Ithinkthatallthismustfollownecessarilyassoonasthemainfactisadmitted，thatcommonisnormallytherighttopastureofashareholderofthemanor。Theobjectionmayberaised，thatsuchapriorireasoningisnotsufficientinthecase，becausethedocumentsdonotcountenanceitbytheirclassification。Wouldtheobjectionbefair？Hardly，ifonedoesnotinsistonfindinginBractontheidenticaltermsusedinCokeuponLittleton。ItistruethatBractonspeaksofcommoningeneral，andnotofcommonappendant，appurtenant，andingross，buttherightofcommonwhichhetreatsasnormalappearstobeverypeculiaronacloserexaminationofhisrules。Itispraedialandnotpersonal；tobeginwith，itisalwaysthoughtofasbelongingtoatenement。18*Whatismore，itcannotbelongtoatenementreclaimedfromthewaste，19*andinthiswaytherequirementof’ancientarable’isestablished，thatis，thepastureisconsideredasoneoftherightsconcededtotheoriginalsharesofamanorialcommunity。Theuseoftheopenfieldoutsidethetimeofreasonabledefence20*isprimarilymeant，andthecommonpastureappearsfromthispointofviewasoneofthestagesintheprocessofcommonfarming。Tomakeupthewhole，therighttocommonisdefinedbya’quantumpertinet。’21*whichhasasenseonlyinconnexionwiththeadmeasurementofclaimseffectedbytheinternalorganisationofthemanor。SuchisevidentlythenormalarrangementpresupposedbyBracton’sdescription，andhisonlyfaultis，thathedoesnotdistinguishwithclearnessbetweentheconsequencesofthenormalarrangement，andofgrantsorusurpationswhichsupplementandmodifyit。Itmustberememberedthatheonlygivesthesubstantivelawaboutcommonrightsinthecourseofadiscussionofthepleadingsinactions’quojure’andassizesofpasture。IfwecomparewithBracton’stexttherulesanddecisionslaiddowninthelegalpracticeofthethirteenthcentury，weshallfindthatthesamefactsareimpliedbythem。Theyallsupposeacontrastbetween’intrinsec’and’forinsec’claimstocommon，thatisbetweentherightsofthosewhoaremembersofthemanorialgroup，andtherights，ifany，ofthosewhoareoutsideit，andagainacontrastbetweenthenormalrightsofcommonersandanymoreextensiverightsacquiredbyspecialgrantoragreement。Onlythefreeholdersareprotectedintheenjoymentoftheircommons；onlythefreeholdersareprotectedintheenjoymentoftheirtenements；buttheirclaimsarebasedonarrangementsinwhichtheunfreelandparticipatesineverythingwiththefree。Itmaybeaddedthatlitigationmostlyarisesfromtheadjustmentof’forinsec’claimsunderthewrit’Quojure。’
Theintercommoningbetweenneighboursgivesrisetoagoodmanydisputes，andismuchtoofrequenttobeconsidered，asitwasbylaterlaw，amere’excusefortrespassing。’22*Thiscommon’purcausedevicinage’maybearelicofatimewhenadjoiningvillagesformedapartofahigherunitofsomekind，oftheMark，ofahundred，forexample。Itmaybeexplainedalsobythedifficultyofsettingdefiniteboundariesinwidetractsofmoorandforest。Howeverthismaybe，itsconstantoccurrenceformsanothergermofanecessarycontrastbetweenthetwoclasseswhichafterwardsdevelopedintocommonappendantandcommonappurtenant。Itcouldnotbebroughtunderthesamerulesasthosewhichflowedfromtheinternalarrangementofthemanor。A
specialdifficultyattendeditastoadmeasurement：thecustomarytreatmentofotherholdingscouldnotinthiscaseserveasastandard。Theverylaxityoftheprinciplenaturallygaveoccasiontoverydifferentinterpretationsanddeductions。Andsowearejustifiedinsaying，thatthechiefdistinctionsoflaterlawaretobefoundintheirsubstanceinthethirteenthcentury，andthatalthoughagooddealofconfusionoccursindetails，theearlierdocumentsgiveevenbettercluesthanthelatertothereasonswhichledtothewell-knownclassification。
Commonappendant，ifwemayusethemoderntermforthesakeofbrevity，isindissolublyconnectedwiththesystemofhusbandryfollowedbythevillagecommunity。Averynoticeablefeatureofitis，that，inonesense，ittowersoverthelordofthemanoraswellasoverthetenants。Ofcourse，legallythelordisconsideredastheownerofthewaste，23*butevenfromthepointofviewofpurelawhisownershipisrestrictedbyhisowngrants。insomuchashehasconcededfreeholdtenementstocertainpersons，heisboundbyhisowndeednottowithholdfromthesepersonsthenecessaryadjunctsofsuchtenements，andespeciallytherightsofpastureboundupwiththem。Thefreetenantssharewiththelord，ifhewantstoturnhiscommonpasturetosomespecialandlucrativeuse；if，forinstance，strangersareadmittedtoitformoney，onepartoftheproceedsgoestothetenantry。24*Again，thelordmaynotoverburdenthecommon，andsometimesfreeholderstrytheirhandatlitigationagainstthelordonthegroundthathesendshiscattletosomeplacewheretheyoughtnottogo。25*Thepointcannotbeoverlooked，thatthelordofthemanorappearssubjectedtocertainrulessetupbycustomandcommondecisioninthemeetingsofhistenantry。Thenumberandkindofbeastswhichmaycometothecommonfromhislandisfixed，aswellasthenumberthatmaycomefromthelandofacottager。26*Thefreeholdersalonecanenforcetheruleagainsthim，butitissetupnotbythefreeholders，butbytheentirecommunityofthemanor，andpracticallybytheserfsmorethanbythefreeholders，becausetheyaresomuchmorenumerous。
Asthecommonofpastureappearsasanoutcomeofasystemofhusbandrysetupbythevillagecommunity，soeverychangeintheuseofthepastureoughtinthenaturalcoursetoproceedfromadecisionofthiscommunity。Suchachangemaybeeffectedinoneoftwomanners：thecustomaryrotationofcropsmaybealtered，orelseapartofthewastemaybereclaimedfortillage。Inthefirstcase，aportionoftheopenarableandmeadow，whichoughttohavebeencommonableatacertaintime，ceasestobeso；inthesecond，therighttosendcattletothewasteisstintedinsomuchasthearableisputunderdefence，orthelandisusedfortheconstructionofdwellings。Bythecommonlawthefreetenantsalonecouldobtainaremedyforanytransgressioninthisrespect。Ihavementionedalreadythatsuitsfrequentlyarosewhentheold-fashionedrotationofcropswasmodifiedinaccordancewiththeprogressofcultivation。Astotherightofapprovingfromthewaste，therelativepositionoflordandtenantswasforalongtimedebateable，and，aseverybodyknows，thelordwasempoweredtoapprovebytheStatuteofMertonof20
HenryIII，withtheconditionthatheshouldleavesufficientpasturetohisfreetenantsaccordingtotherequirementsoftheirtenements。ThesamepowerwasguaranteedbytheStatuteofWestminsterIIagainsttheclaimsofneighbours。Ithasbeenaskedwhether，beforetheStatuteofMerton，thelordhadpowertoencloseagainstcommoners，ifheleftsufficientcommontosatisfytheirrights。Bracton’stextinthepassagewherehetreatsoftheStatuteisdistinctlyinfavouroftheviewthatthislegislativeenactmentdidactuallyalterthecommonlaw，andthatpreviouslyitwasheldthatalordcouldnotapprovewithouttheconsentofhisfree-tenants。27*Turningtothepracticeofthethirteenth-centurycourts，wefindthatthelawyerswereratherdoubtfulastothispoint。Inacaseof1221thejurorsdeclare，thatalthoughthedefendanthasapprovedabouttwoacresoflandfromthewastewheretheplaintiffhadcommon，thislatterhasstillsufficientpasturelefttohim。Andthereupontheplaintiffwithdraws。28*In1226alordwhohasgrantedpastureeverywhere，’ubique，’andhasinclosedpartofit，succumbsinasuitagainsthistenant，andweareledtosupposethatifthequalification’ubique’hadbeenabsent，hisrightofapprovementwouldhavebeenmaintained。Itmustbenoticed，however，thatthemarginalnoteinBracton’sNotebookdoesnotlaystressonthe’ubique，’andregardsthedecisionascontrarytothelawsubsequentlylaiddownbytheConstitutionofMerton。29*Inacaseof1292oneofthecounselforthedefendanttookitforgrantedthattheStatuteofMertonalteredthepreviouslyexistingcommonlaw。30*ThelanguageoftheStatutesthemselvesiscertainlyinfavourofsuchaconstruction：intheMertonConstitutionitisstatedasafactthattheEnglishmagnateswerepreventedfrommakinguseoftheirmanors，31*andtheWestminsterStatute。Isaspositiveastoneighbours；’multidominihucusque。impeditiextiterunt，’etc。
Itseemshardlypossibletodoubtthattheenactmentsreallyrepresentanewdeparture，althoughthewaytowardsithadbeenpreparedbythecollisionofinterestsinopenCourt。Theconditionnegativelyindicatedbythedocumentsinregardtothetimebeforetheseenactmentscannotbedismissedbytheconsiderationthatthelordwouldderogatefromhisgrantbyapproving。Althoughasingletrialmaybeardirectlyontherelationbetweenthelordandonlyoneofthetenantsorafewofthem，everychangeintheoccupationofthelandtouchesallthosewhoaremembersofthemanorialcommunity。Theremovalofdifficultiesastoapprovementwas，beforetheStatuteofMerton，notaquestionofagreementbetweentwopersons，butaquestionastotherelativepositionofthelordandofthewholebodyofthetenantry。Thelordmightpossiblysettlewitheverytenantsingly，butitseemsmuchmoreprobablethathebroughtthematter，whenitarose，beforethewholebodywithwhichthemanagementofthevillagehusbandryrested，thatis，beforethehalimote，withitsfreeandunfreetenants。Inanycase，theinfluenceofthefreetenantsasrecognisedbythecommonlawwasdecisive，andhardlytobereconciledwiththeusualfeudalnotionsastotheplaceoccupiedbythelordinthecommunity。ItmustbenotedthateventhatorderofthingswhichcameintobeinginconsequenceoftheStatutecontainsanindirecttestimonyastothepowerofthevillagecommunity。TheActrequiresthepasturelefttothefreetenantstobesufficient，anditmaybeaskedatonce，whatcriterionwasthereofsuchasufficiency，ifthenumberofbeastswasnotmentionedintheinstrumentbywhichthecommonwasheld。Ofcourse，incaseofdispute，ajuryhadtogiveaverdictaboutit，butwhathadthejurytogoby？Itwasnottheactualnumberofheadsofcattleonatenementthatcouldbemadethestarting-pointofcalculation。
Evidentlythesizeoftheholding，anditsrelationtootherholdings，hadtobetakenintoaccount。Butifso，thenthelegaladmeasurementhadtoconformtothecustomaryadmeasurementdefinedbythecommunity。32*Andsoagaintheopenlyrecognisedlawofthekingdomhadtobesetinactionaccordingtolocalcustoms，whichinthemselveshadnolegallybindingforce。
Besidesthelandregularlyusedforpasture，thecattleofthevillageweresentgrazingalongtheroads33*andinthewoods。34*Theselastweremostlyusedforfeedingswine。Inotherrespects，also，thewoodwassubjectedtoatreatmentanalogoustothatofthepastureland。Therightofhuntingwas，ofcourse，subjectedtospecialregulations，whichhavetobediscussedfromthepointofviewofforestlaw。But，apartfromthatright，thewoodwasmanagedbythevillagecommunityaccordingtocertaincustomaryrules。Everytenanthadarighttofellasmanyyoungtreesashewantedtokeephishouseandhishedgesinorder。35*Itsometimeshappens，thatthelordandthehomageenterintoagreementastothebiggertrees，andforeverytrunktakenbythelordthetenantryareentitledtotakeitsequivalent。36*Whenevertherighthadtobeapportionedmoreorlessstrictly，thesizeoftheholdingswasalwaysthemainconsideration。37*
Itwouldbestrangetomypurposetodiscussthedetailsofcommonofestovers，ofturbary，38*oroffishery。Thechiefpointswhichtouchupontheproblemsofsocialoriginsaresufficientlyapparentinthesubjectofpasture。Theresultsofourinvestigationmay，Ithink，besummedupunderthefollowingheads：——
1。Rightsofcommonareeitheraconsequenceofthecommunalhusbandryofthemanor，orelsetheyproceedfromspecialagreementorlonguse。
2。Thelegalarrangementofcommonsdependsonacustomaryarrangement，inwhichfreeandunfreetenantstakeequalpart。39*
3。Thefeudaltheoryofthelord’sgrantisinsufficienttoexplainthedifferentaspectsassumedbyrightsofcommon，andespeciallytheoppositionbetweenlordandfreecommoners。
NOTES：
1。EynshamCart。2，c：’EstquoddampratumnuncupatumClayhursteetcontinetdepratoetpastura35acrasdimidiamrodam13
perticas。Estibidemexparteaustraliunapeciapratietpastureetcontinet10acraset7perticasetnuncupaturtwelueacresqueannuatimdiuiditurin12parcellasperlevirgamequales，undedominushabetunoannoi，iii，v，vii，ixetxi，heredesFremanetWalterusleReueeodemannohabentparcellasii，iv，vi，viii，xetxii。Alioannohabetdominusparcellasquastenenteshabueruntettenentesparcellasdomini。Etsicannuatimhabetdominusquinqueacras，tresperticasetdimidiamperticam。’Cf。
23，c：’MemorandumquodinpratodeLandemedesuntsexparcellebundatequarumprimaparcellanuncupataStubbefurlongcontinet4
acrasetdimidiamrodametestdominiannoincarnacionisDominiimpariettenenciumannoincarnacionisDominipari。Quandoveroesttenencium，diuiditurpersortem。’
2。AverygoodinstanceissuppliedbyWilliams，RightsofCommon，89，9o。CfBirkbeck，SketchoftheDistributionofLandinEngland，19。
3。GloucesterCart。iii。67ExtentadeBerthonaRegis：’DepasturaseparabilidicuntquodRexhabetquandammoramquaecontinet41/2acrasetvalet4solidosetpotestsustinere12
bovespernouemmenses。ItemdepasturainseparabilidicuntquodAbbasGloucestriaedebetinvenirepasturamadI8bovesdominiRegis，etad2vaccas，et2afros，avigiliaPentecostesquousquepratasintfalcata，levataetcariata。’Exch。Q。R。Treas。ofRec。59/69：’itemdicuntquodsuntibidepasturaseparabili50
acraeetvaletacra3d。’
4。EynshamCart。3，b：’Dicunteciamquodomniapratapasturedominietomnesculturenonseminateet[que]deberentseminarisuntseparaliapertempuspredictum。’10，b：’Etsuntdictepastureseparalesquousquebladacircumcrescentiaasportentur。’A
curiouscaseisthefollowing；ibid。，3，b：’DicunteciamquoddominusteneturpratumsuumdeLangenhurstcustodirenecpotestattachiaremalefactoresineodemasolisortuusqueadoccasum，aliistemporibus。licet，etestseparaleafestoannunciacionisbeateMarieusquegulamAugusti。’
5。DomesdayofSt。Paul’s，69：’Nonestibicertapasturanisiquandoterredominicequiescuntalternatiminculte。’Cf59：’Nonestibipasturanisicumquiescitdominicumperwainnagium。