Thereisbutonevoice，amongthoseacquaintedwiththecountry，ontheadmirableeffectsofthistenureoflandinthosecounties。NootheragriculturalpopulationinEnglandcouldhavefurnishedtheoriginalsofWordsworth’speasantry。（1*）
Thegeneralsystem，however，ofEnglishcultivation，affordingnoexperiencetorenderthenatureandoperationofpeasantpropertiesfamiliar，andEnglishmenbeingingeneralprofoundlyignorantoftheagriculturaleconomyofothercountries，theveryideaofpeasantproprietorsisstrangetotheEnglishmind，anddoesnoteasilyfindaccesstoit。Eventheformsoflanguagestandintheway:thefamiliardesignationforownersoflandbeing\"landlords\"，atermtowhich\"tenants\"isalwaysunderstoodasacorrelative。Whenatthetimeofthefamine，thesuggestionofpeasantpropertiesasameansofIrishimprovementfounditswayintoparliamentaryandnewspaperdiscussions，therewerewritersofpretensiontowhomtheword\"proprietor\"wassofarfromconveyinganydistinctidea，thattheymistookthesmallholdingsofIrishcottiertenantsforpeasantproperties。Thesubjectbeingsolittleunderstood，I
thinkitimportant，beforeenteringintothetheoryofit，todosomethingtowardsshowinghowthecasestandsastomatteroffact;byexhibiting，atgreaterlengththanwouldotherwisebeadmissible，someofthetestimonywhichexistsrespectingthestateofcultivation，andthecomfortandhappinessofthecultivators，inthosecountriesandpartsofcountries，inwhichthegreaterpartofthelandotherthanthelabourerwhotillsthesoil。
2。IlaynostressontheconditionofNorthAmerica，where，asiswellknown，theland，exceptintheformerSlaveStates，isalmostuniversallyownedbythesamepersonwhoholdstheplough。
AcountrycombiningthenaturalfertilityofAmericawiththeknowledgeandartsofmodernEurope，issopeculiarlycircumstanced，thatscarcelyanything，exceptinsecurityofpropertyoratyrannicalgovernment，couldmateriallyimpairtheprosperityoftheindustriousclasses。Imight，withSismondi，insistmorestronglyonthecaseofancientItaly，especiallyLatium，thatCampagnawhichthenswarmedwithinhabitantsintheveryregionswhichunderacontraryr間imehavebecomeuninhabitablefrommalaria。ButIprefertakingtheevidenceofthesamewriteronthingsknowntohimbypersonalobservation。
\"C’estsurtoutlaSuisse，\"saysM。deSismondi，\"qu’ilfautparcourir，qu’ilfaut閠udier，pourjugerdubonheurdespaysanspropri閠aires。C’estlaSuissequ’ilfautapprendre？conna顃repourseconvaincrequel’agriculturepratiqu閑parceux—l？m阭equienrecueillentlesfruitssuffitpourprocurerunegrandeaisance？unepopulationtr鑣nombreuse;unegrandeind閜endancedecaract鑢e，fruitdel’ind閜endancedessituations;ungrandcommercedeconsommation，cons閝uenceduhien—阾redetousleshabitans，m阭edansunpaysdontleclimatestrude，dontlesolestm閐iocrementfertile，eto？lesgel閑stardivesetl’inconstancedessaisonsd閠ruisentsouventl’espoirdulaboureur。Onnesauraitvoirsansadmirationcesmaisonsdeboisdumoindrepaysan，sivastes，sibiencloses，sibienconstruites，sicouvertesdesculpture。Dansl’int閞ieur，degrandscorridorsd間agentchaquechambredelanombreusefamille;
chaquechambren’aqu’unlit，etilestabondammentpourvuderideaux，decouvertures，etdulingeleplusblanc;desmeublessoign閟l’entourent;lesarmoiressontrempliesdelinge，lalaiterieestvaste，a閞閑，etd’unenettet？exquise;souslem阭etoitontrouvedegrandsapprovisionnemensdebl？deviandesal閑，defromageetdebois;dansles閠ablesonvoitleb閠aillemieuxsoign？etleplusbeaudel’Europe;lejardinestplant？
defleurs，leshommescommelesfemmessontchaudementetproprementhabill閟，lesderni鑢esconserventavecorgueilleurantiquecostume;tousportentsurleurvisagel’empreintedelavigueuretdelasant？Qued’autresnationsvantentleuropulence，laSuissepourratoujoursleuropposeravecorgueilsespaysans。\"（2*）
Thesameeminentwriterthusexpresseshisopiniononpeasantproprietorshipingeneral。
\"Partouto？l’onretrouvelespaysanspropri閠aires，onretrouveaussicetteaisance，cettes閏urit？cetteconfiancedansl’avenir，cetteind閜endancequiassurentenm阭etempslebonheuretlavertu。Lepaysanquifaitavecsesenfanstoutl’ouvragedesonpetith閞itage，quinepaiedefermage？
personneau—dessusdelui，nidesalaire？personneau—dessous，quir鑗lesaproductionsursaconsommation，quimangesonproprebl？boitsonproprevin，serev阾desonchanvreetdeseslaines，sesouciepeudeconna顃relesprixdumarch？carilapeu？vendreetpeu？acheter，etiln’estjamaisruin？parlesr関olutionsducommerce。Loindecraindrepourl’avenir，illevoits’embellirdanssonesp閞ance;carilmet？profitpoursesenfans，pourlessi鑓lesquiviendront，chacundesinstansquenerequiertpasdeluiletravaildel’ann閑。Illuiasuffidedonnerpeudemomensdetravailpourmettreenterrelenoyauquidanscentansseraungrandarbre，pourcreuserl’aqu閐ucquis閏hera？jamaissonchamp，pourformerleconduitquiluiam鑞eraunesourced’eauvive，pouram閘iorerpardessoinssouventr閜閠閟maisd閞ob閟surlesinstansperdus，touteslesesp鑓esd’animauxetdev間閠auxdontils’entoure。Sonpetitpatrimoineestunevraiecaissed’閜argnes，toujourspr阾e？
recevoirtoussespetitsprofits，？utilisertoussesmomensdeloisir。Lapuissancetoujoursagissantedelanaturelesf閏onde，etlesluirendaucentuple。Lepaysanavivementlesentimentdecebonheurattach？？laconditiondepropri閠aire。Aussiest—iltoujoursempress？delaterre？toutprix。Illapaieplusqu’ellenevaut，plusqu’elleneluirendrapeut—阾re;maiscombienn’a—t—ilpasraisond’estimer？unhautprixl’avantagedeplacerd閟ormaistoujoursavantageusementsontravail，sans阾reoblig？del’offriraurabais;detrouvertoujoursaubesoinsonpain，sans阾reoblig？delepayer？l’ench鑢e。
\"Lepaysanpropri閠aireestdetouslescultivateursceluiquitireleplusdepartidusol;parcequec’estceluiquisongeleplus？l’avenir，toutcommeceluiquia閠？leplus閏lair？
parl’exp閞ience;c’estencoreluiquimetlemieux？profitletravailhumain，parcequer閜artissantsesoccupationsentretouslesmembresdesafamille，ilenr閟ervepourtouslesjoursdel’ann閑，demani鑢e？cequ’iln’yaitdech鬽agepourpersonne:
detouslescultivateursilestleplusheureux，etenm阭etemps，surunespacedonn？laterrenenourritbien，sanss’閜uiser，etn’occupejamaistantd’habitansquelorsqu’ilssontpropri閠aires;enfindetouslescultivateurslepaysanpropri閠aireestceluiquidonneleplusd’encouragementaucommerceet？l’industrie，parcequ’ilestleplusriche。\"（3*）
Thispictureofunweariedassiduity，andwhatmaybecalledaffectionateinterestintheland，isborneoutinregardtothemoreintelligentCantonsofSwitzerlandbyEnglishobservers。\"InwalkinganywhereintheneighbourhoodofZurich，\"saysMr。
Inglis，\"inlookingtotherightortotheleft，oneisstruckwiththeextraordinaryindustryoftheinhabitants;andifwelearnthataproprietorherehasareturnoftenpercent，weareinclinedtosay，’hedeservesit。’Ispeakatpresentofcountrylabour，thoughIbelievethatineverykindoftradealso，thepeopleofZurichareremarkablefortheirassiduity;butintheindustrytheyshowinthecultivationoftheirlandImaysafelysaytheyareunrivalled。WhenIusedtoopenmycasementbetweenfourandfiveinthemorningtolookoutuponthelakeandthedistantAlps，Isawthelabourerinthefields;andwhenI
returnedfromaneveningwalk，longaftersunset，aslate，perhaps，ashalf—pasteight，therewasthelabourermowinghisgrass，ortyinguphisvines……Itisimpossibletolookatafield，agarden，ahedging，scarcelyevenatree，aflower，oravegetable，withperceivingproofsoftheextremecareandindustrythatarebestoweduponthecultivationofthesoil。If，forexample，apathleadsthroughorbythesideofafieldofgrain，thecornisnot，asinEngland，permittedtohangoverthepath，exposedtobepulledortroddendownbyeverypasserby;itiseverywhereboundedbyafence，stakesareplacedatintervalsofaboutayard，and，abouttwo，orthreefeetfromtheground，boughsoftreesarepassedlongitudinallyalong。Ifyoulookintoafieldtowardsevening，wheretherearelargebedsofcauliflowerorcabbage，youwillfindthateverysingleplanthasbeenwatered。Inthegardens，whicharoundZurichareextremelylarge，themostpunctiliouscareisevincedineveryproductionthatgrows。Thevegetablesareplantedwithseeminglymathematicalaccuracy;notasingleweedistobeseen，notasinglestone。Plantsarenotearthedupaswithus，butareplantedinasmallhollow，intoeachofwhichalittlemanureisput，andeachplantiswatereddaily。Whereseedsaresown，theearthdirectlyaboveisbrokenintothefinestpowder;everyshrub，everyfloweristiedtoastake，andwherethereiswall—fruitatrelliceiserectedagainstthewall，towhichtheboughsarefastened，andthereisnotasinglethingthathasnotitsappropriaterestingplace。\"（4*）
OfoneoftheremotevalleysoftheHighAlpsthesamewriterthusexpresseshimself。（5*）
\"InthewholeoftheEngadinethelandbelongstothepeasantry，who，liketheinhabitantsofeveryotherplacewherethisstateofthingsexists，varygreatlyintheextentoftheirpossessions……Generallyspeaking，anEngadinepeasantlivesentirelyupontheproduceofhisland，withtheexceptionofthefewarticlesofforeigngrowthrequiredinhisfamily，suchascoffee，sugar，andwine。Flaxisgrown，prepared，spun，andwoven，withouteverleavinghishouse。Hehasalsohisownwool，whichisconvertedintoabluecoat，withoutpassingthroughthehandsofeitherthedyerorthetailor。Thecountryisincapableofgreatercultivationthanithasreceived。Allhasbeendoneforitthatindustryandanextremeloveofgaincandevise。
ThereisnotafootofwastelandintheEngadine，thelowestpartofwhichisnotmuchlowerthanthetopofSnowdon。Wherevergrasswillgrow，thereitis;whereverarockwillbearablade，verdureisseenuponit;whereveranearofryewillripen，thereitistobefound。Barleyandoatshavealsotheirappropriatespots;andwhereveritispossibletoripenalittlepatchofwheat，thecultivationofitisattempted。InnocountryinEuropewillbefoundsofewpoorasintheEngadine。InthevillageofSuss，whichcontainsaboutsixhundredinhabitants，thereisnotasingleindividualwhohasnotwherewithaltolivecomfortably，notasingleindividualwhoisindebtedtoothersforonemorselthatheeats。\"
NotwithstandingthegeneralprosperityoftheSwisspeasantry，thistotalabsenceofpauperismand（itmayalmostbesaid）ofpoverty，cannotbepredicatedofthewholecountry;thelargestandrichestcanton，thatofBerne，beinganexampleofthecontrary;foralthough，inthepartsofitwhichareoccupiedbypeasantproprietors，theirindustryisasremarkableandtheireaseandcomfortasconspicuousaselsewhere，thecantonisburthenedwithanumerouspauperpopulation，throughtheoperationoftheworstregulatedsystemofpoor—lawadministrationinEurope，exceptthatofEnglandbeforethenewPoorLaw。（6*）NorisSwitzerlandinsomeotherrespectsafavourableexampleofallthatpeasantpropertiesmighteffect。
ThereexistsaseriesofstatisticalaccountsoftheSwissCantons，drawnupmostlywithgreatcareandintelligence，containingdetaileddate，respectingtheconditionofthelandandofthepeople。Fromthese，thesubdivisionappearstobeoftensominute，thatitcanhardlybesupposednottobeexcessive:andtheindebtednessoftheproprietorsintheflourishingcantonofZurich\"borders，\"asthewriterexpressesit，\"ontheincredible;\"（7*）sothat\"onlytheintensestindustry，frugality，temperance，andcompletefreedomofcommerceenablethemtostandtheirground。\"Yetthegeneralconclusiondeduciblefromthesebooksisthatsincethebeginningofthecentury，andconcurrentlywiththesubdivisionofmanygreatestateswhichbelongedtonoblesortothecantonalgovernments，therehasbeenastrikingandrapidimprovementinalmosteverydepartmentofagriculture，aswellasinthehouses，thehabits，andthefoodofthepeople。ThewriteroftheaccountofTh黵gaugoessofarastosay，thatsincethesubdivisionofthefeudalestatesintopeasantproperties，itisnotuncommonforathirdorafourthpartofanestatetoproduceasmuchgrain，andsupportasmanyheadofcattle，asthewholeestatedidbefore。（8*）
3。Oneofthecountriesinwhichpeasantproprietorsareofoldestdate，andmostnumerousinproportiontothepopulation，isNorway。OfthesocialandeconomicalconditionofthatcountryaninterestingaccounthasbeengivenbyMr。Laing。Histestimonyinfavourofsmalllandedpropertiesboththereandelsewhere，isgivenwithgreatdecision。Ishallquoteafewpassages。
\"Ifsmallproprietorsarenotgoodfarmers，itisnotfromthesamecauseherewhichwearetoldmakesthemsoinScotland——indolenceandwantofexertion。Theextenttowhichirrigationiscarriedonintheseglensandvalleysshowsaspiritofexertionandco—operation\"（Irequestparticularattentiontothispoint），\"towhichthelattercanshownothingsimilar。Haybeingtheprincipalwintersupportoflivestock，andbothitandcorn，aswellaspotatoes，liable，fromtheshallowsoilandpowerfulreflexionofsunshinefromtherocks，tobeburntandwitheredup，thegreatestexertionsaremadetobringwaterfromtheheadofeachglen，alongsuchalevelaswillgivethecommandofittoeachfarmerattheheadofhisfields。Thisisdonebyleadingitinwoodentroughs（thehalfofatreeroughlyscooped）fromthehighestperennialstreamamongthehills，throughwoods，acrossravines，alongtherocky，oftenperpendicular，sidesoftheglens，andfromthismaintroughgivingalateralonetoeachfarmerinpassingtheheadofhisfarm。Hedistributesthissupplybymoveabletroughsamongthefields;andatthisseasonwaterseachrigsuccessivelywithscoopslikethoseusedbybleachersinwateringcloth，layinghistroughbetweeneverytworigs。Onewouldnotbelieve，withoutseeingit，howverylargeanextentoflandistraversedexpeditiouslybytheseartificialshowers。Theextentofthemaintroughsisverygreat。InoneglenIwalkedtenmiles，andfoundittoughedonbothsides:onone，thechainiscontinueddownthemainvalleyforfortymiles。（9*）Thosemaybebadfarmerswhodosuchthings;buttheyarenotindolent，norignorantoftheprincipleofworkinginconcert，andkeepingupestablishmentsforcommonbenefit。Theyareundoubtedly，intheserespects，farinadvanceofanycommunityofcottarsinourHighlandglens。
Theyfeelasproprietors，whoreceivetheadvantageoftheirownexertions。Theexcellentstateoftheroadsandbridgesisanotherproofthatthecountryisinhabitedbypeoplewhohaveacommoninteresttokeepthemunderrepair。Therearenotolls。\"（10*）
OntheeffectsofpeasantproprietorshipontheContinentgenerally，thesamewriterexpresseshimselfasfollows。（11*）
\"Ifwelistentothelargefarmer，thescientificagriculturist，the\"[English]\"politicaleconomist，goodfarmingmustperishwithlargefarms;theveryideathatgoodfarmingcanexist，unlessonlargefarmscultivatedwithgreatcapital，theyholdtobeabsurd。Draining，manuring，economicalarrangement，cleaningtheland，regularrotations，valuablestockandimplements，allbelongexclusivelytolargefarms，workedbylargecapital，andbyhiredlabour。Thisreadsverywell;butifweraiseoureyesfromtheirbookstotheirfields，andcoollycomparewhatweseeinthebestdistrictsfarmedinlargefarms，withwhatweseeinthebestdistrictsfarmedinsmallfarms，wesee，andthereisnoblinkingthefact，bettercropsonthegroundinFlanders，EastFriesland，Holstein，inshort，onthewholelineofthearablelandofequalqualityoftheContinent，fromtheSoundtoCalais，thanweseeonthelineofBritishcoastoppositetothisline，andinthesamelatitudes，fromtheFrithofForthallroundtoDover。Minutelabouronsmallportionsofarablegroundgivesevidently，inequalsoilsandclimate，asuperiorproductiveness，wherethesesmallportionsbelonginproperty，asinFlanders，Holland，Friesland，andDitmarschinHolstein，tothefarmer。Itisnotpretendedbyouragriculturalwriters，thatourlargefarmers，eveninBerwickshire，Roxburghshire，ortheLothians，approachtothegardenlikecultivation，attentiontomanures，drainage，andcleanstateoftheland，orinproductivenessfromasmallspaceofsoilnotoriginallyrich，whichdistinguishthesmallfarmersofFlanders，ortheirsystem。Inthehest—farmedparishinScotlandorEngland，morelandiswastedinthecornersandbordersofthefieldsoflargefarms，intheroadsthroughthem，unnecessarilywidebecausetheyarebad，andbadbecausetheyarewide，inneglectedcommons，wastespots，uselessbeltsandclumpsofsorrytrees，andsuchunproductiveareas，thanwouldmaintainthepooroftheparish，iftheywerealllaidtogetherandcultivated。Butlargecapitalappliedtofarmingisofcourseonlyappliedtotheverybestofthesoilsofacountry。Itcannottouchthesmallunproductivespotswhichrequiremoretimeandlabourtofertilizethemthanisconsistentwithaquickreturnofcapital。
Butalthoughhiredtimeandlabourcannotbeappliedbeneficiallytosuchcultivation，theowner’sowntimeandlabourmay。Heisworkingfornohighertermsatfirstfromhislandthanabareliving。Butinthecourseofgenerationsfertilityandvalueareproduced;abetterliving，andevenveryimprovedprocessesofhusbandry，areattained。Furrowdraining，stallfeedingallsummer，liquidmanures，areuniversalinthehusbandryofthesmallfarmsofFlanders，Lombardy，Switzerland。Ourmostimprovingdistrictsunderlargefarmsarebutbeginningtoadoptthem。Dairyhusbandryeven，andthemanufactureofthelargestcheesesbytheco—operationofmanysmallfarmers，（12*）themutualassuranceofpropertyagainstfireandhail—storms，bytheco—operationofsmallfarmers——themostscientificandexpensiveofallagriculturaloperationsinmoderntimes，themanufactureofbeet—rootsugar——thesupplyoftheEuropeanmarketswithflaxandhemp，bythehusbandryofsmallfarmers——
theabundanceoflegumes，fruits，poultry，intheusualdietevenofthelowestclassesabroad，andthetotalwantofsuchvarietyatthetablesevenofoUrmiddleclasses，andthisvarietyandabundanceessentiallyconnectedwiththehusbandryofsmallfarmers——allthesearefeaturesintheoccupationofacountrybysmallproprietor—farmers，whichmustmaketheinquirerpausebeforeheadmitsthedogmaofourlanddoctorsathome，thatlargefarmsworkedbyhiredlabourandgreatcapitalcanalonebringoutthegreatestproductivenessofthesoilandfurnishthegreatestsupplyofthenecessariesandconveniencesoflifetotheinhabitantsofacountry。\"
4。AmongthemanyflourishingregionsofGermanyinwhichpeasantpropertiesprevail，IselectthePalatinate，fortheadvantageofquoting，fromanEnglishsource，theresultsofrecentpersonalobservationofitsagricultureanditspeople。
Mr。Howitt，awriterwhosehabititistoseeallEnglishobjectsandEnglishsocialitiesenbeau，andwho，intreatingoftheRhenishpeasantry，certainlydoesnotunderratetherudenessoftheirimplements，andtheinferiorityoftheirploughing，neverthelessshowsthatundertheinvigoratinginfluenceofthefeelingsofproprietorship，theymakeupfortheimperfectionsoftheirapparatusbytheintensityoftheirapplication。\"Thepeasantharrowsandclearshislandtillitisinthenicestorder，anditisadmirabletoseethecropswhichheobtains。\"（13*）\"Thepeasants（14*）arethegreatandeverpresentobjectsofcountrylife。Theyarethegreatpopulationofthecountry，becausetheythemselvesarethepossessors。Thiscountryis，infact，forthemostpart，inthehandsofthepeople。Itisparcelledoutamongthemultitude……Thepeasantsarenot，aswithus，forthemostpart，totallycutofffrompropertyinthesoiltheycultivate，totallydependentonthelabouraffordedbyothers—theyarethemselvestheproprietors。Itis，perhaps，fromthiscausethattheyareprobablythemostindustriouspeasantryintheworld。Theylabourbusily，earlyandlate，becausetheyfeelthattheyarelabouringforthemselves……TheGermanpeasantsworkhard，buttheyhavenoactualwant。Everymanhashishouse，hisorchard，hisroadsidetrees，commonlysoheavywithfruit，thatheisobligedtopropandsecurethemallways，ortheywouldbetorntopieces。Hehashiscorn—plot，hisplotformangel—wurzel，forhemp，andsoon。Heishisownmaster;andhe，andeverymemberofhisfamily，havethestrongestmotivestolabour。Youseetheeffectofthisinthatunremittingdiligencewhichisbeyondthatofthewholeworldbesides，andhiseconomy，whichisstillgreater。TheGermans，indeed，arenotsoactiveandlivelyastheEnglish。Youneverseetheminabustle，orasthoughtheymeanttoknockoffavastdealinalittletime……
Theyare，onthecontrary，slow，butforeverdoing。Theyplodonfromdaytoday，andyeartoyear——themostpatient，untirable，andperseveringofanimals。TheEnglishpeasantissocutofffromtheideaofproperty，thathecomeshabituallytolookuponitasathingfromwhichheiswarnedbythelawsofthelargeproprietors，andbecomes，inconsequence，spiritless，purposeless……TheGermanbauer，onthecontrary，looksonthecountryasmadeforhimandhisfellow—men。Hefeelshimselfaman;hehasastakeinthecountry，asgoodasthatofthebulkofhisneighbours;nomancanthreatenhimwithejection，ortheworkhouse，solongasheisactiveandeconomical。Hewalks，therefore，withaboldstep;helooksyouinthefacewiththeairofafreeman，butofarespectfulone。\"
Oftheirindustry，thesamewriterthusfurtherspeaks:
\"Thereisnotanhouroftheyearinwhichtheydonotfindunceasingoccupation。Inthedepthofwinter，whentheweatherpermitsthembyanymeanstogetoutofdoors，theyarealwaysfindingsomethingtodo。Theycarryouttheirmanuretotheirlandswhilethefrostisinthem。Ifthereisnotfrost，theyarebusycleaningditchesandfellingoldfruittrees，orsuchasdonotbearwell。Suchofthemasaretoopoortolayinasufficientstockofwood，findplentyofworkinascendingintothemountainouswoods，andbringingthencefuel。ItwouldastonishtheEnglishcommonpeopletoseetheintenselabourwithwhichtheGermansearntheirfirewood。Inthedepthsoffrostandsnow，gointoanyoftheirhillsandwoods，andthereyouwillfindthemhackingupstumps，cuttingoffbranches，andgathering，byallmeanswhichtheofficialwood—policewillallow，boughs，stakes，andpiecesofwood，whichtheyconveyhomewiththemostincredibletoilandpatience。\"（15*）Afteradescriptionoftheircarefulandlaboriousvineyardculture，hecontinues，（16*）\"InEngland，withitsgreatquantityofgrasslands，anditslargefarms，sosoonasthegrainisin，andthefieldsareshutupforhaygrass，thecountryseemsinacomparativestateofrestandquiet。Butheretheyareeverywhere，andforever，hoeingandmowing，plantingandcutting，weedingandgathering。Theyhaveasuccessionofcropslikeamarket—gardener。Theyhavetheircarrots，poppies，hemp，flax，saintfoin，lucerne，rape，colewort，cabbage，rotabaga，blackturnips，Swedishandwhiteturnips，teazles，Jerusalemartichokes，mangel—wurzel，parsnips，kidney—beans，fieldbeans，andpeas，vetches，Indiancorn，buckwheat，madderforthemanufacturer，potatoes，theirgreatcropoftobacco，millet—all，orthegreaterpart，underthefamilymanagement，intheirownfamilyallotments。Theyhavehadthesethingsfirsttosow，manyofthemtotransplant，tohoe，toweed，toclearofinsects，totop;manyofthemtomowandgatherinsuccessivecrops。Theyhavetheirwater—meadows，ofwhichkindalmostalltheirmeadowsare，toflood，tomow，andreflood;
watercoursestoreopenandtomakeanew:theirearlyfruitstogather，tobringtomarketwiththeirgreencropsofvegetables;
theircattle，sheep，calves，foals，mostofthemprisoners，andpoultrytolookafter;theirvines，astheyshootrampantlyinthesummerheat，toprune，andthinouttheleaveswhentheyaretoothick:andanyonemayimaginewhatasceneofincessantlabouritis。\"
Thisinterestingsketch，tothegeneraltruthofwhichanyobservanttravellerinthathighlycultivatedandpopulousregioncanbearwitness，accordswiththemoreelaboratedelineationbyadistinguishedinhabitant，ProfessorRau，inhislittletreatise\"OntheAgricultureofthePalatinate。\"（17*）Dr。Raubearstestimonynotonlytotheindustry，buttotheskillandintelligenceofthepeasantry;theirjudiciousemploymentofmanures，andexcellentrotationofcrops;theprogressiveimprovementoftheiragricultureforgenerationspast，andthespiritoffurtherimprovementwhichisstillactive。\"Theindefatigablenessofthecountrypeople，whomayheseeninactivityallthedayandalltheyear，andareneveridle，becausetheymakeagooddistributionoftheirlabours，andfindforeveryintervaloftimeasuitableoccupation，isaswellknownastheirzealispraiseworthyinturningtouseeverycircumstancewhichpresentsitself，inseizinguponeveryusefulnoveltywhichoffers，andeveninsearchingoutnewandadvantageousmethods。Oneeasilyperceivesthatthepeasantofthisdistricthasreflectedmuchonhisoccupation:hecangivereasonsforhismodesofproceeding，evenifthosereasonsarenotalwaystenable;heisasexactanobserverofproportionsasitispossibletohefrommemory，withouttheaidoffigures:heattendstosuchgeneralsignsofthetimesasappeartoaugurhimeitherbenefitorharm。\"（18*）
TheexperienceofallotherpartsofGermanyissimilar。\"InSaxony，\"saysMr。Kay，\"itisanotoriousfact，thatduringthelastthirtyyears，andsincethepeasantsbecametheproprietorsoftheland，therehasbeenarapidandcontinualimprovementintheconditionofthehouses，inthemannerofliving，inthedressofthepeasants，andparticularlyinthecultureoftheland。IhavetwicewalkedthroughthatpartofSaxonycalledSaxonSwitzerland，incompanywithaGermanguide，andonpurposetoseethestateofthevillagesandofthefarming，andIcansafelychallengecontradictionwhenIaffirmthatthereisnofarminginallEuropesuperiortothelaboriouslycarefulcultivationofthevalleysofthatpartofSaxony。There，asinthecantonsofBerne，Vaud，andZurich，andintheRhineprovinces，thefarmsaresingularlyflourishing。Theyarekeptinbeautifulcondition，andarealwaysneatandwellmanaged。Thegroundisclearedasifitwereagarden。Nohedgesorbrushwoodencumberit。Scarcelyarushorthistleorabitofrankgrassistobeseen。Themeadowsarewellwateredeveryspringwithliquidmanure，savedfromthedrainingsofthefarmyards。ThegrassissofreefromweedsthattheSaxonmeadowsremindedmemoreofEnglishlawnsthanofanythingelseIhadseen。Thepeasantsendeavourtooutstriponeanotherinthequantityandqualityoftheproduce，inthepreparationoftheground，andinthegeneralcultivationoftheirrespectiveportions。Allthelittleproprietorsareeagertofindouthowtofarmsoastoproducethegreatestresults:theydiligentlyseekafterimprovements;
theysendtheirchildrentotheagriculturalschoolsinordertofitthemtoassisttheirfathers;andeachproprietorsoonadoptsanewimprovementintroducedbyanyofhisneighbours。\"（19*）Ifthishenotoverstated，itdenotesastateofintelligenceverydifferentnotonlyfromthatofEnglishlabourershutofEnglishfarmers。
Mr。Kay’sbook，publishedin1850，containsamassofevidencegatheredfromobservationandinquiriesinmanydifferentpartsofEurope，togetherwithattestationsfrommanydistinguishedwriters，tothebeneficialeffectsofpeasantproperties。Amongthetestimonieswhichhecitesrespectingtheireffectonagriculture，Iselectthefollowing。
\"Reichensperger，himselfaninhabitantofthatpartofPrussiawherethelandisthemostsubdivided，haspublishedalongandveryelaborateworktoshowtheadmirableconsequencesofasystemoffreeholdsinland。Heexpressesaverydecidedopinionthatnotonlyarethegrossproductsofanygivennumberofacresheldandcultivatedbysmallorpeasantproprietors，greaterthanthegrossproductsofanequalnumberofacresheldbyafewgreatproprietors，andcultivatedbytenantfarmers，butthatthenetproductsoftheformer，afterdeductingalltheexpensesofcultivation，arealsogreaterthanthenetproductsofthelatter……Hementionsonefactwhichseemstoprovethatthefertilityofthelandincountrieswherethepropertiesaresmall，mustberapidlyincreasing。HesaysthatthepriceofthelandwhichisdividedintosmallpropertiesinthePrussianRhineprovinces，ismuchhigher，andhasbeenrisingmuchmorerapidly，thanthepriceoflandonthegreatestates。HeandProfessorRaubothsaythatthisriseinthepriceofthesmallestateswouldhaveruinedthemorerecentpurchasers，unlesstheproductivenessofthesmallestateshadincreasedinatleastanequalproportion;andasthesmallproprietorshavebeengraduallybecomingmoreandmoreprosperousnotwithstandingtheincreasingpricestheyhavepaidfortheirland，heargues，withapparentjustness，thatthiswouldseemtoshowthatnotonlythegrossprofitsofthesmallestates，butthenetprofitsalsohavebeengraduallyincreasing，andthatthenetprofitsperacre，ofland，whenfarmedbysmallproprietors，aregreaterthanthenetprofitsperacreoflandfarmedbyagreatproprietor。Hesays，withseemingtruth，thattheincreasingpriceoflandinthesmallestatescannotbethemereeffectofcompetition，oritwouldhavediminishedtheprofitsandtheprosperityofthesmallproprietors，andthatthisresulthasnotfollowedtherise。
\"AlbrechtThaer，anothercelebratedGermanwriteronthedifferentsystemsofagriculture，inoneofhislaterworks（Grunds鋞zederrationellenLandwirthschaft）expresseshisdecidedconviction，thatthenetproduceoflandisgreaterwhenfarmedbysmallproprietorsthanwhenfarmedbygreatproprietorsortheirtenants……ThisopinionofThaerisallthemoreremarkable，as，duringtheearlypartofhislife，hewasverystronglyinfavouroftheEnglishsystemofgreatestatesandgreatfarms。\"
Mr。Kayaddsfromhisownobservation，\"ThepeasantfarmingofPrussia，Saxony，Holland，andSwitzerlandisthemostperfectandeconomicalfarmingIhaveeverwitnessedinanycountry。\"
（20*）
5。ButthemostdecisiveexampleinoppositiontotheEnglishprejudiceagainstcultivationbypeasantproprietors，isthecaseofBelgium。ThesoilisoriginallyoneoftheworstinEurope。
\"Theprovinces，\"saysMr。M’Culloch，（21*）\"ofWestandEastFlanders，andHainault，formafarstretchingplain，ofwhichtheluxuriantvegetationindicatestheindefatigablecareandlabourbestoweduponitscultivation;forthenaturalsoilconsistsalmostwhollyofbarrensand，anditsgreatfertilityisentirelytheresultofveryskillfulmanagementandjudiciousapplicationofvariousmanures。\"ThereexistsacarefullypreparedandcomprehensivetreatiseonFlemishHusbandry，intheFarmer’sSeriesoftheSocietyfortheDiffusionofUsefulKnowledge。Thewriterobserves（22*）thattheFlemishagriculturists\"seemtowantnothingbutaspacetoworkupon:whateverbethequalityortextureofthesoil，intimetheywillmakeitproducesomething。
ThesandsintheCampinecanbecomparedtonothingbutthesandonthesea—shore，whichtheyprobablywereoriginally。Itishighlyinterestingtofollowstepbysteptheprogressofimprovement。Hereyouseeacottageandrudecow—shederectedonaspotofthemostunpromisingaspect。Theloosewhitesandblownintoregularmoundsisonlykepttogetherbytherootsoftheheath:asmallspotonlyislevelledandsurroundedbyaditch:
partofthisiscoveredwithyoungbroom，partisplantedwithpotatoes，andperhapsasmallpatchofdiminutiveclovermayshowitself:\"butmanures，bothsolidandliquid，arecollecting，\"andthisisthenucleusfromwhich，inafewyears，alittlefarmwillspreadaround……Ifthereisnomanureathand，theonlythingthatcanbesown，onpuresand，atfirstisbroom:thisgrowsinthemostbarrensoils;inthreeyearsitisfittocut，andproducessomereturninfaggotsforthebakersandbrickmakers。Theleaveswhichhavefallenhavesomewhatenrichedthesoil，andthefibresoftherootshavegivenaslightdegreeofcompactness。Itmaynowbeploughedandsownwithbuckwheat，orevenwithryewithoutmanure。Bythetimethisisreaped，somemanuremayhavebeencollected，andaregularcourseofcroppingmaybegin。Assoonascloverandpotatoesenablethefarmertokeepcowsandmakemanure，theimprovementgoesonrapidly;inafewyearsthesoilundergoesacompletechange:itbecomesmellowandretentiveofmoisture，andenrichedbythevegetablematteraffordedbythedecompositionoftherootsofcloverandotherplants……Afterthelandhasbeengraduallybroughtintoagoodstate，andiscultivatedinaregularmanner，thereappearsmuchlessdifferencebetweenthesoilswhichhavebeenoriginallygood，andthosewhichhavebeenmadesobylabourandindustry。
Atleastthecropsinbothappearmorenearlyalikeatharvest，thanisthecaseinsoilsofdifferentqualitiesinothercountries。ThisisagreatproofoftheexcellencyoftheFlemishsystem;foritshowsthatthelandisinaconstantstateofimprovement，andthatthedeficiencyofthesoiliscompensatedbygreaterattentiontotillageandmanuring，especiallythelatter。\"
Thepeoplewholabourthusintenselyontheirsmallpropertiesorfarms，havepractisedforcenturiesthoseprinciplesofrotationofcropsandeconomyofmanures，whichinEnglandarecountedamongmoderndiscoveries:andevennowthesuperiorityoftheiragriculture，asawhole，tothatofEngland，isadmittedbycompetentjudges。\"Thecultivationofapoorlightsoil，oramoderatesoil，\"saysthewriterlastquoted，（23*）\"isgenerallysuperiorinFlanderstothatofthemostimprovedfarmsofthesamekindinBritain。WesurpasstheFlemishfarmergreatlyincapital，invariedimplementsoftillage，inthechoiceandbreedingofcattleandsheep，\"（though，accordingtothesameauthority，（24*）theyaremuch\"beforeusinthefeedingoftheircows，\"）\"andtheBritishfarmerisingeneralamanofsuperioreducationtotheFlemishpeasant。Butintheminuteattentiontothequalitiesofthesoil，inthemanagementandapplicationofmanuresofdifferentkinds，inthejudicioussuccessionofcrops，andespeciallyintheeconomyofland，sothateverypartofitshallbeinaconstantstateofproduction，wehavestillsomethingtolearnfromtheFlemings，\"andnotfromaninstructedandenterprisingFleminghereandthere，butfromthegeneralpractice。
Muchofthemosthighlycultivatedpartofthecountryconsistsofpeasantproperties，managedbytheproprietors，alwayseitherwhollyorpartlybyspadeindustry。（25*）\"Whenthelandiscultivatedentirelybythespade，andnohorsesarekept，acowiskeptforeverythreeacresofland，andentirelyfedonartificialgrassesandroots。ThismodeofcultivationisprincipallyadoptedintheWaesdistrict，wherepropertiesareverysmall。Allthelabourisdonebythedifferentmembersofthefamily;\"childrensoonbeginning\"toassistinvariousminuteoperations，accordingtotheirageandstrength，suchasweeding，hoeing，feedingthecows。Iftheycanraiseryeandwheatenoughtomaketheirbread，andpotatoes，turnips，carrotsandclover，forthecows，theydowell;andtheproduceofthesaleoftheirrape—seed，theirflax，theirhemp，andtheirbutter，afterdeductingtheexpenseofmanurepurchased，whichisalwaysconsiderable，givesthemaverygoodprofit。Supposethewholeextentofthelandtobesixacres，whichisnotanuncommonoccupation，andwhichonemancanmanage;\"then（afterdescribingthecultivation），\"ifamanwithhiswifeandthreeyoungchildrenareconsideredasequaltothreeandahalfgrownupmen，thefamilywillrequirethirty—ninebushelsofgrain，forty—ninebushelsofpotatoes，afathog，andthebutterandmilkofonecow……anacreandahalfoflandwillproducethegrainandpotatoes，andallowsomecorntofinishthefatteningofthehog，whichhastheextrabuttermilk:anotheracreinclover，carrots，andpotatoes，togetherwiththestubbleturnips，willmorethanfeedthecow。consequentlytwoandahalfacresoflandissufficienttofeedthisfamily，andtheproduceoftheotherthreeandahalfmaybesoldtopaytherentortheinterestofpurchase—money，wearandtearofimplements，extramanure，andclothesforthefamily。Buttheseacresarethemostprofitableonthefarm，forthehemp，flax，andcolzaareincluded;andbyhavinganotheracreincloverandroots，asecondcowcanbekept，anditsproducesold。Wehave，therefore，asolutionoftheproblem，howafamilycanliveandthriveonsixacresofmoderateland。\"Aftershowingbycalculationthatthisextentoflandcanbecultivatedinthemostperfectmannerbythefamilywithoutanyaidfromhiredlabour，thewritercontinues，\"Inafarmoftenacresentirelycultivatedbythespade，theadditionofamanandawomantothemembersofthefamilywillrenderalltheoperationsmoreeasy;andwithhorseandcarttocarryoutthemanure，andbringhometheproduce，andoccasionallydrawtheharrows，fifteenacresmaybeverywellcultivated……Thusitwillbeseen，\"（thisistheresultofsomepagesofdetailsandcalculations，（26*））\"thatbyspadehusbandry，anindustriousmanwithasmallcapital，occupyingonlyfifteenacresofgoodlightland，maynotonlyliveandbringupafamily，payingagoodrent，butmayaccumulateaconsiderablesuminthecourseofhislife。\"Buttheindefatigableindustrybywhichheaccomplishesthis，andofwhichsolargeaportionisexpendednotinthemerecultivation，butintheimprovement，foradistantreturn，ofthesoilitself——hasthatindustrynoconnexionwithnotpayingrent？Coulditexist，withoutpresupposingneitheravirtuallypermanenttenure，orthecertainprospect，bylabourandeconomyonhiredland，ofbecomingonedayalandedproprietor？
Astotheirmodeofliving，\"theFlemishfarmersandlabourerslivemuchmoreeconomicallythanthesameclassinEngland:theyseldomeatmeat，exceptonSundaysandinharvest:
buttermilkandpotatoeswithbrownbreadistheirdailyfood。\"ItisonthiskindofevidencethatEnglishtravellers，astheyhurrythroughEurope，pronouncethepeasantryofeveryContinentalcountrypoorandmiserable，itsagriculturalandsocialsystemafailure，andtheEnglishtheonlyr間imeunderwhichlabourersarewelloff。Itis，trulyenough，theonlyr間imeunderwhichlabourers，whetherwelloffornot，neverattempttobebetter。SolittleareEnglishlabourersaccustomedtoconsideritpossiblethatalabourershouldnotspendallheearns，thattheyhabituallymistakethesignsofeconomyforthoseofpoverty。Observethetrueinterpretationofthephenomena。
\"Accordinglytheyaregraduallyacquiringcapital，andtheirgreatambitionistohavelandoftheirown。Theyeagerlyseizeeveryopportunityofpurchasingasmallfarm，andthepriceissoraisedbycompetition，thatlandpayslittlemorethantwopercentinterestforthepurchasemoney。Largepropertiesgraduallydisappear，andaredividedintosmallportions，whichsellatahighrate。Butthewealthandindustryofthepopulationiscontinuallyincreasing，beingratherdiffusedthroughthemassesthanaccumulatedinindividuals。\"
Withfactslikethese，knownandaccessible，itisnotalittlesurprisingtofindthecaseofFlandersreferredtonotinrecommendationofpeasantproperties，butasawarningagainstthem;onnobettergroundthanapresumptiveexcessofpopulation，inferredfromthedistresswhichexistedamongthepeasantryofBrabantandEastFlandersinthedisastrousyear1846—47。TheevidencewhichIhavecitedfromawriterconversantwiththesubject，andhavingnoeconomicaltheorytosupport，showsthatthedistress，whatevermayhavebeenitsseverity，arosefromnoinsufficiencyintheselittlepropertiestosupplyabundantly，inanyordinarycircumstances，thewantsofallwhomtheyhavetomaintain。Itarosefromtheessentialconditiontowhichthosearesubjectwhoemploylandoftheirowningrowingtheirownfood，namely，thatthevicissitudesoftheseasonsmustbebornebythemselves，andcannot，asinthecaseoflargefarmers，beshiftedfromthemtotheconsumer。Whenweremembertheseasonof1846，apartialfailureofallkindsofgrain，andanalmosttotaloneofthepotato，itisnowonderthatinsounusualacalamitytheproduceofsixacres，halfofthemsownwithflax，hemp，oroilseeds，shouldfallshortofayear’sprovisionforafamily。ButwearenottocontrastthedistressedFlemishpeasantwithanEnglishcapitalistwhofarmsseveralhundredacresofland。IfthepeasantwereanEnglishman，hewouldnotbethatcapitalist，butadaylabourerunderacapitalist。Andistherenodistress，intimesofdearth，amongdaylabourers？Wastherenone，thatyear，incountrieswheresmallproprietorsandsmallfarmersareunknown？IamawareofnoreasonforbelievingthatthedistresswasgreaterinBelgium，thancorrespondstotheproportionalextentofthefailureofcropscomparedwithothercountries。（27*）
6。TheevidenceofthebeneficialoperationofpeasantpropertiesintheChannelIslandsisofsodecisiveacharacter，thatIcannothelpaddingtothenumerouscitationsalreadymade，partofadescriptionoftheeconomicalconditionofthoseislands，byawriterwhocombinespersonalobservationwithanattentivestudyoftheinformationaffordedbyother。Mr。WilliamThornton，inhis\"PleaforPeasantProprietors，\"abookwhichbytheexcellencebothofitsmaterialsandofitsexecution，deservestoberegardedasthestandardworkonthatsideofthequestion，speaksoftheislandofGuernseyinthefollowingterms:\"NoteveninEnglandisnearlysolargeaquantityofproducesenttomarketfromatractofsuchlimitedextent。Thisofitselfmightprovethatthecultivatorsmustbefarremovedabovepoverty，forbeingabsoluteownersofalltheproduceraisedbythem，theyofcoursesellonlywhattheydonotthemselvesrequire。Butthesatisfactorinessoftheirconditionisapparenttoeveryobserver。’Thehappiestcommunity，’saysMr。
Hill，’whichithaseverbeenmylottofallinwith，istobefoundinthislittleislandofGuernsey。’’Nomatter，’saysSirGeorgeHead，’towhatpointthetravellermaychoosetobendhisway，comforteverywhereprevails。’WhatmostsurprisestheEnglishvisitorinhisfirstwalkordrivebeyondtheboundsofSt。Peter’sPortistheappearanceofthehabitationswithwhichthelandscapeisthicklystudded。Manyofthemaresuchasinhisowncountrywouldbelongtopersonsofmiddlerank;butheispuzzledtoguesswhatsortofpeopleliveintheother，which，thoughingeneralnotlargeenoughforfarmers，arealmostinvariablymuchtoogoodineveryrespectfordaylabourers……
Literally，inthewholeisland，withtheexceptionofafewfishermen’shuts，thereisnotonesomeanastobelikenedtotheordinaryhabitationofanEnglishfarmlabourer……’Look，’
saysalateBailiffofGuernsey，Mr。DeL’isleBrock，’atthehovelsoftheEnglish，andcomparethemwiththecottagesofourpeasantry。’……Beggarsareutterlyunknown……Pauperism，able—bodiedpauperismatleast，isnearlyasrareasmendicancy。
TheSavingsBanksaccountsalsobearwitnesstothegeneralabundanceenjoyedbythelabouringclassesofGuernsey。intheyear1841，therewereinEngland，outofapopulationofnearlyfifteenmillions，lessthan700，000depositors，oroneineverytwentypersons，andtheaverageamountofthedepositswas30l。
InGuernsey，inthesameyear，outofapopulationof26，000，thenumberofdepositorswas1920，andtheaverageamountofthedeposits40l。\"（28*）TheevidenceastoJerseyandAlderneyisofasimilarcharacter。
OftheefficiencyandproductivenessofagricultureonthesmallpropertiesoftheChannelislands，Mr。Thorntonproducesampleevidence，theresultofwhichhesumsupasfollows:\"ThusitappearsthatinthetwoprincipalChannelIslands，theagriculturalpopulationis，intheonetwice，andintheother，threetimes，asdenseasinBritain，therebeinginthelattercountry，onlyonecultivatortotwenty—twoacresofcultivatedland，whileinJerseythereisonetoeleven，andinGuernseyonetosevenacres。Yettheagricultureoftheseislandsmaintains，besidescultivators，nonagriculturalpopulations，respectivelyfourandfivetimesasdenseasthatofBritain。ThisdifferencedoesnotarisefromanysuperiorityofsoilorclimatepossessedbytheChannelIslands，fortheformerisnaturallyratherpoor，andthelatterisnotbetterthaninthesoutherncountiesofEngland。Itisowingentirelytotheassiduouscareofthefarmers，andtotheabundantuseofmanure。\"（29*）\"Intheyear1837\"hesaysinanotherplace，（30*）\"theaverageyieldofwheatinthelargefarmsofEnglandwasonlytwenty—onebushels，andthehighestaverageforanyonecountywasnomorethantwenty—sixbushels。ThehighestaveragesinceclaimedforthewholeofEnglandisthirtybushels。InJersey，wheretheaveragesizeoffarmsisonlysixteenacres，theaverageproduceofwheatperacrewasstatedbyInglisin1834tobethirty—sixbushels;
butitisprovedbyofficialtablestohavebeenfortybushelsinthefiveyearsendingwith1833。InGuernsey，wherefarmsarestillsmaller，fourquartersperacre，accordingtoInglis，isconsideredagood，butstillaverycommoncrop。\"\"Thirtyshillings（31*）anacrewouldbethoughtinEnglandaveryfairrentformiddlingland;butintheChannelIslands，itisonlyveryinferiorlandthatwouldnotletforatleast4l。\"