andamongCatholicsitwasseenwhenPhilipIIallowedthepiousandgiftedLuisdeLeon，forasimilaroffence，tobethrownintoadungeonoftheInquisitionandkeptthereforfiveyears，untilhishealthwasutterlyshatteredandhisspiritsobrokenthatheconsentedtopublishanewcommentaryonthesong，“astheologicalandobscureasthemostorthodoxcoulddesire。”
Here，too，wehaveanexampleoftheefficiencyoftheolderbiblicaltheologyinfetteringthestrongermindsandinstupefyingtheweaker。JustasthebookofGenesishadtowaitovertwothousandyearsforaphysiciantorevealthesimplestfactregardingitsstructure，sotheSongofSongshadtowaitevenlongerforapoettorevealnotonlyitsbeautybutitscharacter。Commentatorsinnumerablehadinterpretedit；St。
Bernardhadpreachedovereightysermonsonitsfirsttwochapters；Palestrinahadsetitsmosteroticpartstosacredmusic；JewsandGentiles，CatholicsandProtestants，fromOrigentoAbenEzraandfromLuthertoBossuet，haduncovereditsdeepmeaningsandhaddemonstratedittobeanythingandeverythingsavethatwhichitreallyis。AmongscoresofthesestrangeimaginationsitwasdeclaredtorepresenttheloveofJehovahforIsrael；theloveofChristfortheChurch；thepraisesoftheBlessedVirgin；theunionofthesoulwiththebody；sacredhistoryfromtheExodustotheMessiah；ChurchhistoryfromtheCrucifixiontotheReformation；andsomeofthemoreacuteProtestantdivinesfoundinitreferenceseventothereligiouswarsinGermanyandtothePeaceofPassau。Inthesedaysitseemshardtoimaginehowreallycompetentreasonerscouldthusarguewithoutlaughingineachother’sfaces，afterthemannerofCicero’saugurs。HerdershowedSolomon’sSongtobewhatthewholethinkingworldnowknowsittobe——simplyanOrientallove-poem。
Buthisfranknessbroughthimintotrouble：hewasbitterlyassailed。Neitherhisnoblecharacternorhisgeniusavailedhim。Obligedtofleefromonepastoratetoanother，heatlastfoundahappyrefugeatWeimarinthesocietyofGoethe，Wieland，andJeanPaul，andthenceheexercisedapowerfulinfluenceinremovingnoxiousandparasiticgrowthsfromreligiousthought。
ItwouldhardlybepossibletoimagineamanmoredifferentfromHerderthanwastheotherofthetwowhomostinfluencedbiblicalinterpretationattheendoftheeighteenthcentury。ThiswasAlexanderGeddes——aRomanCatholicpriestandaScotchman。
Havingatanearlyperiodattractedmuchattentionbyhisscholarship，andhavingreceivedtheveryraredistinction，foraCatholic，ofadoctoratefromtheUniversityofAberdeen，hebeganpublishingin1792anewtranslationoftheOldTestament，andfollowedthisin1800withavolumeofcriticalremarks。Inthesehesupportedmainlythreeviews：first，thatthePentateuchinitspresentformcouldnothavebeenwrittenbyMoses；secondly，thatitwastheworkofvarioushands；and，thirdly，thatitcouldnothavebeenwrittenbeforethetimeofDavid。Althoughtherewasafringeofdoubtfultheoriesaboutthem，thesemainconclusions，supportedastheywerebydeepresearchandcogentreasoning，arenowrecognisedasofgreatvalue。Butsuchwasnottheorthodoxopinionthen。Thoughamanofsincerepiety，whothroughouthisentireliferemainedfirminthefaithofhisfathers，heandhisworkwereatoncecondemned：
hewassuspendedbytheCatholicauthoritiesasamisbeliever，denouncedbyProtestantsasaninfidel，andtauntedbybothas“awould-becorrectoroftheHolyGhost。”Ofcourse，bythistauntwasmeantnothingmorethanthathedissentedfromsundryideasinheritedfromlessenlightenedtimesbythemenwhojustthenhappenedtowieldecclesiasticalpower。
Butnotalltheoppositiontohimcouldchecktheevolutionofhisthought。AlineofgreatmenfollowedinthesepathsopenedbyAstrucandEichhorn，andbroadenedbyHerderandGeddes。OfthesewasDeWette，whosevariousworks，especiallyhisIntroductiontotheOldTestament，gaveanewimpulseearlyinthenineteenthcenturytofruitfulthoughtthroughoutChristendom。Inthesewritings，whileshowinghowlargelymythsandlegendshadenteredintotheHebrewsacredbooks，hethrewespeciallightintothebooksDeuteronomyandChronicles。Theformerheshowedtobe，inthemain，alatepriestlysummaryoflaw，andthelatteraverylatepriestlyrecastofearlyhistory。
Hehad，indeed，topayapenaltyforthusaidingtheworldinitsmarchtowardmoretruth，forhewasdrivenoutofGermany，andobligedtotakerefugeinaSwissprofessorship；whileTheodoreParker，whopublishedanEnglishtranslationofhiswork，was，forthisandsimilarsins，virtuallyrejectedbywhatclaimedtobethemostliberalofallChristianbodiesintheUnitedStates。
Butcontributionstothenewthoughtcontinuedfromquarterswhenceleastwasexpected。Gesenius，byhisHebrewGrammar，andEwald，byhishistoricalstudies，greatlyadvancedit。
Tothemandtoalllikethemduringthemiddleyearsofthenineteenthcenturywassturdilyopposedthecolossusoforthodoxy——Hengstenberg。InhimwascombinedthehaughtinessofaPrussiandrill-sergeant，thezealofaSpanishinquisitor，andtheflippantbrutalityofaFrenchorthodoxjournalist。BehindhimstoodthegiftedbuterraticFrederickWilliamIV——amanadmirablyfittedforaprofessorshipofaesthetics，butwhomaninscrutablefatehadmadeKingofPrussia。BoththeserulersintheGermanIsraelarrayedallpossibleoppositionagainstthegreatscholarslabouringinthenewpaths；butthisoppositionwasvain：thesuccessionofacuteandhonestscholarscontinued：
Vatke，Bleek，Reuss，Graf，Kayser，Hupfeld，Delitzsch，Kuenen，andotherswroughtoninGermanyandHolland，steadilydevelopingthenewtruth。
EspeciallytobementionedamongtheseisHupfeld，whopublishedin1853histreatiseonTheSourcesofGenesis。AcceptingtheConjectureswhichAstruchadpublishedjustahundredyearsbefore，heestablishedwhathaseversincebeenrecognisedbytheleadingbiblicalcommentatorsasthetruebasisofworkuponthePentateuch——thefactthatTHREEtruedocumentsarecombinedinGenesis，eachwithitsowncharacteristics。He，too，hadtopayapriceforlettingmorelightupontheworld。Adeterminedattemptwasmadetopunishhim。Thoughdeeplyreligiousinhisnatureandaspirations，hewasdenouncedin1865tothePrussianGovernmentasguiltyofirreverence；but，tothecreditofhisnobleandtruecolleagueswhotrodinthemoreorthodoxpaths——menlikeTholuckandJuliusMuller——thetheologicalfacultyoftheUniversityofHalleprotestedagainstthispersecutingeffort，anditwasbroughttonaught。
ThedemonstrationsofHupfeldgavenewlifetobiblicalscholarshipinalllands。MoreandmoreclearbecametheevidencethatthroughoutthePentateuch，andindeedinotherpartsofoursacredbooks，therehadbeenafusionofvariousideas，aconfoundingofvariousepochs，andacompilationofvariousdocuments。Thuswasopenedanewfieldofthoughtandwork：insiftingoutthisliterature；inrearrangingit；andinbringingitintoproperconnectionwiththehistoryoftheJewishraceandofhumanity。
AstrucandHupfeldhavingthusfoundakeytothetruecharacterofthe“Mosaic“Scriptures，asecondkeywasfoundwhichopenedthewaytothesecretoforderinallthischaos。Formanygenerationsonethinghadespeciallypuzzledcommentatorsandgivenrisetomassesoffutile“reconciliation“：thiswasthepatentfactthatsuchmenasSamuel，David，Elijah，Isaiah，andindeedthewholeJewishpeopledowntotheExile，showedinalltheirutterancesandactionsthattheywereutterlyignorantofthatvastsystemofceremoniallawwhich，accordingtotheaccountsattributedtoMosesandotherpartsofoursacredbooks，wasinfullforceduringtheirtimeandduringnearlyathousandyearsbeforetheExile。Itwasheld“always，everywhere，andbyall。”thatintheOldTestamentthechronologicalorderofrevelationwas：first，thelaw；secondly，thePsalms；thirdly，theprophets。Thisbeliefcontinuedunchallengedduringmorethantwothousandyears，anduntilafterthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury。
Yet，asfarbackas1835，VatkeatBerlinhad，inhisReligionoftheOldTestament，expressedhisconvictionthatthisbeliefwasunfounded。ReasoningthatJewishthoughtmusthavebeensubjecttothelawsofdevelopmentwhichgovernothersystems，hearrivedattheconclusionthatthelegislationascribedtoMoses，andespeciallytheelaborateparaphernaliaandcompositeceremoniesoftheritual，couldnothavecomeintobeingataperiodsorudeasthatdepictedinthe“Mosaic“accounts。
AlthoughVatkewrappedthisstatementinamistofHegelianmetaphysics，asufficientnumberofwatchmenonthewallsofthePrussianZionsawitsmeaning，andanalarmwasgiven。Thechroniclerstellusthat“fearoffailingintheexaminations，throughknowingtoomuch，keptstudentsawayfromVatke’slectures。”Naturally，whileHengstenbergandFrederickWilliamIVwerecommandingtheforcesoforthodoxy，Vatkethoughtitwisetobesilent。
Still，thenewideawasintheair；indeed，ithadbeendivinedaboutayearearlier，ontheothersideoftheRhine，byascholarwellknownasacuteandthoughtful——Reuss，ofStrasburg。
Unfortunately，hetoowasoverawed，andherefrainedfrompublishinghisthoughtduringmorethanfortyyears。Buthisideaswerecaughtbysomeofhismostgiftedscholars；and，ofthese，GrafandKayserdevelopedthemandhadthecouragetopublishthem。
Atthesameperiodthisnewmasterkeywasfoundandappliedbyagreatermanthananyofthese——byKuenen，ofHolland；andthusitwasthatthreeeminentscholars，workingindifferentpartsofEuropeandondifferentlines，inspiteofallobstacles，joinedinenforcinguponthethinkingworldtheconvictionthatthecompleteLeviticallawhadbeenestablishednotatthebeginning，butattheend，oftheJewishnation——mainly，indeed，aftertheJewishnationasanindependentpoliticalbodyhadceasedtoexist；thatthiscodehadnotbeenrevealedinthechildhoodofIsrael，butthatithadcomeintobeinginaperfectlynaturalwayduringIsrael’sfinaldecay——duringtheperiodwhenheroesandprophetshadbeensucceededbypriests。ThuswasthehistoricalandpsychologicalevolutionofJewishinstitutionsbroughtintoharmonywiththenaturaldevelopmentofhumanthought；elaborateceremonialinstitutionsbeingshowntohavecomeaftertheruderbeginningsofreligiousdevelopmentinsteadofbeforethem。Thuscameanewimpulsetoresearch，andthefruitagewasabundant；theoldertheologicalinterpretation，withitsinsolublepuzzles，yieldedonallsides。
TheleadinthenewepochthusopenedwastakenbyKuenen。
Startingwithstrongprepossessionsinfavouroftheolderthought，andevenwithviolentutterancesagainstsomeofthesupportersofthenewview，hewasborneonbyhisloveoftruth，untilhisgreatwork，TheReligionofIsrael，publishedin1869，attractedtheattentionofthinkingscholarsthroughouttheworldbyitsargumentsinfavouroftheupwardmovement。Fromhimnowcameathirdmasterkeytothemystery；forheshowedthatthetrueopeningpointforresearchintothehistoryandliteratureofIsraelistobefoundintheutterancesofthegreatprophetsoftheeighthcenturybeforeourera。Startingfromthese，heopenednewpathsintotheperiodsprecedingandfollowingthem。
RecognisingthefactthatthereligionofIsraelwas，likeothergreatworldreligions，adevelopmentofhigherideasoutoflower，heledmentobringdeeperthinkingandwiderresearchintothegreatproblem。WithamplelearningandirresistiblelogicheprovedthatOldTestamenthistoryislargelymingledwithmythandlegend；thatnotonlywerethelawsattributedtoMosesinthemainafarlaterdevelopment，butthatmuchoftheirhistoricalsettingwasanafterthought；alsothatOldTestamentprophecywasneversupernaturallypredictive，andleastofallpredictiveofeventsrecordedintheNewTestament。Thusitwasthathisgeniusgavetothethinkingworldanewpointofview，andamasterlyexhibitionofthetruemethodofstudy。JustlyhasoneofthemosteminentdivinesofthecontemporaryAnglicanChurchindorsedthestatementofanothereminentscholar，that“Kuenenstooduponhiswatch-tower，asitweretheconscienceofOldTestamentscience“；thathisworkischaracterized“notmerelybyfinescholarship，criticalinsight，historicalsense，andareligiousnature，butalsobyanincorruptibleconscientiousness，andamajesticdevotiontothequestoftruth。”
Thuswasestablishedthescienceofbiblicalcriticism。Andnowthequestionwas，whethertheChurchofnorthernGermanywouldacceptthisgreatgift——thefruitofcenturiesofdevotedtoilandself-sacrifice——andtaketheleadofChristendominandbyit。
ThegreatcurseofTheologyandEcclesiasticismhasalwaysbeentheirtendencytosacrificelargeintereststosmall——CharitytoCreed，UnitytoUniformity，FacttoTradition，EthicstoDogma。
AndnowthereweresymptomsthroughoutthegoverningbodiesoftheReformedchurchesindicatingadeterminationtosacrificeleadershipinthisnewthoughttoeaseinorthodoxy。Everyrevelationofnewknowledgeencounteredoutcry，opposition，andrepression；and，whatwasworse，theill-judgeddeclarationsofsomeunwiseworkersinthecriticalfieldwereseizeduponandusedtodiscreditallfruitfulresearch。Fortunately，amannowappearedwhobothmetallthisoppositionsuccessfully，andputasideallthehalftruthsorspeciousuntruthsurgedbyminorcriticswhosezealoutrantheirdiscretion。Thiswasagreatconstructivescholar——notadestroyer，butabuilder——Wellhausen。
Reverently，buthonestlyandcourageously，withclearness，fulness，andconvictingforce，hesummeduptheconquestsofscientificcriticismasbearingonHebrewhistoryandliterature。