XI。
[49]。DeTilly，I。24。
[50]。Necker，\"Oeuvrescomplètes，\"XV，259。
[51]。NarratedbyM。deBezenval，awitnessoftheduel。
[52]。Seeespecially:Saint—Aubin，\"Lebalparé，\"\"LeConcert；\"—
Moreau，\"LesElégants，\"\"LaVied’unSeigneuràlamode，\"thevignettesof\"LanouvelleHéloise；\"Beaudouin，\"LaToilette，\"\"LeCoucherdelaMariée；\"Lawreince，\"Qu’enditl’abbé？\"—Watteau，thefirstindateandintalent，transposesthesecustomsanddepictsthemthebetterbymakingthemmorepoetic。—Oftherest，reread\"Marianne，\"byMarivaux；\"LaVéritédanslevin，\"byCollé；\"Lecoindufeu，\"\"Lanuitetlemoment，\"byCrébillonfils；andtwolettersinthe\"Correspondanceinédite\"ofMme。duDeffant，onebytheAbbé
BarthélemyandtheotherbytheChevalierdeBoufflers，（I。258，341。）。
[53]。\"CorrespondenceinéditedeMme。duDeffant，\"publishedbyM。
deSaint—Aulaire，I。235，258，296，302，363。
[54]。Mme。deGenlis，\"Dict。desEtiquettes，\"II。38。\"AdèleetThéodore，I，312，II，350，—GeorgeSand，\"Histoiredemavie，\"I。
228。—DeGoncourt，p。111。
[55]。GeorgeSand，I。59。
[56]。\"Acomparativeview，\"etc。，byJohnAndrews。
[57]。Mme。Vigée—Lebrun，I。15，154。
[58]。Chateaubriand，I。34。—\"MémoiresdeMirabeau，\"passim。—
GeorgeSand，I。59，76。
[59]。ComptesrendusdelasociétédeBerry（1863—1864）。
[60]。\"HistoiredeTroyespendantlaRévolution，\"byAlbertBabeau，I。46。
[61]。Foissets，\"LePrésidentdesBrosses，\"65，69，70，346。—
\"LettresduPrésidentdesBrosses，\"（ed。Coulomb），passim。—Pironbeinguneasyconcerninghis\"OdeàPriape，\"PresidentBouhier，amanofgreatandfineerudition，andtheleaststarchedoflearnedones，sentfortheyoungmanandsaidtohim，\"Youareafoolishfellow。IfanyonepressesyoutoknowtheauthoroftheoffencetellhimthatI
am。\"（Sainte—Beuve，\"NouveauxLundis，\"VII。414。）
[62]。Foisset，ibid……185。Sixaudiencesaweekandoftentwoadaybesideshislaborsasantiquarian，historian，linguist，geographer，editorandacademician。
[63]。\"Souvenirs\"，byPASQUIER（Etienne—Dennis，duc），chancelierdeFrance。inVIvolumes，LibrariePlon，Paris1893。
[64]。DeValfons，\"Souvenirs，\"60。
[65]。Montgaillard（aneye—witness）。\"HistoiredeFrance，\"II。246。
[66]。M。deConziéissurprisedatfouro’clockinthemorningbyhisrival，anofficerintheguards。\"Makenonoise，\"hesaidtohim，\"adresslikeyourswillbebroughttomeandIwillhaveacockmadethenweshallbeonthesamelevel。\"Avaletbringshimhisweapons。
Hedescendsintothegardenofthemansion，fightswiththeofficeranddisarmshim。（\"Correspondance，\"byMétra，XIV。May20，1783。）—
\"LeComtedeClermont，\"byJulesCousin，passim。—\"JournaldeCollé，\"III。232（July，1769）。
[67]。DeLoménie，\"Beaumarchaisetsontemps，II。304。
[68]。DeLuynes，XVL161（September，1757）。ThevillagefestivalgiventoKingStanislas，byMme。deMauconseilatBagatelle。—
Bachaumont，III。247（September7，1767）。FestivalgivenbythePrincedeCondé。
[69]。\"Correspondance，\"byMétra，XIII。97（June15，1782），andV。
232（June24and25，1777）。—Mme。deGenlis\"Mémoires，\"chap。XIV。
[70]。Bachaumont，November17，1770。—\"JournaldeCollé，\"III。
136（April29，1767）。—DeMontlosier，\"Mémoires，\"I。43。\"AttheresidenceoftheCommandant（atClermont）theywouldhavebeengladtoenlistmeinprivatetheatricals。\"
[71]。\"Correspondance。\"byMétra，II。245（Nov。18。1775）。
[72]。Julien。\"HistoireduThéatredeMadamedePompadour。\"Theserepresentationslastsevenyearsandcostduringthewinteraloneof1749，300，000livres。—DeLuynes，X。45。—Mme。deHausset，230。
[73]。Mme。Campan，I。130。—Cf。withcaution，theMémoires，aresuspect，astheyhavebeengreatlymodifiedandarrangedbyFleury。—
DeGoncourt，114。
74。JulesCousin，\"LeComtedeClermont，\"p。21。—Mme。deGenlis，\"Mémoires，\"chap。3and11。—DeGoncourt，114。
[75]。Bachaumont，III。343（February23，1768）andIV。174，III。
232。—\"JournaldCollé，\"passim。—Collé，LaujonandPoisinetaretheprincipalpurveyorsforthesedisplays；theonlyoneofmeritis\"LaVeritédansleVin。\"Inthispieceinsteadof\"Mylord。\"therewasatfirstthe\"bishopofAvranches，\"andthepiecewasthusperformedatVillers—CotteretsinthehouseoftheDucd’Orléans。
[76]。Mme。d’Oberkirk，II。82。—Onthetoneofthebestsocietysee\"Correspondance\"byMétra，I。50，III。68，andBezenval（Ed。
Barrière）387to394。
[77]。Mme。deGenlis，\"AdèleetThéodore，\"II。362。
[78]。GeorgeSand，I。85。\"Atmygrandmother’sIhavefoundboxesfullofcouplets，madrigalsandbitingsatires……IburnedsomeofthemsoobscenethatIwouldnotdarereadthemthrough，andthesewrittenbyabbésIhadknowntomyinfancyandbyamarquisofthebestblood。\"Amongotherexamples，toneddown，thesongsontheBirdandtheShepherdess，maybereadin\"Correspondance，\"byMétra。
CHAPTERIII。DISADVANTAGESOFTHISDRAWINGROOMLIFE。
I。
ItsBarrennessandArtificiality。—ReturntoNatureandsentiment。
MEREpleasure，inthelongrun，ceasestogratify，andhoweveragreeablethisdrawingroomlifemaybe，itendsinacertainhollowness。Somethingislackingwithoutanyonebeingabletosaypreciselywhatthatsomethingis；thesoulbecomesrestless，andslowly，aidedbyauthorsandartists，itsetsaboutinvestigatingthecauseofitsuneasinessandtheobjectofitssecretlongings。
Barrennessandartificialityarethetwotraitsofthissociety，themoremarkedbecauseitismorecomplete，and，inthisone，pushedtoextreme，becauseithasattainedtosupremerefinement。Inthefirstplacenaturalnessisexcludedfromit；everythingisarrangedandadjusted，—decoration，dress，attitude，toneofvoice，words，ideasandevensentiments。\"Agenuinesentimentissorare，\"saidM。deV——
，\"that，whenIleaveVersailles，Isometimesstandstillinthestreettoseeadoggnawabone。\"[1]Man，inabandoninghimselfwhollytosociety，hadwithheldnoportionofhispersonalityforhimselfwhiledecorum，clingingtohimlikesomuchivy，hadabstractedfromhimthesubstanceofhisbeingandsubvertedeveryprincipleofactivity。
\"Therewasthen，\"saysonewhowaseducatedinthisstyle，[2]\"acertainwayofwalking，ofsittingdown，ofsaluting，ofpickingupaglove，ofholdingafork，oftenderinganyarticle，inshort，acompletesetofgesturesandfacialexpressions，whichchildrenhadtobetaughtataveryearlyageinorderthathabitmightbecomeasecondnature，andthisconventionalityformedsoimportantaniteminthelifeofmenandwomeninaristocraticcirclesthattheactorsofthepresentday，withalltheirstudy，arescarcelyabletogiveusanideaofit。\"
Notonlywastheoutwardfactitiousbut，again，theinward；therewasacertainprescribedmodeoffeelingandofthinking，oflivingandofdying。Itwasimpossibletoaddressamanwithoutplacingoneselfathisorders，orawomanwithoutcastingoneselfatherfeet，Fashion，’lebonton，’regulatedeveryimportantorpettyproceeding，themannerofmakingadeclarationtoawomanandofbreakinganengagement，ofenteringuponandmanagingaduel，oftreatinganequal，aninferiorandasuperior。Ifanyonefailedintheslightestdegreetoconformtothiscodeofuniversalcustom，heiscalled\"aspecimen。\"Amanofheartoroftalent，D’Argenson，forexample，boreasurnameof\"simpleton，\"becausehisoriginalitytranscendedtheconventionalstandard。\"Thathasnoname，thereisnothinglikeit！\"
embodiesthestrongestcensure。Inconductasinliterature，whateverdepartsfromacertaintypeisrejected。Thequantityofauthorizedactionsisasgreatasthenumberofauthorizedwords。Thesamesuper—
refinedtasteimpoverishestheinitiatoryactaswellastheinitiatoryexpression，peopleactingastheywrite，accordingtoacquiredformulasandwithinacircumscribedcircle。Undernoconsiderationcantheeccentric，theunforeseen，thespontaneous，vividinspirationbeaccepted。AmongtwentyinstancesIselecttheleaststrikingsinceitmerelyrelatestoasimplegesture，andisameasureofotherthings。Mademoisellede—obtains，throughfamilyinfluence，apensionforMarcel，afamousdancing—master，andrunsoff，delighted，tohisdomiciletoconveyhimthepatent。Marcelreceivesitandatonceflingsitonthefloor:\"Mademoiselle，didI
teachyoutoofferanobjectinthatmanner？Pickupthatpaperandhandittomeasyououghtto。\"Shepicksupthepatentandpresentsittohimwithallsuitablegrace。\"That’sverywell，Mademoiselle，I
acceptit，althoughyourelbowwasnotquitesufficientlyrounded，andIthankyou。\"[3]Somanygracesendinbecomingtiresome；afterhavingeatenrichfoodforyears，alittlemilkanddrybreadbecomeswelcome。
Amongallthesesocialflavoringsoneisespeciallyabused；onewhich，unremittinglyemployed，communicatestoalldishesitsfrigidandpiquantrelish，Imeaninsincerity（badinage）。Societydoesnottoleratepassion，andinthisitexercisesitsright。Onedoesnotentercompanytobeeithervehementorsomber；astrainedairoroneofconcentrationwouldappearinconsistent。Themistressofahouseisalwaysrightinremindingamanthathisemotionalconstraintbringsonsilence。\"MonsieurSuch—a—one，youarenotamiabletoday。\"Tobealwaysamiableis，accordingly，anobligation，and，throughthistraining，asensibilitythatisdiffusedthroughinnumerablelittlechannelsneverproducesabroadcurrent。\"Onehasahundredfriends，andoutofthesehundredfriendstwoorthreemayhavesomechagrineveryday；butonecouldnotawardthemsympathyforanylengthoftimeas，inthatevent，onewouldbewantinginconsiderationfortheremainingninety—seven；\"[4]onemightsighforaninstantwithsomeoneoftheninety—seven，andthatwouldbeall。MadameduDeffant，havinglostheroldestfriend，thePresidentHénault，thatverydaygoestosupinalargeassemblage:\"Alas，\"sheexclaimed，\"hediedatsixo’clockthisevening；otherwiseyouwouldnotseemehere。\"Underthisconstantrégimeofdistractionsanddiversionstherearenolongeranyprofoundsentiments；wehavenothingbutanepidermicexterior；loveitselfisreducedto\"theexchangeoftwofantasies。\"—
And，asonealwaysfallsonthesidetowhichoneinclines，levitybecomesdeliberateandamatterofelegance。[5]Indifferenceoftheheartisinfashion；onewouldbeashamedtoshowanygenuineemotion。
Onetakesprideinplayingwithlove，intreatingwomanasamechanicalpuppet，intouchingoneinwardspring，andthenanother，toforceout，atwill，herangerorherpity。Whatevershemaydo，thereisnodeviationfromthemostinsultingpoliteness；theveryexaggerationoffalserespectwhichislavishedonherisamockerybywhichindifferenceforherisfullymanifested。—Buttheygostillfurther，andinsoulsnaturallyunfeeling，gallantryturnsintowickedness。Throughennuiandthedemandforexcitement，throughvanity，andasaproofofdexterity，delightisfoundintormenting，inexcitingtears，indishonoringandinkillingwomenbyslowtorture。Atlast，asvanityisabottomlesspit，thereisnospeciesofblacknessofwhichthesepolishedexecutionersarenotcapable；thepersonagesofLaclosarederivedfromtheseoriginals。[6]—Monstersofthiskindare，undoubtedly，rare；butthereisnoneedofrevertingtothemtoascertainhowmuchegotismisharboredinthegallantryofsociety。Thewomenwhoerecteditintoanobligationarethefirsttorealizeitsdeceptiveness，and，amidstsomuchhomagewithoutheat，topineforthecommunicativewarmthofapowerfulsentiment。—Thecharacterofthecenturyobtainsitslasttraitand\"themanoffeelingcomesonthestage。
II。RETURNTONATUREANDSENTIMENT。
Finaltraitofthecentury，anincreasedsensitivityinthebestcircles。—Dateofitsadvent。—Itssymptomsinartandinliterature。—Itsdominioninprivate。—Itsaffectations。—Itssincerity。—Itsdelicacy。
Itisnotthatthegroundworkofhabitsbecomesdifferent，fortheseremainequallyworldlyanddissipatedupthelast。Butfashionauthorizesanewaffectation，consistingofeffusions，reveries，andsensibilitiesasyetunknown。Thepointistoreturntonature，toadmirethecountry，todelightinthesimplicityofrusticmanners，tobeinterestedinvillagepeople，tobehuman，tohaveaheart，tofindpleasureinthesweetnessandtendernessofnaturalaffections，tobeahusbandandafather，andstillmore，topossessasoul，virtues，andreligiousemotions，tobelieveinProvidenceandimmortality，tobecapableofenthusiasm。Onewantstobeallthis，oratleastshowaninclinationthatway。Inanyevent，ifthedesiredoesexistitisonetheimpliedcondition，thatoneshallnotbetoomuchdisturbedinhisordinarypursuits，andthatthesensationsbelongingtotheneworderoflifeshallinnorespectinterferewiththeenjoymentsoftheoldone。Accordinglytheexaltationwhicharisesislittlemorethancerebralfermentation，andtheidyllistobealmostentirelyperformedinthedrawing—rooms。Behold，then，literature，thedrama，paintingandalltheartspursuingthesamesentimentalroadtosupplyheatedimaginationswithfactitiousnourishment。[7]Rousseau，inlaboredperiods，preachesthecharmsofanuncivilizedexistence，whileothermasters，betweentwomadrigals，fancythedelightofsleepingnakedintheprimevalforest。Theloversin\"LaNouvelleHéloise\"interchangepassagesoffinestylethroughfourvolumes，whereuponaperson\"notmerelymethodicalbutprudent，\"theComtessedeBlot，exclaims，atasocialgatheringattheDuchessedeChartres’，\"awomantrulysensitive，unlessofextraordinaryvirtue，couldrefusenothingtothepassionofRousseau。\"[8]PeoplecollectinadensecrowdintheExhibitionaround\"L’AccordéedeVillage，\"\"LaCrucheCassée，\"andthe\"Retourdenourrice，\"withotherruralanddomesticidyllsbyGreuze；thevoluptuouselement，thetemptingundercurrentofsensualitymadeperceptibleinthefragilesimplicityofhisartlessmaidens，isadaintybitforthelibertinetasteswhicharekeptalivebeneathmoralaspirations。[9]Afterthese，Ducis，Thomas，Parny，Colardeau，Boucher，Delille，BernardindeSt。Pierre，Marmontel，Florian，themassoforators，authorsandpoliticians，themisanthropeChampfort，thelogicianLaHarpe，theministerNecker，theversifiersandtheimitatorsofGessnerandYoung，theBerquins，theBitaubés，nicelycombedandbedizened，holdingembroideredhandkerchiefstowipeawaytears，aretomarshalforththeuniversalecloguedowntotheacmeoftheRevolution。Marmontel’s\"MoralTales\"
appearinthecolumnsofthe\"Mercure\"for1791and1792，[10]whilethenumberfollowingthemassacresofSeptemberopenswithverses\"tothemanesofmycanary—bird。\"
Consequently，inallthedetailsofprivatelife，sensibilitydisplaysitsmagniloquence。AsmalltempletoFriendshipiserectedinapark。AlittlealtartoBenevolenceissetupinaprivatecloset。
DressesàlaJean—Jacques—Rousseauareworn\"analogoustotheprinciplesofthatauthor。\"Head—dressesareselectedwith\"puffsausentiment\"inwhichonemayplacetheportraitofone’sdaughter，mother，canaryordog，thewhole\"garnishedwiththehairofone’sfatherorintimatefriend。\"[11]Peoplekeepintimatefriendsforwhom\"theyexperiencesomethingsowarmandsotenderthatitnearlyamountstoapassion\"andwhomtheycannotgothreehoursadaywithoutseeing。\"Everytimefemalecompanionsinterchangetenderideasthevoicesuddenlychangesintoapureandlanguishingtone，eachfondlyregardingtheotherwithapproachingheadsandfrequentlyembracing，\"andsuppressingayawnaquarterofanhourafter，withanapinconcert，becausetheyhavenomoretosay。Enthusiasmbecomesanobligation。Ontherevivalof\"Lepèredefamille\"thereareasmanyhandkerchiefscountedasspectators，andladiesfaintaway。\"Itiscustomary，especiallyforyoungwomen，tobeexcited，toturnpale，tomeltintotearsand，generally，tobeseriouslyaffectedonencounteringM。deVoltaire；theyrushintohisarms，stammerandweep，theiragitationresemblingthatofthemostpassionatelove。\"[12]—Whenasociety—authorreadshisworkinadrawing—room，fashionrequiresthatthecompanyshouldutterexclamationsandsob，andthatsomeprettyfaintingsubjectshouldbeunlaced。Mme。deGenlis，wholaughsattheseaffectations，isnolessaffectedthantherest。Suddenlysomeoneinthecompanyisheardtosaytotheyoungorphanwhomsheisexhibiting:\"Pamela，showusHéloise，\"whereuponPamela，looseningherhair，fallsonherkneesandturnshereyesuptoheavenwithanairofinspiration，tothegreatapplauseoftheassembly。[13]Sensibilitybecomesaninstitution。ThesameMadamedeGenlisfoundsanorderofPerseverancewhichsoonincludes\"asmanyasninetychevaliersintheverybestsociety。\"Tobecomeamemberitisnecessarytosolvesomeriddle，toansweramoralquestionandpronounceadiscourseonvirtue。Everyladyorchevalierwhodiscoversandpublishes\"threewell—verifiedvirtuousactions\"obtainsagoldmedal。Eachchevalierhashis\"brotherinarms，\"eachladyhasherbosomfriendandeachmemberhasadevice，andeachdevice，framedinalittlepicture，figuresinthe\"TempleofHonor，\"asortoftentgallantlydecorated，andwhichM。deLauzuncausestobeerectedinthemiddleofagarden。[14]—Thesentimentalparadeiscomplete，adrawingroommasqueradebeingvisibleeveninthisrevivalofchivalry。
Thefrothofenthusiasmandoffinewordsneverthelessleavesintheheartaresiduumofactivebenevolence，trustfulness，andevenhappiness，or，atleast，expansivenessandfreedom。Wives，forthefirsttime，areseenaccompanyingtheirhusbandsintogarrison；
mothersdesiretonursetheirinfants，andfathersbegintointerestthemselvesintheeducationoftheirchildren。Simplicityagainformsanelementofmanners。Hair—powderisnolongerputonlittleboys’
heads；manyoftheseigniorsabandonlaces，embroideries，redheelsandthesword，exceptwheninfulldress。Peopleappearinthestreets\"dressedàlaFranklin，incoarsecloth，withaknottycaneandthickshoes。\"[15]Thetastenolongerrunsoncascades，statuesandstiffandpompousdecorations；thepreferenceisfortheEnglishgarden。ThequeenarrangesavillageforherselfattheTrianon，where，\"dressedinafrockofwhitecambricmuslinandagauzeneck—handkerchief，andwithastrawhat，\"shefishesinthelakeandseeshercowsmilked。
Etiquettefallsawaylikethepaintscalingofffromtheskin，disclosingthebrighthueofnaturalemotions。MadameAdelaidetakesupaviolinandreplacesanabsentmusiciantoletthepeasantgirlsdance16TheDuchessedeBourbongoesoutearlyinthemorningincognitotobestowalms，and\"toseethepoorintheirgarrets。\"TheDauphinejumpsoutofhercarriagetoassistawoundedpost—boy，apeasantknockeddownbyastag。ThekingandtheComted’Artoishelpacartertoextracthiscartfromthemud。Peoplenolongerthinkaboutself—constraint，andself—adjustment，andofkeepinguptheirdignityunderallcircumstances，andofsubjectingtheweaknessesofhumannaturetotheexigenciesofrank。OnthedeathofthefirstDauphin，[17]whilstthepeopleintheroomplacethemselvesbeforethekingtopreventhimfromenteringit，thequeenfallsathisknees，andhesaystoher，weeping，\"Ah，mywife，ourdearchildisdead，sincetheydonotwishmetoseehim。\"Andthenarratoraddswithadmiration；\"Ialwaysseemtoseeagoodfarmerandhisexcellentwifeapreytothedeepestdespairatthelossoftheirbelovedchild。\"
Tearsarenolongerconcealed，asitisapointofhonortobeahumanbeing。Onebecomeshumanandfamiliarwithone’sinferiors。Aprince，onareview，saystothesoldiersonpresentingtheprincesstothem，\"Myboys，hereismywife。\"Thereisadispositiontomakepeoplehappyandtotakegreatdelightintheirgratitude。Tobekind，tobelovedistheobjectoftheheadofagovernment，ofamaninplace。
ThisgoessofarthatGodisprefiguredaccordingtothismodel。The\"harmoniesofnature\"areconstruedintothedelicateattentionsofProvidence；oninstitutingfilialaffectiontheCreator\"deignedtochooseforourbestvirtueoursweetestpleasure。\"[18]—Theidyllwhichisimaginedtotakeplaceinheavencorrespondswiththeidyllpracticedonearth。Fromthepublicuptotheprinces，andfromtheprincesdowntothepublic，inprose，inverse，incomplimentsatfestivities，inofficialreplies，inthestyleofroyaledictsdowntothesongsofthemarket—women，thereisaconstantinterchangeofgracesandofsympathies。Applauseburstsoutinthetheateratanyversecontaininganallusiontoprinces，and，amomentafter，atthespeechwhichexaltsthemeritsofthepeople，theprincesreturnthecomplimentbyapplaudingintheirturn。[19]—Onallsides，justasthissocietyisvanishing，amutualdeference，aspiritofkindlinessarises，likeasoftandbalmyautumnalbreeze，todissipatewhateverharshnessremainsofitsaridityandtominglewiththeradianceofitslasthourstheperfumeofdyingroses。Wenowencounteractsandwordsofinfinitegrace，uniqueoftheirkind，likealovely，exquisitelittlefigureonoldSèvresporcelain。Oneday，ontheComtesseAméliedeBoufflersspeakingsomewhatflippantlyofherhusband，hermother—in—lawinterposes，\"Youforgetthatyouarespeakingofmyson。\"—\"True，mamma，IthoughtIwasonlyspeakingofyourson—in—law。\"Itissheagainwho，onplaying\"theboat，\"andobligedtodecidebetweenthisbelovedmother—in—lawandherownmother，whomshescarcelyknew，replies，\"Iwouldsavemymotheranddrownwithmymother—in—law。\"[20]TheDuchessedeChoiseul，theDuchessedeLauzun，andothersbesides，areequallycharmingminiatures。Whentheheartandthemindcombinetheirconsiderationstheyproducemasterpieces，andthese，liketheart，therefinementsandthesocietywhichsurroundsthem，possessacharmunsurpassedbyanythingexcepttheirownfragility。
III。PersonalityDefects。
Thefailingsofcharacterthusformed。—Adaptedtoonesituationbutnottoacontrarysituation。—Defectsofintelligence。—Defectsofdisposition。—Suchacharacterisdisarmedbygood—breeding。
Thereasonisthat，thebetterpeoplehavebecomeadaptedtoacertainsituationthelesspreparedaretheyfortheoppositesituation。Thehabitsandfacultiesthatservetheminthepreviousconditionbecomeprejudicialtotheminthenewone。Inacquiringtalentsadaptedtotranquiltimestheylosethosesuitedtotimesofagitation，reachingtheextremeoffeeblenessatthesametimewiththeextremeofurbanity。Themorepolishedanaristocracybecomestheweakeritbecomes，andwhennolongerpossessingthepowertopleaseitnotlongerpossessesthestrengthtostruggle。Andyet，inthisworld，wemuststruggleifwewouldlive。Inhumanity，asinnature，empirebelongstoforce。Everycreaturethatlosestheartandenergyofself—defensebecomessomuchmorecertainlyapreyaccordingasitsbrilliancy，imprudenceandevengentlenessdeliveritoverinadvancetothegrossappetitesroamingaroundit。Wherefindresistanceincharactersformedbythehabitswehavejustdescribed？Todefendourselveswemust，firstofall，lookcarefullyaroundus，seeandforesee，andprovidefordanger。Howcouldtheydothislivingastheydid？Theircircleistoonarrowandtoocarefullyenclosed。Confinedtotheircastlesandmansionstheyseeonlythoseoftheirownsphere，theyhearonlytheechooftheirownideas，theyimaginethatthereisnothingbeyondthepublicseemstoconsistoftwohundredpersons。
Moreover，disagreeabletruthsarenotadmittedintoadrawing—room，especiallywhenofpersonalimport，anidlefancytherebecomingadogmabecauseitbecomesconventional。Here，accordingly，wefindthosewho，alreadydeceivedbythelimitationsoftheiraccustomedhorizon，fortifytheirdelusionstillmorebydelusionsabouttheirfellowmen。Theycomprehendnothingofthevastworld，whichenvelopstheirlittleworld；theyareincapableofenteringintothesentimentsofabourgeois，ofavillager；theyhavenoconceptionofthepeasantasheisbutastheywouldlikehimtobe。Theidyllisinfashion，andnoonedaresdisputeit；anyothersuppositionwouldbefalsebecauseitwouldbedisagreeable，andasthedrawingroomshavedecidedthatallwillgowell，allmustgowell。Neverwasadelusionmorecompleteandmorevoluntary。TheDucd’OrléansofferstowagerahundredlouisthattheStates—Generalwilldissolvewithoutaccomplishinganything，notevenabolishingthelettre—de—cachet……
Afterthedemolitionhasbegun，andyetagainafteritisfinished，theywillformopinionsnomoreaccurate。Theyhavenoideaofsocialarchitecture；theyknownothingaboutitsmaterials，itsproportions，oritsharmoniousbalance；theyhavehadnohandinit，theyhaveneverworkedatit。Theyareentirelyignorantoftheoldbuilding[21]
inwhichtheyoccupythefirststory。Theyarenotqualifiedtocalculateeitheritspressureoritsresistance。[[22]]Theyconclude，finally，thatitisbettertoletthethingtumblein，andthattherestorationoftheedificeintheirbehalfwillfollowitsowncourse，andthattheywillreturntotheirdrawing—room，expresslyrebuiltforthem，andfreshlygilded，tobeginoveragainthepleasantconversationwhichanaccident，sometumultinthestreet，hadinterrupted。[23]Clear—sightedinsociety，theyareobtuseinpolitics。Theyexamineeverythingbytheartificiallightofcandles；
theyaredisturbedandbewilderedinthepowerfullightofopenday。
Theeyelidhasgrownstiffthroughage。Theorgansolongbentonthepettydetailsofonerefinedlifenolongertakesinthepopularlifeofthemasses，and，inthenewsphereintowhichitissuddenlyplunged，itsrefinementbecomesthesourceofitsblindness。
Neverthelessactionisnecessary，fordangerisseizingthembythethroat。Butthedangerisofanignoblespecies，whiletheireducationhasprovidedthemwithnoarmssuitableforwardingitoff。Theyhavelearnedhowtofence，butnothowtobox。TheyarestillthesonsofthoseatFontenoy，who，insteadofbeingthefirsttofire，courteouslyraisedtheirhatsandaddressedtheirEnglishantagonists，\"No，gentlemen，fireyourselves。\"Beingtheslavesofgood—breedingtheyarenotfreeintheirmovements。Numerousacts，andthosethemostimportant，thoseofasudden，vigorousandrudestamp，areopposedtotherespectawell—bredmanentertainsforothers，oratleasttotherespectwhichheowestohimself。Theydonotconsidertheseallowableamongthemselves；theydonotdreamoftheirbeingallowed，and，thehighertheirpositionthemoretheirrankfettersthem。WhentheroyalfamilysetsoutforVarennestheaccumulateddelaysbywhichtheyarelostaretheresultofetiquette。MadamedeTouzelinsistsonherplaceinthecarriagetowhichsheisentitledasgovernessoftheChildrenofFrance。Theking，onarriving，isdesirousofconferringthemarshal’sbatononM。deBouillé，andafterrunningtoandfrotoobtainabatonheisobligedtoborrowthatoftheDucdeChoiseul。Thequeencannotdispensewithatravelingdressing—caseandonehastobemadelargeenoughtocontaineveryimaginableimplementfromawarming—pantoasilverporridge—dish，withotherdishesbesides；and，asiftherewerenoshiftstobehadinBrussels，therehadtobeacompleteoutfitinthislineforherselfandherchildren。[24]—Aferventdevotion，evenhumanness，thefrivolityofthesmallliteraryspirit，gracefulurbanity，profoundignorance，[25]thelackorrigidityofthecomprehensionanddeterminationarestillgreaterwiththeprincesthanwiththenobles。
—Allareimpotentagainstthewildandroaringoutbreak。Theyhavenotthephysicalsuperioritythatcanmasterit，thevulgarcharlatanismwhichcancharmitaway，thetricksofaScapintothrowitoffthescent，thebull’sneck，themountebank’sgestures，thestentor’slungs，inshort，theresourcesoftheenergetictemperamentandofanimalcunning，alonecapableofdivertingtherageoftheunchainedbrute。Tofindsuchfighters，theyseekthreeorfourmenofadifferentraceandeducation，menhavingsufferedandroamedabout，abrutalcommonerliketheabbéMaury，acolossalanddirtysatyrlikeMirabeau，aboldandpromptadventurerlikethatDumouriezwho，atCherbourg，when，throughthefeeblenessoftheDucdeBeuvron，thestoresofgrainweregivenupandtheriotbegan，hootedatandnearlycuttopieces，suddenlyseesthekeysofthestorehouseinthehandsofaDutchsailor，and，yellingtothemobthatitwasbetrayedthroughaforeignerhavinggotholdofthekeys，himselfjumpsdownfromtherailing，seizesthekeysandhandsthemtotheofficeroftheguard，sayingtothepeople，\"Iamyourfather，Iamthemantoberesponsibleforthestorehouse！\"[26]Toentrustoneselfwithportersandbrawlers，tobecollaredbyapoliticalclub，toimproviseonthehighways，tobarklouderthanthebarkers，tofightwiththefistsoracudgel，asmuchlaterwiththeyoungandrichgangs，againstbrutesandlunaticsincapableofemployingotherarguments，andwhomustbeansweredinthesamevein，tomountguardovertheAssembly，toactasvolunteerconstable，tospareneitherone’sownhidenorthatofothers，tobeoneofthepeopletofacethepeople，allthesearesimpleandeffectualproceedings，butsovulgarastoappeartothemdisgusting。Theideaofresortingtosuchmeansneverenterstheirhead；theyneitherknowhow，nordotheycaretomakeuseoftheirhandsinsuchbusiness。[27]Theyareskilledonlyinthedueland，almostimmediately，thebrutalityofopinion，bymeansofassaults，stopsthewaytopolitecombats。Theirarms，theshaftsofthedrawing—room，epigrams，witticisms，songs，parodies，andotherneedlethrustsareimpotentagainstthepopularbull。[28]Theirpersonalitylacksbothrootsandresources；throughsuper—refinementithasweakened；theirnature，impoverishedbyculture，isincapableofthetransformationsbywhichwearerenewedandsurvive。—Anall—powerfuleducationhasrepressed，mollified，andenfeebledtheirveryinstincts。Abouttodie，theyexperiencenoneofthereactionsofbloodandrage，theuniversalandsuddenrestorationoftheforces，themurderousspasm，theblindirresistibleneedofstrikingthosewhostrikethem。IfagentlemanisarrestedinhisownhousebyaJacobinweneverfindhimsplittinghisheadopen。[29]Theyallowthemselvestobetaken，goingquietlytoprison；tomakeanuproarwouldbebadtaste；itisnecessary，aboveallthings，toremainwhattheyare，well—bredpeopleofsociety。Inprisonbothmenandwomendressthemselveswithgreatcare，payeachothervisitsandkeepupadrawing—room；itmaybeattheendofacorridor，bythelightofthreeorfourcandles；butheretheycirculatejests，composemadrigals，singsongsandpridethemselvesonbeingasgallant，asgayandasgraciousasever:needpeoplebemoroseandill—behavedbecauseaccidenthasconsignedthemtoapoorinn？Theypreservetheirdignityandtheirsmilebeforetheirjudgesandonthecart；thewomen，especially，mountthescaffoldwiththeeaseandserenitycharacteristicofaneveningentertainment。Itisthesupremecharacteristicofgood—breeding，erectedintoanuniqueduty，andbecometothisaristocracyasecondnature，whichisfoundinitsvirtuesaswellasinitsvices，initsfacultiesaswellasinitsimpotencies，initsprosperityasatitsfall，andwhichadornsiteveninthedeathtowhichitconducts。
Notes:
[1]。Champfort，110。
[2]。GeorgeSand，V。59。\"Iwasrebukedforeverything；Inevermadeamovementwhichwasnotcriticized。\"
[3]。\"Paris，Versailles，etlesprovinces，\"I。162。—\"ThekingofSwedenishere；bewearsrosettesonhisbreeches；allisover；heisridiculous，andaprovincialking。\"（\"LeGouvernementdeNormandie，\"
byHippeau，IV。237，July4，1784。
[4]。Stendhal，\"Rome，NaplesandFlorence，\"379。StatedbyanEnglishlord。
[5]Marivaux，\"LaPetit—Ma？trecorrigé。—Gresset，\"LeMéchant。\"
Crébillonfils，\"LaNuitetleMoment，\"（especiallythescenebetweenthescenebetweenCitandreandLucinde）。—Collé，\"LaVeritédansleVin，\"（thepartoftheabbéwiththewiththeprésidente）。—DeBezenval，79。（ThecomtedeFriseandMme。deBlot）。\"VieprivéeduMaréchaldeRichelieu，\"（sceneswithMme。Michelin）。—DeGoncourt，167to174。
[6]。Laclos，\"LesLiaisonsDangereuses。\"Mme。deMerteuilwascopiedafteraMarquisedeGrenoble。—RemarkthedifferencebetweenLovelaceandValmont，onebeingstimulatedbyprideandtheotherbyvanity。
[7]。Thegrowthofsensibilityisindicatedbythefollowingdates:
Rousseau，\"Surl’influencedeslettresetdesarts，\"1749；\"Surl’inégalité，\"1753；\"NouvelleHéloise，\"1759。Greuze，\"LePéredeFamillelisantlaBible，\"1755；\"L’AccordéedeVillage，\"1761。
Diderot，\"Lefilsnatural，\"1757；\"LePéredeFamille，\"1758。
[8]。Mme。deGenlis，\"Mémoires，\"chap。XVII。—GeorgeSand，I。72。
TheyoungMme。deFrancueil，onseeingRousseauforthefirsttime，burstintotears。
[9]。ThispointhasbeenbroughtoutwithasmuchskillasaccuracybyMessieursdeGoncourtin\"L’Artaudix—huitièmesiècle，\"I。433—
438。
[10]。ThenumberforAugust，1792，contains\"LesRivauxd’eux—
mêmes。\"—Aboutthesametimeotherpiecesareinsertedinthe\"Mercure，\"suchas\"ThefederalunionofHymenandCupid，\"\"LesJaloux，\"\"APastoralRomance，\"\"OdeAnacréontiqueàMlle。S。D……
\"etc。
[11]。Mme。deGenlis，\"AdéleetThéodore，\"I。312。—DeGoncourt，\"LaFemmeandixhuitièmesiècle，\"318。—Mme。d’Oberkirk，I。56。—
DescriptionofthepuffausentimentoftheDuchessedeChartres（deGoncourt，311）:\"Inthebackgroundisawomanseatedinachairandholdinganinfant，whichrepresentstheDucdeValoisandhisnurse。
Ontherightisaparrotpeckingatacherry，andontheleftalittleNegro，theduchess’stwopets:thewholeisintermingledwithlocksofhairofalltherelationsofMme。deChartres，thehairofherhusband，fatherandfather—in—law。\"
[12]。Mme。deGenlis，\"LesDangersduMonde。\"I，scèneVII；II，scèneIV；—\"AdèleetThéodore，\"I。312；—\"SouvenirsdeFélicie，\"
199；—Bachaumont，IV，320。
[13]。Mme。delaRochejacquelein，\"Mémoires。\"
[14]。Mme。deGenlis，\"Mémoires，\"chap。XX。—DeLauzun，270。
[15]。Mme。d’Oberkirk，II。35（1783—1784）。Mme。Campan，III。371。—
Mercier，\"TableaudeParis，\"passim。
[16]。\"Correspondance\"byMétra，XVII。55，（1784）。——Mme。
d’Oberkirk，II。234。—\"MarieAntoinette，\"byd’ArnethandGeffroy，II。63，29。
[17]。\"LeGouvernementdeNormandie，\"byHippeau，IV。387（LettersofJune4，1789，byaneye—witness）。
[18]。Florian，\"Ruth\"。
[19]。Hippeau，IV。86（June23，1773），ontherepresentationof\"LeSiegedeCalais，\"attheComédieFran？aise，atthemomentwhenMlle。
Vestrishaspronouncedthesewords:
LeFran？aisdanssonprinceaimeàtrouverunfrèreQui，néfilsdel’Etat，endeviennelepère。
\"LonganduniversalplauditsgreetedtheactresswhohadturnedinthedirectionoftheDauphin。\"Inanotherplacetheseversesrecur:
Quellele？onpourvous，superbespotentats！
Veillezsurvossujetsdanslerangleplusbas，Tel，loindevosregards，danslamisèreexpire，Quiquelquejourpeut—être，e？tsauvévotreempire。
\"TheDauphinandtheDauphineinturnapplaudedthespeech。Thisdemonstrationoftheirsensibilitywaswelcomedwithnewexpressionsofaffectionandgratitude。\"
[20]。MadamedeGenlis，\"SouvenirsdeFélicie，\"76，161。
[21]。M。deMontlosier；intheConstituentAssembly，isabouttheonlypersonfamiliarwithfeudallaws。
[22]。\"AcompetentandimpartialmanwhowouldestimatethechancesofthesuccessoftheRévolutionwouldfindthattherearemoreagainstitthanagainstthefivewinningnumbersinalottery；
butthisispossible，andunfortunately，thistime，theyallcameout\"
（DucdeLévis，\"Souvenirs，\"328。）
[23]。\"Corinne，\"byMadamedeSta？l，thecharacteroftheComted’Erfeuil。—Malonet，\"Mémoires，\"II。297（amemorableinstanceofpoliticalstupidity）。
[24]。Mme。Campan，II。140，313。—DucdeChoiseul，\"Mémoires。\"
[25]。JournalofDumontd’Urville，commanderofthevesselwhichtransportedCharlesX。intoexilein1830。—Seenote4attheendofthevolume。
[26]。Dumouriez，\"Mémoires，\"III。chap。III。（July21，1789）。
[27]。1\"Allthesefineladiesandgentlemenwhoknewsowellhowtobowandcourtesyandwalkoveracarpet，couldnottakethreestepsonGod’searthwithoutgettingdreadfullyfatigued。Theycouldnotevenopenorshutadoor；theyhadnotevenstrengthenoughtoliftalogtoputitonthefire；theyhadtocallaservanttodrawupachairforthem；theycouldnotcomeinorgooutbythemselves。whatcouldtheyhavedonewiththeirgraces，withouttheirvaletstosupplytheplaceofhandsandfeet？\"（GeorgeSand，V。61。）
[28]。WhenMadamedeF—hadexpressedacleverthingshefeltquiteproudofit。M—remarkedthatonutteringsomethingcleveraboutanemeticshewasquitesurprisedthatshewasnotpurged。Champfort，107。
[29]。Thefollowingisanexampleofwhatarmedresistancecanaccomplishforamaninhisownhouse。\"AgentlemanofMarseilles，proscribedandlivinginhiscountrydomicile，hasprovidedhimselfwithgun，pistolsandsaber，andnevergoesoutwithoutthisarmament，declaringthathewillnotbetakenalive。Nobodydaredtoexecutetheorderofarrest。（AnnePlumptree，\"AResidenceofthreeyearsinFrance，\"（1802—1805），II。115。
BOOKTHIRD。THESPIRITANDTHEDOCTRINE。
CHAPTERI。SCIENTIFICACQUISITION。
Thecompositionoftherevolutionaryspirit。——Scientificacquisitionitsfirstelement。
Onseeingamanwithasomewhatfeebleconstitution，buthealthyinappearanceandofsteadyhabits，greedilyswallowsomenewkindofcordialandthensuddenlyfalltotheground，foamatthemouth，actdeliriouslyandwritheinconvulsions，weatoncesurmisethatthisagreeablebeveragecontainedsomedangeroussubstance；butadelicateanalysisisnecessarytodetectanddecomposethepoison。Thephilosophyoftheeighteenthcenturycontainedpoison，andofakindaspotentasitwaspeculiar；for，notonlyisitalonghistoricelaboration，thefinalandcondensedessenceofthetendencyofthethoughtofthecentury，butagainitstwoprincipalingredientshavethispeculiarity，that，separate，theyaresalutary，andincombinationtheyformavenomouscompound。
I。SCIENTIFICPROGRESS。
Theaccumulationandprogressofdiscoveriesinscienceandinnature。—Theyserveasastarting—pointforthenewphilosophers。
Thefirstisscientificdiscovery，admirableonallsides，andbeneficentinitsnature；itismadeupofmassesoffactsslowlyaccumulatedandthensummarilypresented，orinrapidsuccession。Forthefirsttimeinhistorythesciencesexpandandaffirmeachothertotheextentofproviding，not，asformerly，underGalileoandDescartes，constructivefragments，orprovisionalscaffolding，butadefiniteanddemonstratedsystemoftheuniverse，thatofNewton。[1]
Aroundthiscapitalfact，almostallthediscoveriesofthecentury，eitherascomplementaryorasprolongations，rangethemselves。InpuremathematicswehavetheInfinitesimalCalculusdiscoveredsimultaneouslybyLeibnitzandNewton，mechanicsreducedbyd’Alemberttoasingletheorem，andthatsuperbcollectionoftheorieswhich，elaboratedbytheBernouillis，Euler，Clairaut，d’Alembert，TaylorandMaclaurin，isfinallycompletedattheendofthecenturybyMonge，Lagrange，andLaplace。[2]Inastronomy，theseriesofcalculationsandobservationswhich，fromNewtontoLaplace，transformsscienceintoaproblemofmechanics，explainsandpredictsthemovementsoftheplanetsandoftheirsatellites，indicatingtheoriginandformationofoursolarsystem，and，extendingbeyondthis，throughthediscoveriesofHerschel，affordinganinsightintothedistributionofthestellararchipelagos，andofthegrandoutlinesofcelestialarchitecture。Inphysics，thedecompositionoflightandtheprinciplesofopticsdiscoveredbyNewton，thevelocityofsound，theformofitsundulations，andfromSauveurtoChladni，fromNewtontoBernouilliandLagrange，theexperimentallawsandleadingtheoremsofAcoustics，theprimarylawsoftheradiationofheatbyNewton，KraftandLambert，thetheoryoflatentheatbyBlack，theproportionsofcaloricbyLavoisierandLaplace，thefirsttrueconceptionsofthesourceoffireandheat，theexperiments，laws，andmeansbywhichDufay，Nollet，Franklin，andespeciallyCoulombexplain，manipulateand，forthefirsttime，utilizeelectricity。—InChemistry，allthefoundationsofthescience:isolatedoxygen，nitrogenandhydrogen，thecompositionofwater，thetheoryofcombustion，chemicalnomenclature，quantitativeanalysis，theindestructibilityofmatter，inshort，thediscoveriesofScheele，Priestley，CavendishandStahl，crownedwiththeclearandconcisetheoryofLavoisier。—InMineralogy，thegoniometer，theconstancyofanglesandtheprimarylawsofderivationbyRomédeLisle，andnextthediscoveryoftypesandthemathematicaldeductionofsecondaryformsbyHaüy。—InGeology，theverificationandresultsofNewton’stheory，theexactformoftheearth，thedepressionofthepoles，theexpansionoftheequator，[3]thecauseandthelawofthetides，theprimitivefluidityoftheplanet，theconstancyofitsinternalheat，andthen，withBuffon，Desmarets，HuttonandWerner，theaqueousorigneousoriginofrocks，thestratificationsoftheearth，thestructureofbedsoffossils，theprolongedandrepeatedsubmersionofcontinents，theslowgrowthofanimalandvegetabledeposits，thevastantiquityoflife，thestripping，fracturingandgradualtransformationoftheterrestrialsurface，[4]and，finallythegrandpictureinwhichBuffondescribesinapproximatemannertheentirehistoryofourglobe，fromthemomentitformedamassofglowinglavadowntothetimewhenourspecies，aftersomanylostorsurvivingspecies，wasabletoinhabitit。—Uponthisscienceofinorganicmatterweseearisingatthesametimethescienceoforganicmatter。Grew，andthenVaillanthadjustdemonstratedthesexualsystemanddescribedthefecundatingofplants；Linnaeusinventsbotanicalnomenclatureandthefirstcompleteclassifications；theJussieusdiscoverthesubordinationofcharacteristicsandnaturalclassification。DigestionisexplainedbyRéaumurandSpallanzani，respirationbyLavoisier；Prochaskaverifiesthemechanismofreflexactions；HallerandSpallanzaniexperimentonanddescribetheconditionsandphasesofgeneration。Scientistspenetratetotheloweststagesofanimallife。RéaumurpublisheshisadmirableobservationsoninsectsandLyonnetdevotestwentyyearstoportrayingthewillow—caterpillar；Spallanzaniresuscitateshisrotifers，Tremblaydissectshisfresh—waterpolyps，andNeedhamrevealshisinfusoria。Theexperimentalconceptionoflifeisdeducedfromthesevariousresearches。Buffonalready，andespeciallyLamarck，intheirgreatandincompletesketches，outlinewithpenetratingdivinationtheleadingfeaturesofmodernphysiologyandzoology。
Organicmoleculeseverywherediffusedoreverywheregrowing，speciesofglobulesconstantlyincourseofdecayandrestoration，which，throughtheblindandspontaneousdevelopment，transformthemselves，multiplyandcombine，andwhich，withouteitherforeigndirectionoranypreconceivedend，solelythroughtheeffectoftheirstructureandsurroundings，unitetogethertoformthosemasterlyorganismswhichwecallplantsandanimals:inthebeginning，thesimplestforms，andnextaslow，gradual，complexandperfectedorganization；theorgancreatedthroughhabits，necessityandsurroundingmedium；hereditytransmittingacquiredmodifications，[5]alldenotinginadvance，inastateofconjectureandapproximation，thecellulartheoryoflaterphysiologists[6]andtheconclusionsofDarwin。[7]Inthepicturewhichthehumanminddrawsofnature，thegeneraloutlineismarkedbythescienceoftheeighteenthcentury，thearrangementofitsplanandoftheprincipalmassesbeingsocorrectlymarked，thattodaytheleadinglinesremainintact。Withtheexceptionofafewpartialcorrectionswehavenothingtoefface。
Thisvastsupplyofpositiveorprobablefacts，eitherdemonstratedoranticipated，furnishesfood，substanceandimpulsetotheintellectoftheeighteenthcentury。Considertheleadersofpublicopinion，thepromotersofthenewphilosophy:theyareall，invariousdegrees，versedinthephysicalandnaturalsciences。Notonlyaretheyfamiliarwiththeoriesandauthorities，butagaintheyhaveapersonalknowledgeoffactsandthings。Voltaire[8]isamongthefirsttoexplaintheopticalandastronomicaltheoriesofNewton，andagaintomakecalculations，observationsandexperimentsofhisown。HewritesmemoirsfortheAcademyofSciences\"OntheMeasureofMotiveForces，\"
and\"OntheNatureandDiffusionofHeat。\"HehandlesRéamur’sthermometer，Newton’sprism，andMuschenbrock’spyrometer。InhislaboratoryatCireyhehasalltheknownapparatusforphysicsandchemistry。Heexperimentswithhisownhandonthereflectionoflightinspace，ontheincreaseofweightincalcifiedmetals，ontherenewalofamputatedpartsofanimals，andinthespiritofatruesavant，persistently，withconstantrepetitions，eventothebeheadingoffortysnailsandslugs，toverifyanassertionmadebySpallanzani。
—Thesamecuriosityandthesamepreparationprevailswithallimbuedwiththesamespirit。Intheothercamp，amongtheCartesians，abouttodisappear，Fontenelleisanexcellentmathematician，thecompetentbiographerofalleminentmenofscience，theofficialsecretaryandtruerepresentativeoftheAcademyofSciences。Inotherplaces，intheAcademyofBordeaux，Montesquieureadsdiscoursesonthemechanismoftheecho，andontheuseoftherenalglands；hedissectsfrogs，teststheeffectofheatandcoldonanimatedtissues，andpublishesobservationsonplantsandinsects。—Rousseau，theleastinstructedofall，attendsthelecturesofthechemistRouelle，botanizingandappropriatingtohimselfalltheelementsofhumanknowledgewithwhichtowritehis\"Emile。\"—Diderottaughtmathematicsanddevouredeveryscienceandarteventothetechnicalprocessesofallindustries。D’Alembertstandsinthefirstrankofmathematicians。BuffontranslatedNewton’stheoryofflux，andtheVegetableStaticsofHales；heisinturnametallurgist，optician，geographer，geologistand，lastofall，ananatomist。Condillac，toexplaintheuseofsignsandtherelationofideas，writesabridgmentsofarithmetic，algebra，mechanicsandastronomy。[9]Maupertuis，CondorcetandLalandearemathematicians，physicistsandastronomers；
d’Holbach，LamettrieandCabanisarechemists，naturalistsphysiologistsandphysicians。—Prophetsofasuperiororinferiorkind，mastersorpupils，specialistsorsimpleamateurs，alldrawdirectlyorindirectlyfromthelivingsourcethathasjustburstforth。ThisistheirbasiswhentheybegintoteachaboutMan，whatheis，fromwhencehecame，whereheisgoing，whathemaybecomeandwhatheshouldbe。Anewpointofdepartureleadstonewpointsofview；sothattheidea，whichwasthenentertainedofthehumanbeingwillbecomecompletelytransformed。
II。SCIENCEDETACHEDFROMTHEOLOGY。
Changeofthepointofviewinthescienceofman。—Itisdetachedfromtheologyandisunitedwiththenaturalsciences。
Letussupposeamindthoroughlyimbuedwiththesenewtruths，tobeplacedontheorbitofSaturn，andlethimobserve[10]。Amidstthisvastandoverwhelmingspaceandintheseboundlesssolararchipelagoes，howsmallisourownsphere，andtheearth，whatagrainofsand！Whatmultitudesofworldsbeyondourown，and，iflifeexistsinthem，whatcombinationsarepossibleotherthanthoseofwhichwearetheresult！Whatislife，whatisorganicsubstanceinthemonstrousuniversebutanindifferentmass，apassingaccident，thecorruptionofafewepidermicparticles？Andifthisbelife，whatisthathumanitywhichissosmallafragmentofit？—SuchisManinnature，anatom，andanephemeralparticle；letthisnotbelostsightofinourtheoriesconcerninghisorigin，hisimportance，andhisdestiny。
\"Amitethatwouldconsideritselfasthecenterofallthingswouldbegrotesque，andthereforeitisessentialthataninsectalmostinfinitelysmallshouldnotshowconceitalmostinfinitelygreat。\"[11]—
Howslowhasbeentheevolutionoftheglobeitself！Whatmyriadsofagesbetweenthefirstcoolingofitsmassandthebeginningsoflife！[12]Ofwhatconsequenceistheturmoilofourant—hillcomparedtothegeologicaltragedyinwhichwehavebornnopart，thestrifebetweenfireandwater，thethickeningoftheearth’scrust，formationoftheuniversalsea，theconstructionandseparationofcontinents！
Previoustoourhistoricalrecordwhatalonghistoryofvegetableandanimalexistence！Whatasuccessionoffloraandfauna！Whatgenerationsofmarineorganismsinformingthestrataofsediment！
Whatgenerationsofplansinformingthedepositsofcoal！Whattransformationsofclimatetodrivethepachydermataawayfromthepole！—AndnowcomesMan，thelatestofall，heisliketheuppermostbudonthetopofatallancienttree，flourishingthereforawhile，but，likethetree，destinedtoperishafterafewseasons，whentheincreasingandforetoldcongelationallowingthetreetoliveshallforcethetreetodie。Heisnotaloneonthebranch；beneathhim，aroundhim，onalevelwithhim，otherbudsshootforth，bornofthesamesap；buthemustnotforget，ifhewouldcomprehendhisownbeing，that，alongwithhimself，otherlivesexistinhisvicinity，graduateduptohimandissuingfromthesametrunk。Ifheisuniqueheisnotisolated，beingananimalamongotheranimals；[13]inhimandwiththem，substance，organizationandbirth，theformationandrenewalofthefunctions，sensesandappetites，aresimilar，whilehissuperiorintelligence，liketheirrudimentaryintelligence，hasforanindispensableorgananervousmatterwhosestructureisthesamewithhimaswiththem。—Thussurrounded，broughtforthandbornealongbynature，isittobesupposedthatinnatureheisanempirewithinanempire？Heisthereasthepartofawhole，byvirtueofbeingaphysicalbody，achemicalcomposition，ananimatedorganism，asociableanimal，amongotherbodies，othercompositions，othersocialanimals，allanalogoustohim；andbyvirtueoftheseclassifications，heis，likethem，subjecttolaws。—For，ifthefirstcauseisunknowntous，andwedisputeamongourselvestoknowwhatitis，whetherinnateorexternal，weaffirmwithcertaintythemodeofitsaction，andthatitoperatesonlyaccordingtofixedandgenerallaws。
Everycircumstance，whateveritmaybe，isconditioned，and，itsconditionsbeinggiven，itneverfailstoconformtothem。Oftwolinksformingachain，thefirstalwaysdrawsonthesecond。Therearelaws:
*fornumbers，forms，andmotions，*fortherevolutionoftheplanetsandthefallofbodies，*forthediffusionoflightandtheradiationofheat，*fortheattractionsandrepulsionofelectricity，*forchemicalcombinations，and*forthebirth，equilibriumanddissolutionoforganicbodies。
Theyexistforthebirth，maintenance，anddevelopmentofhumansocieties，fortheformation，conflict，anddirectionofideas，passionsanddeterminationsofhumanindividuals。[14]Inallthis，Manisboundupwithnature；hence，ifwewouldcomprehendhim，wemustobservehiminher，afterher，andlikeher，withthesameindependence，thesameprecautions，andinthesamespirit。Throughthisremarkalonethemethodofthemoralsciencesisfixed。Inhistory，inpsychology，inmorals，inpolitics，thethinkersoftheprecedingcentury，Pascal，Bossuet，Descartes，Fenelon，Malebrance，andLaBruyère，allbasedtheirthoughtsondogma；Itisplaintoeveryonequalifiedtoreadthemthattheirbaseispredetermined。
Religionprovidedthemwithacompletetheoryofthemoralorderofthings；accordingtothistheory，latentorexposed，theydescribedManandaccommodatedtheirobservationstothepreconceivedmodel。Thewritersoftheeighteenthcenturyrejectedthismethod:theydwellonMan，ontheobservableMan，andonhissurroundings；intheireyes，conclusionsaboutthesoul，itsorigin，anditsdestiny，mustcomeafterwardsanddependwholly，notonthatwhichtheRevelationprovided，butonthatwhichobservationdoesandwillprovide。Themoralsciencesarenowdivorcedfromtheologyandattachthemselves，asifaprolongationofthem，tothephysicalsciences。
III。THETRANSFORMATIONOFHISTORY。
Voltaire。—Criticismandconceptionsofunity。—Montesquieu。—Anoutlineofsociallaws。
Throughtheseparationfromtheologyandtheattachmenttonaturalsciencethehumanitiesbecomescience。Inhistory，everyfoundationonwhichwenowbuild，islaid。CompareBossuet’s\"Discourssurl’histoireuniverselle，\"withVoltaire’s\"Essaisurlesm？urs，\"andweatonceseehownewandprofoundthesefoundationswere。—Thecriticsofreligiousdogmahereestablishtheirfundamentalprinciple:
inviewofthefactthatthelawsofnatureareuniversalandpermanentitfollowsthat，inthemoralworld，asinthephysicalworld，therecanbenoexceptionfromthem，andthatnoarbitraryorforeignforceintervenestodisturbtheregularscientificprocedures，whichwillprovideasuremeansofdiscerningmythfromtruth。[15]
Biblicalexegesisisbornoutofthismaxim，andnotalonethatofVoltaire，butalsothecriticalexplanatorymethodsofthefuture。
[16]Meanwhiletheyskepticallyexaminetheannalsofallpeople，carelesslycuttingawayandsuppressing；toohastily，extravagantly，especiallywheretheancientsareconcerned，becausetheirhistoricalexpeditionissimplyascoutingtrip；butneverthelesswithsuchanoverallinsightthatwemaystillapprovealmostalltheoutlinesoftheirsummarychart。The（newlydiscovered）primitiveManwasnotasuperiorbeing，enlightenedfromabove，butacoarsesavage，nakedandmiserable，slowofgrowth，sluggishinprogress，themostdestituteandmostneedyofallanimals，and，onthisaccount，sociable，endowedlikethebeeandthebeaverwithaninstinctforlivingingroups，andmoreoveranimitatorlikethemonkey，butmoreintelligent，capableofpassingbydegreesfromthelanguageofgesticulationtothatofarticulation，beginningwithamonosyllabicidiomwhichgraduallyincreasesinrichness，precisionandsubtlety。[17]Howmanycenturiesarerequisitetoattaintothisprimitivelanguage！Howmanycenturiesmoretothediscoveryofthemostnecessaryarts，theuseoffire，thefabricationof\"hatchesofsilexandjade\"，themeltingandrefiningofmetals，thedomesticationofanimals，theproductionandmodificationofedibleplants，theformationofearlycivilizedanddurablecommunities，thediscoveryofwriting，figuresandastronomicalperiods。[18]OnlyafteradawnofvastandinfinitelengthdoweseeinChaldeaandinChinathecommencementofanaccuratechronologicalhistory。Therearefiveorsixofthesegreatindependentcentersofspontaneouscivilization，China，Babylon，ancientPersia，India，Egypt，Phoenicia，andthetwoAmericanempires。
Oncollectingthesefragmentstogether，onreadingsuchoftheirbooksashavebeenpreserved，andwhichtravelersbringtous，thefiveKingsoftheChinese，theVedasoftheHindus，theZoroastriansoftheancientPersians，wefindthatallcontainreligions，moraltheories，philosophiesandinstitutions，asworthyofstudyasourown。Threeofthesecodes，thoseofIndia，ChinaandtheMuslims，stillatthepresenttimegoverncountriesasvastasourEurope，andnationsofequalimportance。Wemustnot，likeBossuet，\"overlooktheuniverseinauniversalhistory，\"andsubordinatehumanitytoasmallpopulationconfinedtoadesolateregionaroundtheDeadSea。[19]Humanhistoryisathingofnaturalgrowthliketherest；itsdirectionisduetoitsownelements；noexternalforceguidesit，buttheinwardforcesthatcreateit；itisnottendingtoanyprescribedendbutdevelopingaresult。Andthechiefresultistheprogressofthehumanmind。
\"Amidstsomanyravagesandsomuchdestruction，weseealoveofordersecretlyanimatingthehumanspecies，andforestallingitsutterruin。Itisoneofthespringsofnatureeverrecoveringitsenergy；
itisthesourceoftheformationofthecodesofnations；itcausesthelawandtheministersofthelawtoberespectedinTinquinandintheislandsofFormosaaswellasinRome。\"Manthuspossesses，saidVoltaire，a\"principleofReason，\"namely，a\"aninstinctforengineering\"suggestingtohimusefulimplements；[20]alsoaninstinctofrightsuggestingtohimhismoralconceptions。Thesetwoinstinctsformapartofhismakeup；hehasthemfromhisbirth，\"asbirdshavetheirfeathers，andbearstheirhair。Henceheisperfectiblethroughnature，andmerelyconformstonatureinimprovinghismindandinbetteringhiscondition。ExtendtheideafartheralongwithTurgotandCondorcet，[21]and，withallitsexaggerations，weseearising，beforetheendofthecentury，ourmoderntheoryofprogress，thatwhichfoundsallouraspirationsontheboundlessadvanceofthesciences，ontheincreaseofcomfortswhichtheirapplieddiscoveriesconstantlybringtothehumancondition，andontheincreaseofgoodsensewhichtheirdiscoveries，popularized，slowlydepositinthehumanbrain。
Asecondprinciplehastobeestablishedtocompletethefoundationsofhistory。DiscoveredbyMontesquieuitstillto—dayservesasaconstructivesupport，and，ifweresumethework，asifonthesubstructureofthemaster’sedifice，itissimplyowingtoaccumulatederuditionplacingatourdisposalmoresubstantialandmoreabundantmaterials。Inhumansocietyallpartsareinterdependent；nomodificationofonecantakeplacewithouteffectingproportionatechangesintheothers。Institutions，lawsandcustomsarenotmingledtogether，asinaheap，throughchanceorcaprice，butconnectedonewiththeotherthroughconvenienceornecessity，asinaharmony。[22]Accordingasauthorityisinall，inseveralorinonehand，accordingasthesovereignadmitsorrejectslawssuperiortohimself，withintermediarypowersbelowhim，everythingchangesortendstodifferinmeaningandinimportance:
*publicintelligence，*education，*theformofjudgments，*thenatureandorderofpenalties，*theconditionofwomen，*militaryorganization*andthenatureandtheextentoftaxation。
Amultitudeofsubordinatewheelsdependonthegreatcentralwheel。Foriftheclockruns，itisowingtotheharmonyofitsvariousparts，fromwhichitfollowsthat，onthisharmonyceasing，theclockgetsoutoforder。But，besidestheprincipalspring，thereareotherswhich，actingonorincombinationwithit，givetoeachclockaspecialcharacterandapeculiarmovement。Such，inthefirstplace，isclimate，thatistosay，thedegreeofheatorcold，humidityordryness，withitsinfiniteeffectsonman’sphysicalandmoralattributes，followedbyitsinfluenceonpolitical，civilanddomesticservitudeorfreedom。Likewisethesoil，accordingtoitsfertility，itspositionanditsextent。Likewisethephysicalrégime，accordingasapeopleiscomposedofhunters，shepherdsoragriculturists。Likewisethefecundityoftherace，andtheconsequentsloworrapidincreaseofpopulation，andalsotheexcessinnumber，nowofmalesandnowoffemales。Andfinally，likewise，arenationalcharacterandreligion。—Allthesecauses，eachaddedtotheother，oreachlimitedbytheother，contributetogethertoformatotalresult，namelysociety。Simpleorcomplex，stableorunstable，barbarousorcivilized，thissocietycontainswithinitselfitsexplanationsofitsbeing。Strangeasasocialstructuremaybe，itcanbeexplained；alsoitsinstitutions，howevercontradictory。
Neitherprosperity，nordecline，nordespotism，norfreedom，istheresultofathrowofthedice，ofluckoranunexpectedturnofeventscausedbyrashmen。Theyareconditionswemustlivewith。Inanyevent，itisusefultounderstandthem，eithertoimproveoursituationorbearitpatiently，sometimestocarryoutappropriatereforms，sometimestorenounceimpracticablereforms，nowtoassumetheauthoritynecessaryforsuccess，andnowtheprudencemakingusabstain。
IV。THENEWPSYCHOLOGY。
Thetransformationofpsychology。—Condillac。—Thetheoryofsensationandofsigns。
Wenowreachthecoreofmoralscience；thehumanbeingingeneral。Thenaturalhistoryofthemindmustbedealtwith，andthismustbedoneaswehavedonetheothers，bydiscardingallprejudiceandadheringtofacts，takinganalogyforourguide，beginningwithoriginsandfollowing，stepbystep，thedevelopmentbywhichtheinfant，thesavage，theuncultivatedprimitiveman，isconvertedintotherationalandcultivatedman。Letusconsiderlifeattheoutset，theanimalatthelowestdegreeonthescale，thehumanbeingassoonasitisborn。Thefirstthingwefindisperception，agreeableordisagreeable，andnextawant，propensityordesire，andthereforeatlast，bymeansofaphysiologicalmechanism，voluntaryorinvoluntarymovements，moreorlessaccurateandmoreorlessappropriateandcoordinated。Andthiselementaryfactisnotmerelyprimitive；itis，again，constantanduniversal，sinceweencounteritateachmomentofeachlife，andinthemostcomplicatedaswellasinthesimplest。Letusaccordinglyascertainwhetheritisnotthethreadwithwhichallourmentalclothiswoven，andwhetheritsspontaneousunfolding，andtheknottingofmeshaftermesh，isnotfinallytoproducetheentirenetworkofourthoughtandpassion。—Condillac（1715—1780）providesusherewithanincomparableclarityandprecisionwiththeanswerstoallourquestions，which，howevertherevivaloftheologicalprejudiceandGermanmetaphysicswastobringintodiscreditinthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury，butwhichfreshobservation，theestablishmentofmentalpathology，anddissectionhavenow（in1875）broughtback，justifiedandcompleted。[23]Lockehadalreadystatedthatourideasalloriginateinoutwardorinwardexperience。Condillacshowsfurtherthattheactualelementsofperception，memory，idea，imagination，judgment，reasoning，knowledgearesensations，properlysocalled，orrevivedsensations；ourloftiestideasarederivedfromnoothermaterial，fortheycanbereducedtosignswhicharethemselvessensationsofacertainkind。Sensationsaccordinglyformthesubstanceofhumanorofanimalintelligence；buttheformerinfinitelysurpassesthelatterinthis，that，throughthecreationofsigns，itsucceedsinisolating，abstractingandnotingfragmentsofsensations，thatistosay，informing，combiningandemployinggeneralconceptions。—Thisbeinggranted，weareabletoverifyallourideas，for，throughreflection，wecanreviveandreconstructtheideaswehadformedwithoutanyreflection。Noabstractdefinitionsexistattheoutset；abstractionisulteriorandderivative；foremostineachsciencemustbeplacedexamples，experiences，evidentfacts；
fromthesewederiveourgeneralidea。Inthesamewaywederivefromseveralgeneralideasofthesamedegreeanothergeneralidea，andsoonsuccessively，stepbystep，alwaysproceedingaccordingtothenaturalorderofthings，byconstantanalysis，usingexpressivesigns，aswithmathematiciansinpassingfromcalculationbythefingerstocalculationbynumerals，andfromthistocalculationbyletters，andwho，callingupontheeyestoaidReason，depicttheinwardanalogyofquantitiesbytheoutwardanalogyofsymbols。Inthiswaysciencebecomescompletebymeansofaproperlyorganizedlanguage。[24]—
Throughthisreversaloftheusualmethodwesummarilydisposeofdisputesaboutwords，escapetheillusionsofhumanspeech，simplifystudy，remodeleducation，enhancediscoveries，subjecteveryassertiontocontrol，andbringalltruthswithinreachofallunderstandings。
V。THEANALYTICALMETHOD。
Theanalyticalmethod。—Itsprinciple。—Theconditionsrequisitetomakeitproductive。—Theseconditionswantingorinadequateinthe18thcentury。—Thetruthandsurvivaloftheprinciple。