Theseconquestshadreducedthevaststructureswhichtheologianshadduringagesbeenerectingoverthesacredtexttoshapelessruinandrubbish：thisrubbishheremoved，andbroughtoutfrombeneathitthereality。HeshowedJewishhistoryasanevolutionobedienttolawsatworkinallages，andJewishliteratureasagrowthoutofindividual，tribal，andnationallife。Thuswasoursacredhistoryandliteraturegivenabeautyandhighusewhichhadlongbeenforeigntothem。TherebywasavastservicerenderedimmediatelytoGermany，andeventuallytoallmankind；andthisservicewasgreatestofallinthedomainofreligion。[476]
[476]ForLowth，seetheRev。T。K。Cheyne，D。D。，ProfessoroftheInterpretationoftheHolyScriptureintheUniversityofOxford，FoundersoftheOldTestamentCriticism，London，1893，pp。3，4。ForAstruc’sveryhighcharacterasamedicalauthority，seetheDictionnairedesSciencesMedicales，Paris，1820；itissignificantthatatfirstheconcealedhisauthorshipoftheConjectures。Forabriefstatement，seeCheyne；alsoMoore’sintroductiontoBacon’sGenesisofGenesis；butforastatementremarkablyfullandinteresting，andbasedonknowlegdeatfirsthandofAstruc’sveryrarebook，seeCurtiss，asabove。
ForMichaelisandEichorn，seeMeyer，GeschichtederExegese；
alsoCheyneandMoore。ForIsenbiehl，seeReusch，inAllg。
deutscheBiographie。ThetextscitedagainsthimwereIsaiahvii，14，andMatt。i，22，23。ForHerder，seevarioushistoriansofliteratureandwritersinexegesis，andespeciallyPfleiderer，DevelopmentofTheologyinGermany，chap。ii。Forhisinfluence，aswellasthatofLessing，seeBeard’sHibbertLectures，chap。
x。ForabriefcomparisonofLowth’sworkwiththatofHerder，seeFarrar，HistoryofInterpretation，p。377。ForexamplesofinterpretationsoftheSongofSongs，seeFarrar，asabove，p。
33。ForCastellioChatillon，hisanticipationofHerder’sviewofSolomon’sSong，andhispersecutionbyCalvinandBeza，whichdrovehimtostarvationanddeath，seeLecky，Rationalism，etc。，vol。ii，pp。46-48；alsoBayle’sDictionary，articleCastalio；
alsoMontaigne’sEssais，liv，。i，chap。xxxiv；andespeciallythenewlifeofhimbyBuisson。ForthepersecutionofLuisdeLeonforasimilaroffence，seeTicknor，HistoryofSpanishLiterature，vol。ii，pp。41，42，andnote。ForaremarkablyfrankacceptanceoftheconsequencesflowingfromHerder’sviewofit，seeSanday，Inspiration，pp。211，405。ForGeddes，seeCheyne，asabove。ForTheodoreParker，seehisvariousbiographies，passim。ForReuss，Graf，andKuenen，seeCheyne，asabove；andforthecitationsreferredto，seetheRev。Dr。
Driver，RegiusProfessorofHebrewatOxford，inTheAcademy，October27，1894；alsoanotetoWellhausen’sarticlePentateuchintheEncyclopaediaBritannica。ForagenerousyetweightytributetoKuenen’smethod，seePfleiderer，asabove，bookiii，chap。ii。FortheviewofleadingChristiancriticsonthebookofChronicles，seeespeciallyDriver，IntroductiontotheLiteratureoftheOldTestament，pp。495etseq。；alsoWellhausen，asabove；alsoHooykaas，Oort，andKuenen，BibleforLearners。Formanyoftheforegoing，seealsothewritingsofProf。W。RobertsonSmith；alsoBeard’sHibbertLectures，chap。x。
ForHupfieldandhisdiscovery，seeCheyne，Founders，etc。，asabove，chap。vii；alsoMoore’sIntroduction。ForajustlyindignantjudgmentofHengstenbergandhisschool，seeCanonFarrar，asabove，p。417，note；andforafewwordsthrowingabrightlightintohischaracterandcareer，seeC。A。Briggs，D。
D。，AuthorityofHolyScripture，p。93。ForWellhausen，seePfleiderer，asabove，bookiii，chap。ii。ForanexcellentpopularstatementofthegeneralresultsofGermancriticism，seeJ。T。Sunderland，TheBible，ItsOrigin，Growth，andCharacter，NewYorkandLondon，1893。
III。THECONTINUEDGROWTHOFSCIENTIFICINTERPRETATION。
Thescienceofbiblicalcriticismwas，aswehaveseen，firstdevelopedmainlyinGermanyandHolland。Manyconsiderationsthere，aselsewhere，combinedtodetermenfromopeningnewpathstotruth：noteveninthosecountrieswerethesethepathstopreferment；butthere，atleast，thesturdyTeutonicloveoftruthfortruth’ssake，strengthenedbytheKantianethics，foundnosuchobstaclesasinotherpartsofEurope。Fairinvestigationofbiblicalsubjectshadnottherebeenextirpated，asinItalyandSpain；norhaditbeenforcedintochannelswhichlednowhither，asinFranceandsouthernGermany；norweremenwhomightotherwisehavepursueditdazzledanddrawnawayfromitbythemultitudeofsplendidprizesforplausibility，forsophistry，orforsilencedisplayedbeforetheecclesiasticalvisioninEngland。InthefrugalhomesofNorthGermanandDutchprofessorsandpastorshighthinkingonthesegreatsubjectswentsteadilyon，andthe“libertyofteaching。”whichisthegloryofthenorthernContinentaluniversities，whileitdidnotsecurehonestthinkersagainstvexations，didatleastprotectthemagainstthepersecutionswhichinothercountrieswouldhavethwartedtheirstudiesandstarvedtheirfamilies。[477]
[477]AstotheinfluenceofKantonhonestthoughtinGermany，seePfleiderer，asabove，chap。i。
InEnglandtheadmissionofthenewcurrentofthoughtwasapparentlyimpossible。ThetraditionalsystemofbiblicalinterpretationseemedestablishedonBritishsoilforever。Itwasknitintothewholefabricofthoughtandobservance；itwasprotectedbythemostjustlyesteemedhierarchytheworldhaseverseen；itwasintrenchedbehindthebishops’palaces，thecathedralstalls，theprofessors’chairs，thecountryparsonages——allthese，asarule，theseatsofhighendeavourandbeautifulculture。Theolderthoughtheldacontrollingvoiceinthesenateofthenation；itwasdeartotheheartsofallclasses；itwassuperblyendowed；everystrongthinkerseemedtoholdabrief，ortobeinreceiptofaretainingfeeforit。AstoprefermentintheChurch，therewasacynicalaphorismcurrent，“Hemayholdanythingwhowillholdhistongue。”[478]
[478]Foraneloquentandatthesametimeprofoundstatementoftheevilsflowingfromthe“moralterrorism“and“intellectualtyrrany“atOxfordattheperiodreferredto，seequotationinPfleiderer，DevelopmentofTheology，p。371。
ForthealloyofinterestedmotivesamongEnglishChurchdignitiaries，seethepungentcriticismofBishopHampdenbyCanonLiddon，inhisLifeofPusey，vol。i，p。363。
Yet，whiletherewasinevitablymuchalloyofworldlywisdomintheoppositiontothenewthought，nojustthinkercandenyfarhighermotivestomany，perhapstomost，oftheecclesiasticswhowereresoluteagainstit。TheevangelicalmovementincarnateintheWesleyshadnotspentitsstrength；themovementbegunbyPusey，Newman，Keble，andtheircompeerswasinfullforce。Theaestheticreaction，representedontheContinentbyChateaubriand，Manzoni，andVictorHugo，andinEnglandbyWalterScott，Pugin，Ruskin，andaboveallbyWordsworth，cameintogivestrengthtothisbarrier。Underthemagicofthemenwholedinthisreaction，cathedralsandchurches，whichinthepreviouscenturyhadbeenregardedbymenofcultureasmerebarbaricmassesofstoneandmortar，tobemaskedwithoutbyclassiccolonnadesandwithinbyrococoworkinstuccoandpapiermache，becameevenmorebelovedthaninthethirteenthcentury。
Evenmenwhowererepelledbytheologicaldisputationswerefascinatedandmadedevotedreactionistsbythenewlyrevealedbeautiesofmedievalarchitectureandritual。[479]
[479]AverycuriousexampleofthisinsensibilityamongpersonsofreallyhighcultureistobefoundinAmericanliteraturetowardtheendoftheeighteenthcentury。Mrs。Adams，wifeofJohnAdams，afterwardPresidentoftheUnitedStates，butatthattimeministertoEngland，oneofthemostgiftedwomenofhertime，speaking，inherveryinterestinglettersfromEngland，ofherjourneytotheseashore，referstoCanterburyCathedral，seenfromhercarriagewindows，andwhichsheevidentlydidnottakethetroubletoenter，as“lookinglikeavastprison。”So，too，aboutthesametime，ThomasJefferson，theAmericanplenipotentiaryinFrance，adevotedloverofclassicalandRenaissancearchitecture，givinganaccountofhisjourneytoParis，neverreferstoanyofthebeautifulcathedralsorchurchesuponhisroute。
Thecentreandfortressofthisvastsystem，andofthereactionagainstthephilosophyoftheeighteenthcentury，wastheUniversityofOxford。Orthodoxywasitsvaunt，andaspecialexponentofitsspiritandobjectofitsadmirationwasitsmemberofParliament，Mr。WilliamEwartGladstone，who，havingbegunhispoliticalcareerbyalabouredpleafortheunionofchurchandstate，endeditbygivingthatunionwhatislikelytobeadeath-blow。ThemobatthecircusofConstantinopleinthedaysoftheByzantineemperorswashardlymorewildlyorthodoxthanthemobofstudentsatthisforemostseatoflearningoftheAnglo-Saxonraceduringthemiddledecadesofthenineteenthcentury。TheMoslemstudentsofElAzhararehardlymoreintolerantnowthantheseEnglishstudentswerethen。Acuriousproofofthishadbeendisplayedjustbeforetheendofthatperiod。TheministeroftheUnitedStatesatthecourtofSt。
JameswasthenEdwardEverett。HewasundoubtedlythemostaccomplishedscholarandoneoftheforemoststatesmenthatAmericahadproduced；hiseloquenceinearlylifehadmadehimperhapsthemostadmiredofAmericanpreachers；hisclassicallearninghadatalaterperiodmadehimProfessorofGreekatHarvard；hehadsuccessfullyeditedtheleadingAmericanreview，andhadtakenahighplaceinAmericanliterature；hehadbeentenyearsamemberofCongress；hehadbeenagainandagainelectedGovernorofMassachusetts；andinallthesepostshehadshownamplythosequalitieswhichafterwardmadehimPresidentofHarvard，SecretaryofStateoftheUnitedStates，andaUnitedStatesSenator。Hischaracterandattainmentswereofthehighest，and，ashewasthenoccupyingtheforemostplaceinthediplomaticserviceofhiscountry，hewasinvitedtoreceiveanappropriatehonorarydegreeatOxford。But，onhispresentationforitintheSheldonianTheatre，therecamearevelationtothepeopleherepresented，andindeedtoallChristendom：ariothavingbeencarefullypreparedbeforehandbysundryzealots，hewasmostgrosslyandingeniouslyinsultedbythemobofundergraduatesandbachelorsofartinthegalleriesandmastersofartsonthefloor；andthereasonforthiswasthat，thoughbynomeansradicalinhisreligiousopinions，hewasthoughttohavebeeninhisearlylife，andtobepossiblyatthattime，belowwhatwasthentheOxfordfashioninbelief，orratherfeeling，regardingthemysteryoftheTrinity。
AtthecentreofbiblicalteachingatOxfordsatPusey，RegiusProfessorofHebrew，ascholarwhohadhimselfremainedforatimeataGermanuniversity，andwhoearlyinlifehadimbibedjustenoughoftheGermanspirittoexposehimtosuspicionandeventoattack。OnechargeagainsthimatthattimeshowscuriouslywhatwasthenexpectedofamanperfectlysoundintheolderAnglicantheology。HehadventuredtodefendholywritwiththeargumentthattherewerefishesactuallyexistingwhichcouldhaveswallowedtheprophetJonah。Theargumentprovedunfortunate。HewasattackedonthescripturalgroundthatthefishwhichswallowedJonahwascreatedforthatexpresspurpose。
He，likeothers，fellbackunderthecharmoftheoldsystem：hisideasgaveforcetothereaction：inthequietofhisstudy，which，especiallyafterthedeathofhisson，becameahermitage，herelapsedintopatristicandmedievalconceptionsofChristianity，enforcingthemfromthepulpitandinhispublishedworks。HenowvirtuallyacceptedthefamousdictumofHugoofSt。Victor——thatoneisfirsttofindwhatistobebelieved，andthentosearchtheScripturesforproofsofit。HisdevotiontothemainfeaturesoftheolderinterpretationwasseenatitsstrongestinhisutterancesregardingthebookofDaniel。JustasCardinalBellarminehadinsistedthatthedoctrineoftheincarnationdependsupontheretentionofthePtolemaicastronomy；justasDanziushadinsistedthattheverycontinuanceofreligiondependsonthedivineoriginoftheHebrewpunctuation；justasPeterMartyrhadmadeeverythingsacreddependontheliteralacceptanceofGenesis；justasBishopWarburtonhadinsistedthatChristianityabsolutelydependsuponarightinterpretationofthepropheciesregardingAntichrist；
justasJohnWesleyhadinsistedthatthetruthoftheBibledependsontherealityofwitchcraft；justas，atalaterperiod，BishopWilberforceinsistedthatthedoctrineoftheIncarnationdependsonthe“Mosaic“statementsregardingtheoriginofman；
andjustasCanonLiddoninsistedthatChristianityitselfdependsonaliteralbeliefinNoah’sflood，inthetransformationofLot’swife，andinthesojournofJonahinthewhale：sodidPuseythenvirtuallyinsistthatChristianitymuststandorfallwiththeearlydateofthebookofDaniel。
Happily，thoughthePtolemaicastronomy，andwitchcraft，andtheGenesiscreationmyths，andtheAdam，Noah，Lot，andJonahlegends，andthedivineoriginoftheHebrewpunctuation，andthepropheciesregardingAntichrist，andtheearlydateofthebookofDanielhavenowbeenrelegatedtothelimboofontwornbeliefs，Christianityhasbutcomeforththestronger。
NothingseemedlesslikelythanthatsuchavastintrenchedcampasthatofwhichOxfordwasthecentrecouldbecarriedbyaneffortproceedingfromafewisolatedGermanandDutchscholars。