemenandoutragethewomen。——Nothingremainsbuttoputthegangstersundertheshelterofanamnesty，whichisdonebytheConstituentAssembly，andtolegallysanctiontheanimosityoflocaladministrations，whichisdonebytheLegislativeAssembly。[81]Henceforththenonjuringecclesiasticsaredeprivedoftheirsustenance；theyaredeclared\"suspectedofrevoltagainstthelawandofevilintentionsagainstthecountry。\"—Thus，saysacontemporaryProtestant，\"onthestrengthofthesesuspicionsandtheseintentions，aDirectory，towhichthelawinterdictsjudicialfunctions，mayarbitrarilydriveoutofhishousetheministerofaGodofpeaceandcharity，growngrayintheshadowofthealtar\"
Thus，\"everywhere，wheredisturbancesoccuronaccountofreligiousopinions，andwhetherthesetroublesareduetothefranticscourgersofthevirtuoussistersofcharityortotheruffiansarmedwithcow—hideswho，atN？mesandMontpellier，outrageallthelawsofdecorumandoflibertyforsixwholemonths，thenon—juringpriestsaretobepunishedwithbanishment。Tornfromtheirfamilieswhosemeansoflivingtheyshare，theyaresentawaytowanderonthehighways，abandonedtopublicpityorferocitythemomentanyscoundrelchoosestoexciteadisturbancethathecanimputetothem。\"—Thusweseeapproachingtherevoltofthepeasantry，theinsurrectionsofN？mes，Franche—Comté，laVendéeandBrittany，emigration，transportation；imprisonment，theguillotineordrowningfortwothirdsoftheclergyofFrance，andlikewiseformyriadsoftheloyal，forhusbandmen，artisans，day—laborers，seamstresses，andservants，andthehumblestamongthelowerclassofthepeople。ThisiswhatthelawsoftheConstituentAssemblyareleadingto。——Intheinstitutionoftheclergy，asinthatofthenoblesandtheKing，itdemolishedasolidwallinordertodigthroughitanopendoor，anditisnothingstrangeifthewholestructuretumblesdownontheheadsofitsinmates。Thetruecoursewastorespect，toreform，toutilizerankandcorporations:allthattheAssemblythoughtofwastheabolitionoftheseinthenameofabstractequalityandofnationalsovereignty。Inordertoabolishtheseitexecuted，tolerated，orinitiatedalltheattacksonpersonsandonproperty。Thoseitisabouttocommitaretheinevitableresultofthosewhichithasalreadycommitted；for，throughitsConstitution，badischangedtoworse，andthesocialedifice，alreadyhalfinruinsthroughtheclumsyhavocthatiseffectedinit，willfallincompletelyundertheweightoftheincongruousorextravagantconstructionswhichitproceedstoextemporize。
Notes:
[1]Cf。\"TheAncientRégime，\"booksI。andV。
[2]Perhapswearehereatthecoreofwhyallregimesendupbecomingcorrupt，inefficientandsick；theirleaderstaketheirprivilegesforgrantedandbecomemoreandmoreinattentivetotheworkwhichmustbedoneifthepeoplearetobekeptatworkandpossibleadversarieskeptundercontrol。（SR。）
[3]Aspecialtaxpaidthekingbyaplebeianowningafief。（TR）
[4]Therighttoanincomefromtrustfunds。（SR。）
[5]ArthurYoung，I。209，223。\"Ifthecommunessteadilyrefusewhatisnowofferedtothem，theyputimmenseandcertainbenefitstothechanceoffortune，tothathazardwhichmaymakeposteritycurseinsteadofblesstheirmemoriesasrealpatriotswhohadnothinginviewbutthehappinessoftheircountry。
[6]AccordingtovaluationsbytheConstituentAssembly，thetaxonrealestateoughttobring240，000，000francs，andprovideone—fifthofthenetrevenueofFrance，estimatedat1，200，000，000。
Additionally，thepersonaltaxonmovableproperty，whichreplacedthecapitation，oughttobring60，000，000。Totalfordirecttaxation，300，000，000，orone—fourth——thatistosay，twenty—fivepercent，ofthenetrevenue。——Ifthedirecttaxationhadbeenmaintaineduptotherateoftheancientrégime（190，000，000，accordingtoNecker’sreportinMay，1689），thisimpostwouldonlyhaveprovidedone—sixthofthenetrevenue，orsixteenpercent。
[7]Dumont，267。（ThewordsofMirabeauthreemonthsbeforehisdeath:）\"Ah，myfriend，howrightwewereatthestartwhenwewantedtopreventthecommonsfromdeclaringthemselvestheNationalAssembly！Thatwasthesourceoftheevil。TheywantedtoruletheKing，insteadofrulingthroughhim。\"
[8]GouverneurMorris，April29，1789（ontheprinciplesofthefutureconstitution），\"Onegenerationatleastwillberequiredtorenderthepublicfamiliarwiththem。\"
[9]Cf。\"TheAncientRégime，\"bookII，ch。III。
[10]Frenchwomendidnotobtaintherighttovoteuntil1946。（SR。）
[11]AccordingtoVoltaire（\"L’HommeauxQuaranteécus\"），theaveragedurationofhumanlifewasonlytwenty—threeyears。
[12]Mercure，July6，1790。AccordingtothereportofCamus（sittingofJuly2nd），theofficialtotalofpensionsamountedtothirty—twomillions；butifweaddthegratuitiesandallowancesoutofthevarioustreasuries，theactualtotalwasfifty—sixmillions。
[13]Inotethattodayin1998，100yearsafterTaine’sdeath，Denmark，mycountry，hashadtotaldemocracy，thatisuniversalsuffrageforwomenandmenof18yearsofageforaconsiderabletime，andawittyauthorhasnotedthatthefirstruleofourunwrittenconstitutionisthat\"thoushaltnotthinkthatthouartimportant\"。Ihavenoted，however，thatwhenaDanepraisesDenmarkandtheDaneseveninthemostexcessivemanner，thenheisnotconsideredasachauvinistbutadmiredasbeingamanoftruth。Inspiteoftheprocessof’democratization’evensocialistchieftainsseemtofavorandprotecttheirownchildren，sendthemtogoodprivateschoolsandlaterabroadtostudyandhelpthemtofindfavorableemploymentinthepartyorwiththepublicservices。A
newéliteisthuscontinuouslycreatedbytherulingpoliticalandadministrativeupperclass。（SR。）。
[14]TheAncientRégime，\"p。388，andthefollowingpages。—\"LeDucdeBroglie，\"byM。Goizot，p。11。（LastwordsofPrinceVictordeBroglie，andtheopinionsofM。d’Argenson。）
[15]DeFerrières，I。p。2。
[16]Moniteur，sittingofSeptember7，1790，I。431—437。Speeches，ofMM。deSillery，deLanjuinais，Thouret，deLameth，andRabaut—
Saint—Etienne。Barnavewrotein1791:\"Itwasnecessarytobecontentwithonesinglechamber；theinstinctofequalityrequiredit。AsecondChamberwouldhavebeentherefugeofthearistocrats。\"
[17]Leninshouldlatercreateanelite，anaristocracywhich，underhisleadershipwastobecometheCommunistparty。Lenincouldnothaveimaginedoratleastwouldnothavebeenconcernedthattheleadershipofthispartywouldfallintothehandsoftyrantslater，underthepressureofageandcorruption，tobereplacedbytheKGB
andlatertheFSB。（SR。）
[18]\"DeBouillé，\"p。50:\"Alltheoldnoblefamilies，savetwoorthreehundred，wereruined。\"
[19]Cf。Doniol，\"LaRévolutionetlaFéodalité。\"
[20]Moniteur，sittingofAugust6，！789。SpeechofDuport:
\"Whateverisunjustcannotlast。Similarly，nocompensationfortheseunjustrightscanbemaintained。\"SittingofFebruary27，1790。M。Populus:\"Asslaverycouldnotspringfromalegitimatecontract，becauselibertycannotbealienated，youhaveabolishedwithoutindemnityhereditarypropertyinpersons。\"InstructionsanddecreeofJune15—19，1791:\"TheNationalAssemblyhasrecognizedinthemostemphaticmannerthatamannevercouldbecometheproprietorofanotherman，andconsequently，thattherightswhichonehadassumedtohaveoverthepersonoftheother，couldnotbecomethepropertyoftheformer。\"Cf。thediversereportsofMerlintotheCommitteeofFeudalityandtheNationalAssembly。
[21]Duvergier，\"CollectiondesLoisetDécrets。\"Lawsofthe4—11
August，1789；March15—28，1790；May3—9，1790；June15—19，1791。
[22]Agrierpercières——termsdenotingtaxespaidintheshapeofsharesofproduce。Thosewhichfollow:lods，rentes，quint，requintbelongtothetaxesleviedonrealproperty。[Tr。]
[23]Doniol（\"Noveauxcahiersde1790\"）。Complaintsofthecopy—
holdersofRouerguesandofQuercy，pp。97—105。
[24]Seefurtheron，bookIII。ch。II。§4andalsoch。III。
[25]Moniteur，sittingofMarch2，1790。SpeechbyMerlin:\"Thepeasantshavebeenmadetobelievethattheannulationofthebanalities（theobligationtousethepublicmill，wine—press，andoven，whichbelongedtothenoble）carriedalongwithitthelosstothenobleofallthese；thepeasantsregardingthemselvesasproprietorsofthem。\"
[26]Moniteur；sittingofJune9，！790。SpeechofM。CharlesdeLameth——Duvergier（lawsofJune19—231790；September27andOctober16，1791）。
[27]Sauzay，V。400—410。
[28]Duvergier，lawsofJune15—19，1791；ofJune18—July6，1792；
ofAugust25—28，1792。
[29]\"InstitutionduDroitFran？ais，\"parArgou，I。103。（HewroteundertheRegency。）\"Theoriginofmostofthefeoffsissoancientthat，iftheseigneurswereobligedtoproducethetitlesoftheoriginalconcessiontoobtaintheirrents，therewouldscarcelybeoneabletoproducethem。Thisdeficiencyismadeupbycommonlaw。\"
[30]Duvergier（lawsofApril8—15，1791；March7—11；October26，1791；January6—10，1794）。——Mirabeauhadalreadyproposedtoreducethedisposableportiontoone—tenth。
[31]Seefartheron，bookIII，ch。III。
[32]Mercure，September10，1791。ArticlebyMalletduPan。—Ibid。
October15，1791。
[33]ShouldHitlerorLeninhavereadandunderstoodtheconsequencesoftheseeventstheywouldhavededucedthatgiventhecommandfromofficialsourcesorrecognizedleadersordinarypeopleallovertheworldcouldeasilybetemptedtoattackanygroup，beingitJews，Protestants，Hindusorforeigners。（SR。）
[34]\"ArchivesNationales，\"II。784。LettersofM。deLangeron，October16and18，1789。——AlbertBabeau，\"HistoiredeTroyes，\"
lettersaddressedtotheChevalierdePoterats，July，1790。——
\"ArchivesNationales，\"papersoftheCommitteeonReports，bundle4，letterofM。leBelin—ChatellenottothetothePresidentoftheNationalAssembly，July1，1791。——Mercure，October15，1791。
ArticlebyMalletduPan:\"Suchisliterallythelanguageoftheseemigrants；Idonotaddaword。\"—Ibid。May15，1790。LetteroftheBarondeBoisd’Aizy，April29，1790，demandingadecreeofprotectionfurthenobles。\"Weshallknow（then）whetherweareoutlawedorareofanyaccountintherightsofmanwrittenoutwithsomuchblood，orwhether，finally，nootheroptionislefttousbutthatofcarryingtodistantskiestheremainsofourpropertyandourwretchedexistence。\"
[35]Mercure，October15，1791，andSeptember10，1791。ReadtheadmirableletteroftheChevalierdeMesgrigny，appointedcolonelduringthesuspensionoftheKing，andrefusinghisnewrank。
[36]Cf。the\"Mémoires\"ofM。deBoustaquet，aNormangentleman。
[37]Cf。\"TheAncientRégime，\"booksI。andII。
[38]Boivin—Champeaux，\"NoticeHistoriquesurlaRévolutiondansleDépartementdeL’Eure，\"theregisterofgrievances。In1788，atRouen，therewasnotasingleprofessionmadebymen。InthemonasteryoftheDeux—Amantsthechapterconvokedin1789consistedoftwomonks。——\"ArchivesNationales，\"papersoftheecclesiasticcommittee，passim。
[39]\"Apologiedel’étatReligieux\"（1775），withstatistics。Since1768thedeclineis\"frightful。\"\"Itiseasytoforeseethatintenortwelveyearsmostoftheregularbodieswillbeabsolutelyextinct，orreducedtoastateoffeeblenessakintodeath。\"
[40]Sanzay，I。224（November，1790）。AtBesan？on，outof266
monks，\"79onlyshowedanyloyaltytotheirengementsoranyaffectionfortheircalling。\"Otherspreferredtoabandonit，especiallyalltheDominicansbutfive，allbutoneofthebarefootedCarmelites，andalltheGrandCarmelites。Thesamedispositionisapparentthroughoutthedepartment，as，forinstance，withtheBenedictinesofClunyexceptone，alltheMinimesbutthree，alltheCapuchinsbutfive，theBernandins，Dominicans，andAugustins，allpreferringtoleave。——Montalembert，\"LesMoinesd’Occident，\"introduction，pp。105—164。LetterofaBenedictineofSaint—Germain—des—PréstoaBenedictineofVannes。\"Ofallthemembersofyourcongregationwhichcomeheretolodge，Ihavescarcelyfoundonecapableofedifyingus。Youmayprobablysaythesameofthosewhocametoyoufromourplace。\"——Cf。inthe\"Mémoires\"ofMerlindeThionvillethedescriptionoftheChartreuseofValSt。Pierre。
[41]Ch。Guerin，\"RevuedesQuestionsHistoriques\"（July1，1875；
April1，1876）。——AbbéGuettée，\"Histoiredel’EglisedeFrance，\"
XII，128。（\"Minutesofthemeetingofl’AssembléeduClergé，\"in1780。）——\"Archivesnationales，\"officialreportsandmemorandumsoftheStates—Generalin1789。Themostobnoxiousproceedingtothechiefsoftheorderisthepostponementoftheageatwhichvowsmaybetaken，itbeing，intheirview，theruinoftheirinstitutions。
——\"TheAncientRégime，\"p。403。
[42]Inorderforamodernuninstructednon—believingreadertounderstandthemotivationwhichmovedthousandsofself—lesssistersandbrotherstodotheirusefulandkindworkreadSt。
Matthewchapter25，verses31to46whereJesuspredictshowhewillsitinjudgmentonmankindandseparatethesheepfromthegoats。（SR。）
[43]\"TheAncientRégime，\"P。33——Cf。Guerin\"ThemonasteryoftheTrois—Rois，inthenorthofFranche—Comté，foundedfourvillagescollectedfromforeigncolonists。Itistheonlycenterofcharityandcivilizationinaradiusofthreeleagues。Ittookcareoftwohundredofthesickinarecentepidemic；itlodgesthetroopswhichpassfromAlsaceintoFranche—Comté，andinthelatehailstormitsuppliedthewholeneighborhoodwithfood。\"
[44]Moniteur，sittingofFebruary13，1790。（SpeechoftheAbbédeMontesquiou）。——ArchivesNationales，\"papersoftheEcclesiasticalCommittee，DXIX。6，VisitationdeLimoges，DXIX。
25，AnnonciadesdeSaint—Denis；ibid。AnnonciadesdeSaintAmour，Ursulinesd’Auch，deBeaulieu，d’Eymoutier，delaCiotat，dePontSaint—Esprit，Hospitalièresd’Ernée，deLaval；SainteClairedeLaval，deMarseilles，etc。\"
[45]Sauzay，I。247。Outofthreehundredandseventy—sevennunsatDoubs，threehundredandfifty—eightpreferredtoremainastheywere，especiallyatPontarlier，alltheBernardines，Annonciades，andUrsulines；atBesan？on，alltheCarmelites，theVisitandines，theAnnonciades，theClarisses，theSistersofRefuge，theNunsoftheSaint—Espritand，saveone，alltheBenedictineNuns。
[46]\"ArchivesNationales。\"PapersoftheEcclesiasticalCommittee，passim。——Suzay，I。51。——StatisticsofFrancefor1866。
[47]In1993thisnumberhasoncemorefallen，andcontinuestofall，to55900。\"Quid\"，1996page623。（SR。）
[48]FelixRocquain，\"LaFranceaprésle18Brumaire。\"（ReportsoftheCouncillorsofStatedispatchedonthisservice，passim）。
[49]Moniteur，October24，1789。（SpeechofDupontdeNemours。）Allthesespeeches，oftenmorefullyreportedandwithvariousrenderings，maybefoundin\"LesArchivesParlementaires，\"1stseries，vols。VIII。andIX。
[50]Duvergier，decreeofJune14—17，1791。\"Theannihilationofeverycorporationofcitizensofanyoneconditionorprofessionbeingonofthefoundation—stonesoftheFrenchconstitution，itisforbiddentore—establishthesede—factounderanypretextorformwhatever。Citizensofalikeconditionorprofession，suchascontractors，shopkeepers，workmenofallclasses，andassociatesinanyartwhatevershallnot，onassemblingtogether，appointeitherpresident，orsecretaries，orsyndics，discussorpassresolutions，orframeanyregulationsinrelationtotheirassumedcommoninterests。\"
[51]Moniteur，sittingofNovember2nd，1789。
[52]Moniteur，sittingofFebruary12，1790。SpeechesofDallyd’AgierandBarnave。
[53]Moniteur，sittingofAugust10，1789。SpeechbyGarat；
February12，1790，speechbyPétion；October30，1789，speechbyThouret。
[54]Moniteur，sittingofNovember2，1789。SpeechbyChapelier；
October24，1789，speechbyGarat；October30，1789，speechbyMirabeau，andthesittingofAugust10，1789。
[55]Moniteur，sittingofOctober23，1789。SpeechbyThouret。
[56]Moniteur，sittingofOctober23，1789。SpeechbyTreilhard；
October24th，speechbyGarat；October30，speechbyMirabeau。——Onthe8thofAugust，1789，Al。deLamethsaysinthetribune:\"Whenanfoundationwassetup，itistothenation，whichthegrantwasgiven。\"
[57]Duvergier，lawsofAugust18，1792；August8—14，1793；July11，1794；July14，1792；August24，1793。
[58]Moniteur，sittingofJuly31，1792。SpeechofM。Boistard；
thepropertyofthehospitals，atthistimewasestimatedateighthundredmillions。——Alreadyin1791（sittingofJanuary30th）M。
deLarochefoucauld—LiancourtsaidtotheAssembly:Nothingwillmorereadilyrestoreconfidencetothepoorthantoseethenationassumingtherightofrenderingthemassistance。\"Heproposestodecree；accordingly，thatallhospitalsandplacesofbeneficenceheplacedunderthecontrolofthenation。（Mercure，February12，1791。）
[59]Moniteur，sittingofAugust10，1789。SpeechbySieyès。——
Thefiguresgivenherearededucedfromthestatisticsalreadygiveninthe\"AncientRégime。\"
[60]Moniteur，v。571。sittingofSeptember4，1790。ReportoftheCommitteeonFinances——V。675，sittingofSeptember17，1790。
ReportbyNecker。
[61]ARevolutionaryGovernmentpromissorybanknote。（SR。）
[62]Sauzay，I。228（fromOctober10，1790，toFebruary20，1791）。
\"Thetotalweightofthespoilofthemonasticestablishmentsingold，silver，andplatedware，senttotheMintamountedtomorethan525kilograms（forthedepartment）。\"
[63]Duvergier，lawofOctober8—14。
[64]Moniteur，sittingofJune3，1792。SpeechofM。Bernard，inthenameofthecommitteeofPublicAssistance:\"Notadaypassesinwhichwedonotreceivethesaddestnewsfromthedepartmentsonthepenuryoftheirhospitals。\"——MercuredeFrance，December17，1791，sittingofDecember5。AnumberofdeputiesoftheDepartmentoftheNorthdemandaidfortheirhospitalsandmunicipalities。Outof480，000livresrevenuethereremains10，000tothem。\"ThepropertyoftheCommunesismortgaged，andnolongeraffordsthemanyresources。280，000personsarewithoutbread。
[65]Sauzay，I。252（December3，1790。April13，1791）。
[66]Moniteur，sittingofJune1，1790。SpeechesbyCamus，Treilhard，etc。
[67]Butontheassumptionthatallreligionhasbeeninventedbyhumanbeingsfortheirowncomfortoruse，thenwhatwouldbemorenaturalthancleverrulersusingtheirpowertoinfluencethereligiousauthoritiestotheirownadvantage。（SR。）
[68]Ultramontane:ExtremeinfavoringthePope’ssupremacy。（SR。）
[69]Sauzay，I。168。
[70]Personalknowledge，asIvisitedBesan？onfourtimesbetween1863and1867。
[71]Moniteur，sittingofMay30，1790，andothersfollowing。
（ReportofTreilhard，speechbyRobespierre。）
[72]Duvergier，lawsofJuly12th—August14th；November14—25，1790；
January21—26，1791。
[73]Moniteur，sittingofMay31，1790。Robespierre，incovertterms，demandsthemarriageofpriests。——Mirabeaupreparedaspeechinthesamesense，concludingthateverypriestandmonkshouldbeabletocontractmarriage；onthepriestormonkpresentinghimselfwithhisbridebeforethecuré，thelattershouldbeobligedtogivethemthenuptialbenedictionetc。Mirabeauwrote，June2，1790:\"Robespierre……hasjuggledmeoutofmymotiononthemarriageofpriests。\"——IngeneralthegermofallthelawsoftheConventionisfoundintheConstituentAssembly。
（Ph。Plan，\"UnCollaborateurdeMirabeau，\"p。56，144。）
[74]Duvergier，lawsofNovember27th——December26，1790；February5th，March22nd，andApril5，1791。——Moniteur，sittingofNovember6，1790，andthosethatfollow，especiallythatofDecember27th。\"IsweartomaintainwithallmypowertheFrenchConstitutionandespeciallythedecreesrelatingtotheCivilConstitutionoftheclergy。\"——Cf。sittingofJanuary2，1791，speechbytheBishopofClermont。
[75]Duvergier，lawofMay7，1791，tomaintaintherightofnonjuringprieststoperformmassinnationalorprivateedifices。
（DemandedbyTalleyrandandSieyès。）
[76]\"ArchivesNationales，\"F7，3235。LetterofM。deChateau—
Randon，deputyoflaLozère，May28，1791。AfterthedecreeofMay23rd，allthefunctionariesofthedepartmenthandedintheirresignations。
[77]Duvergier，lawofMay21—29，1791。
[78]Sauzay，I。366，538to593，750。——ArchivesNationales，\"F7，3235，LetterofM。deChanteau—Randon，May10，1791。——Mercure，April23rd，andApril16，1701。ArticlesofMalletduPan，letterfromBordeaux，March20，1791。
[79]BuchezandRoux，XII，77。ReportofGalloisandGensonnésenttoLaVendéeandtheDeuxSévres（July25，1791）。——\"ArchivesNationales，\"F7，3253，letteroftheDirectoryoftheBas—Rhin（letterofJanuary7，1792）。——\"LeDistrictdeMachecoulde1788
à1793，\"byLallier。——\"HistoiredeJosephLebon，\"byParis。——
Sauzay，vol。I。andII。infull。
[80]Mercure，January15th，April23rd，May16thand30th，June1st，November23rd，1791。——\"LeDistrictdeMachecoul，\"byLallier，173。——Sauzay，I。295。——Lavirotte，\"Annalesd’Arnay—le—Duc（February5，1792）。——\"ArchivesNationales，\"F7，3223。PetitionofanumberoftheinhabitantsofMontpellier，November17，1791。
[81]Duvergier，decreeofNovember29，1791。——Mercure，November30，1791（articlebyMalletduPan）。
CHAPTERIII。THECONSTRUCTIONS—THECONSTITUTIONOF1791……
ThatwhichiscalledaGovernmentisaconcertofpowers，eachwithadistinctfunction，andallworkingtowardsafinalandcompleteend。ThemeritofaGovernmentconsistsintheattainmentofthisend；theworthofamachinedependsupontheworkitaccomplishes。
Theimportantthingisnottoproduceagoodmechanicaldesignonpaper，buttoseethatthemachineworkswellwhensetupontheground。Invainmightitsfoundersallegethebeautyoftheirplanandthelogicalconnectionoftheirtheorems；theyarenotrequiredtofurnisheitherplanortheorems，butaninstrument。
Twoconditionsarerequisitetorenderthisinstrumentserviceableandeffective。Inthefirstplace，thepublicpowersmustharmonizewitheachother，ifnot，onewillneutralizetheother；inthesecondplacetheymustbeobeyed，ortheyarenull。
TheConstituentAssemblymadenoprovisionforsecuringthisharmonyorthisobedience。Inthemachinewhichitconstructedthemotionsallcounteracteachother；theimpulseisnottransmitted；thegearingisnotcompletebetweenthecenterandtheextremities；thelargecentralandupperwheelsturntonopurpose；theinnumerablesmallwheelsnearthegroundbreakorgetoutoforder:themachine，byvirtueofitsownmechanism，remainsuseless，over—heated，undercloudsofwastesteam，creakingandthumpinginsuchamatterastoshowclearlythatitmustexplode。
I。
PowersoftheCentralGovernment。—TheAssemblyonthepartitionofpower。—RuptureofeverytiebetweentheLegislatureandtheKing。
—TheAssemblyonthesubordinationoftheexecutivepower。—Howthisisnullified。—Certaintyofaconflict。—ThedepositionoftheKingisinevitable。
Letusfirstconsiderthetwocentralpowers，theAssemblyandtheKing。—OrdinarilywhendistinctpowersofdifferentoriginareestablishedbyaConstitution，itmakes，inthecaseofconflictbetweenthem，aprovisionforanarbiterintheinstitutionofanUpperChamber。Eachofthesepowers，atleast，hasaholdontheother。TheAssemblymusthaveoneontheKing:whichistherighttorefusetaxation。TheKingmusthaveoneontheAssembly:whichistherightofdissolvingit。Otherwise，oneofthetwobeingdisarmed，theotherbecomesomnipotent，and，consequently，insane。
TheperilhereisasgreatforanomnipotentAssemblyasitisforanabsoluteKing。Iftheformerisdesirousofremaininginitsrightmind，itneedsrepressionandcontrolasmuchasthelatter。
IfitisproperfortheAssemblytorestraintheKingbyrefusinghimsubsidies，itisproperforhimtobeabletodefendhimselfbyappealingtotheelectors。—But，besidestheseextrememeasures，whicharedangerousandrarelyresortedto，thereisanotherwhichisordinarilyemployedandissafe，thatis，therightfortheKingtotakehisministersfromtheChamber。Generally，theleadersofthemajorityformtheministry，theirnominationbeingthemeansofrestoringharmonybetweentheKingandAssembly；theyareatoncemenbelongingtotheAssemblyandmenbelongingtotheKing。
ThroughthisexpedientnotonlyistheconfidenceoftheAssemblyassured，sincetheGovernmentremainsinthehandsofitsleaders，butalsoitisunderrestraintbecausethesebecomesimultaneouslybothpowerfulandresponsible。Placedattheheadofallbranchesoftheservice，theyare，beforeproposingitoracceptingit，inapositiontojudgewhetheralawisusefulandpracticable。Nothingissohealthyforamajorityasaministrycomposedofitsownchiefs；nothingissoeffectiveinrepressingrashnessorintemperance。Arailwayconductorisnotwillingthathislocomotiveshouldbedeprivedofcoal，nortohavetherailsheisabouttorunonbrokenup。—Thisarrangement，withallitsdrawbacksandinconveniences，isthebestoneyetarrivedatbyhumanexperienceforthesecurityofsocietiesagainstdespotismandanarchy。Fortheabsolutepowerwhichestablishesorsavesthemmayalsooppressorexhaustthem，thereisagradualsubstitutionofdifferentiatedpowers，heldtogetherthroughthemediationofathirdumpire，causedbyreciprocaldependenceandanwhichiscommontoboth。
Experience，however，isunimportanttothemembersoftheConstituentAssembly；underthebannerofprinciplestheysunderoneafteranotherallthetieswhichkeepthetwopowerstogetherharmoniously。—TheremustnotbeanUpperChamber，becausethiswouldbeanasylumoranurseryforaristocrats。Moreover，\"thenationbeingofonemind，\"itisaverseto\"thecreationofdifferentorgans。\"So，applyingready—madeformulasandmetaphors，theycontinuetoproduceideologicaldefinitionsanddistinctions。
TheKingmustnothaveaholdonthelegislativebody:theexecutiveisanarm，whosebusinessitistoobey；itisabsurdforthearmtoconstrainordirectthehead。Scarcelyisthemonarchallowedadelayingveto。Sieyèshereenterswithhisprotestdeclaringthatthisisa\"lettredecachet[1]launchedagainsttheuniversalwill，\"
andthereisexcludedfromtheactionofthevetothearticlesoftheConstitution，allmoney—bills，andsomeotherlaws。——NeitherthemonarchnortheelectorsoftheAssemblyaretoconvoketheAssembly；hehasnovoiceinoroversightofthedetailsofitsformation；theelectorsaretomeettogetherandvotewithouthissummonsorsupervision。OncetheAssemblyiselectedhecanneitheradjournnordissolveit。Hecannotevenproposealaw；[2]per—
missionisonlygrantedtohim\"toinviteittotakeasubjectintoconsideration。\"Heislimitedtohisexecutiveduties；andstillmore，asortofwallisbuiltupbetweenhimandtheAssembly，andtheopeninginit，bywhicheachcouldtaketheother’shand，iscarefullyclosedup。Thedeputiesareforbiddentobecomeministersthroughoutthetermoftheirserviceandfortwoyearsafterwards。
ThisisbecausefearsareentertainedthattheymightbecorruptedthroughcontactwiththeCourt，and，again，whoevertheministersmightbe，thereisnodispositiontoaccepttheirascendancy。[3]IfoneofthemisadmittedintotheAssemblyitisnotforthepurposeofgivingadvice，buttofurnishinformation，replytointerrogatories，andmakeprotestationsofhiszealinhumbletermsandinadubiousposition。[4]ByvirtueofbeingaroyalagentheisundersuspicionliketheKinghimself，andheissequesteredinhisbureauastheKingissequesteredinhispalace。—SuchisthespiritoftheConstitution:byforceofthetheory，andthebettertosecureaseparationofthepowers，[5]acommonunderstandingbetweenthemisforeverrenderedimpossible，andtomakeupforthisimpossibilitythereremainsnothingbuttomakeonethemasterandtheothertheclerk。
Thistheydidnotfailtodo，andforgreatersecurity，thelatterismadeanhonoraryclerk，Theexecutivepowerisconferredonhimnominallyandinappearance；hedoesnotpossessitinfact，carehavingbeentakentoplaceitinotherhands。—Ineffect，allexecutiveagentsandallsecondaryandlocalpowersareelective。
TheKinghasnovoice，directlyorindirectly，inthechoiceofjudges，publicprosecutors，bishops，curés，collectorsandassessorsofthetaxes，commissariesofpolice，districtanddepartmentaladministrators，mayors，andmunicipalofficers。Atmost，shouldanadministratorviolatealaw，hemayannulhisactsandsuspendhim；
buttheAssembly，thesuperiorpower，hastherighttocancelthissuspension。—Astothearmedforce，ofwhichheissupposedtobethecommander—in—chief，thisescapesfromhimentirely:theNationalGuardisnottoreceiveordersfromhim；thegendarmerieandthetroopsareboundtorespondtotherequisitionsofthemunicipalauthorities，whomtheKingcanneitherselectnordisplace:inshort，localactionofanykind—thatistosay，alleffectiveaction—isdeniedtohim。—Theexecutiveinstrumentispurposelydestroyed。Theconnectionwhichexistedbetweenthewheelsoftheextremitiesandthecentralshaftisbroken，andhenceforth，incapableofdistributingitsenergy，thisshaft，inthehandsofthemonarch，standsstillorelseturnstonopurpose。TheKing，\"supremeheadofthegeneraladministration，ofthearmy，andofthenavy，guardianofpublicpeaceandorder，hereditaryrepresentativeofthenation，\"iswithoutthemeans，inspiteofhisloftytitles，ofdirectlyapplyinghispretendedpowers，ofcausingascheduleofassessmentstobedrawnupinarefractorycommune，ofcompellingpaymentbyadelinquenttax—payer，ofenforcingthefreecirculationofaconvoyofgrain，ofexecutingthejudgmentofacourt，ofsuppressinganoutbreak，orofsecuringprotectiontopersonsandproperty。Forhecanbringnoconstrainttobearontheagentswhoaredeclaredtobesubordinatetohim；hehasnoresourcesbutthoseofwarningandpersuasion。HesendstoeachDepartmentalAssemblythedecreeswhichhehassanctioned，requestingittotransmitthemandcausethemtobecarriedout；hereceivesitscorrespondenceandbestowshiscensureorapproval—andthatisall。Heismerelyapowerlessmediumofcommunication，aheraldorpublicadvertiser，asortofcentralecho，sonorousandempty，towhichnewsisbrought，andfromwhichlawsdepart，tospreadabroadlikeacommonrumor。