ThelegislatorsoftheUnitedStates，whohavemitigatedalmostallthepenaltiesofcriminallaw，stillmakerapeacapitaloffence，andnocrimeisvisitedwithmoreinexorableseveritybypublicopinion。Thismaybeaccountedfor;astheAmericanscanconceivenothingmorepreciousthanawoman’shonor，andnothingwhichoughtsomuchtoberespectedasherindependence，theyholdthatnopunishmentistoosevereforthemanwhodeprivesherofthemagainstherwill。InFrance，wherethesameoffenceisvisitedwithfarmilderpenalties，itisfrequentlydifficulttogetaverdictfromajuryagainsttheprisoner。Isthisaconsequenceofcontemptofdecencyorcontemptofwomen？Icannotbutbelievethatitisacontemptofoneandoftheother。
ThustheAmericansdonotthinkthatmanandwomanhaveeitherthedutyortherighttoperformthesameoffices，buttheyshowanequalregardforboththeirrespectiveparts;andthoughtheirlotisdifferent，theyconsiderbothofthemasbeingsofequalvalue。Theydonotgivetothecourageofwomanthesameformorthesamedirectionastothatofman;buttheyneverdoubthercourage:andiftheyholdthatmanandhispartneroughtnotalwaystoexercisetheirintellectandunderstandinginthesamemanner，theyatleastbelievetheunderstandingoftheonetobeassoundasthatoftheother，andherintellecttobeasclear。Thus，then，whilsttheyhaveallowedthesocialinferiorityofwomantosubsist，theyhavedonealltheycouldtoraisehermorallyandintellectuallytothelevelofman;andinthisrespecttheyappeartometohaveexcellentlyunderstoodthetrueprincipleofdemocraticimprovement。Asformyself，Idonothesitatetoavowthat，althoughthewomenoftheUnitedStatesareconfinedwithinthenarrowcircleofdomesticlife，andtheirsituationisinsomerespectsoneofextremedependence，Ihavenowhereseenwomanoccupyingaloftierposition;andifIwereasked，nowthatIamdrawingtothecloseofthiswork，inwhichIhavespokenofsomanyimportantthingsdonebytheAmericans，towhatthesingularprosperityandgrowingstrengthofthatpeopleoughtmainlytobeattributed，Ishouldreply—tothesuperiorityoftheirwomen。
ChapterXIII:ThatThePrincipleOfEqualityNaturallyDividesTheAmericansIntoANumberOfSmallPrivateCirclesItmayprobablybesupposedthatthefinalconsequenceandnecessaryeffectofdemocraticinstitutionsistoconfoundtogetherallthemembersofthecommunityinprivateaswellasinpubliclife，andtocompelthemalltoliveincommon;butthiswouldbetoascribeaverycoarseandoppressiveformtotheequalitywhichoriginatesindemocracy。Nostateofsocietyorlawscanrendermensomuchalike，butthateducation，fortune，andtasteswillinterposesomedifferencesbetweenthem;and，thoughdifferentmenmaysometimesfindittheirinteresttocombineforthesamepurposes，theywillnevermakeittheirpleasure。Theywillthereforealwaystendtoevadetheprovisionsoflegislation，whatevertheymaybe;anddepartinginsomeonerespectfromthecirclewithinwhichtheyweretobebounded，theywillsetup，closebythegreatpoliticalcommunity，smallprivatecircles，unitedtogetherbythesimilitudeoftheirconditions，habits，andmanners。
IntheUnitedStatesthecitizenshavenosortofpre—eminenceovereachother;theyoweeachothernomutualobedienceorrespect;theyallmeetfortheadministrationofjustice，forthegovernmentoftheState，andingeneraltotreatoftheaffairswhichconcerntheircommonwelfare;butIneverheardthatattemptshavebeenmadetobringthemalltofollowthesamediversions，ortoamusethemselvespromiscuouslyinthesameplacesofrecreation。TheAmericans，whominglesoreadilyintheirpoliticalassembliesandcourtsofjustice，arewontonthecontrarycarefullytoseparateintosmalldistinctcircles，inordertoindulgebythemselvesintheenjoymentsofprivatelife。Eachofthemiswillingtoacknowledgeallhisfellow—citizensashisequals，buthewillonlyreceiveaverylimitednumberofthemamongsthisfriendsorhisguests。Thisappearstometobeverynatural。Inproportionasthecircleofpublicsocietyisextended，itmaybeanticipatedthatthesphereofprivateintercoursewillbecontracted;farfromsupposingthatthemembersofmodernsocietywillultimatelyliveincommon，Iamafraidthattheymayendbyformingnothingbutsmallcoteries。
Amongstaristocraticnationsthedifferentclassesarelikevastchambers，outofwhichitisimpossibletoget，intowhichitisimpossibletoenter。Theseclasseshavenocommunicationwitheachother，butwithintheirpalemennecessarilyliveindailycontact;eventhoughtheywouldnotnaturallysuit，thegeneralconformityofasimilarconditionbringsthemnearertogether。Butwhenneitherlawnorcustomprofessestoestablishfrequentandhabitualrelationsbetweencertainmen，theirintercourseoriginatesintheaccidentalanalogyofopinionsandtastes;henceprivatesocietyisinfinitelyvaried。Indemocracies，wherethemembersofthecommunityneverdiffermuchfromeachother，andnaturallystandinsuchpropinquitythattheymayallatanytimebeconfoundedinonegeneralmass，numerousartificialandarbitrarydistinctionsspringup，bymeansofwhicheverymanhopestokeephimselfaloof，lestheshouldbecarriedawayinthecrowdagainsthiswill。Thiscanneverfailtobethecase;forhumaninstitutionsmaybechanged，butnotman:whatevermaybethegeneralendeavorofacommunitytorenderitsmembersequalandalike，thepersonalprideofindividualswillalwaysseektoriseabovetheline，andtoformsomewhereaninequalitytotheirownadvantage。
Inaristocraciesmenareseparatedfromeachotherbyloftystationarybarriers;indemocraciestheyaredividedbyanumberofsmallandalmostinvisiblethreads，whichareconstantlybrokenormovedfromplacetoplace。Thus，whatevermaybetheprogressofequality，indemocraticnationsagreatnumberofsmallprivatecommunitieswillalwaysbeformedwithinthegeneralpaleofpoliticalsociety;butnoneofthemwillbearanyresemblanceinitsmannerstothehighestclassinaristocracies。
ChapterXIV:SomeReflectionsOnAmericanMannersNothingseemsatfirstsightlessimportantthantheoutwardformofhumanactions，yetthereisnothinguponwhichmensetmorestore:theygrowusedtoeverythingexcepttolivinginasocietywhichhasnottheirownmanners。Theinfluenceofthesocialandpoliticalstateofacountryuponmannersisthereforedeservingofseriousexamination。Mannersare，generally，theproductoftheverybasisofthecharacterofapeople，buttheyarealsosometimestheresultofanarbitraryconventionbetweencertainmen;thustheyareatoncenaturalandacquired。Whencertainmenperceivethattheyaretheforemostpersonsinsociety，withoutcontestationandwithouteffort—whentheyareconstantlyengagedonlargeobjects，leavingthemoreminutedetailstoothers—andwhentheyliveintheenjoymentofwealthwhichtheydidnotamassandwhichtheydonotfeartolose，itmaybesupposedthattheyfeelakindofhaughtydisdainofthepettyinterestsandpracticalcaresoflife，andthattheirthoughtsassumeanaturalgreatness，whichtheirlanguageandtheirmannersdenote。Indemocraticcountriesmannersaregenerallydevoidofdignity，becauseprivatelifeisthereextremelypettyinitscharacter;andtheyarefrequentlylow，becausethemindhasfewopportunitiesofrisingabovetheengrossingcaresofdomesticinterests。Truedignityinmannersconsistsinalwaystakingone’sproperstation，neithertoohighnortoolow;andthisisasmuchwithinthereachofapeasantasofaprince。Indemocraciesallstationsappeardoubtful;henceitisthatthemannersofdemocracies，thoughoftenfullofarrogance，arecommonlywantingindignity，and，moreover，theyarenevereitherwelldisciplinedoraccomplished。
Themenwholiveindemocraciesaretoofluctuatingforacertainnumberofthemevertosucceedinlayingdownacodeofgoodbreeding，andinforcingpeopletofollowit。Everymanthereforebehavesafterhisownfashion，andthereisalwaysacertainincoherenceinthemannersofsuchtimes，becausetheyaremouldeduponthefeelingsandnotionsofeachindividual，ratherthanuponanidealmodelproposedforgeneralimitation。
This，however，ismuchmoreperceptibleatthetimewhenanaristocracyhasjustbeenoverthrownthanafterithaslongbeendestroyed。Newpoliticalinstitutionsandnewsocialelementsthenbringtothesameplacesofresort，andfrequentlycompeltoliveincommon，menwhoseeducationandhabitsarestillamazinglydissimilar，andthisrendersthemotleycompositionofsocietypeculiarlyvisible。Theexistenceofaformerstrictcodeofgoodbreedingisstillremembered，butwhatitcontainedorwhereitistobefoundisalreadyforgotten。Menhavelostthecommonlawofmanners，andtheyhavenotyetmadeuptheirmindstodowithoutit;buteveryoneendeavorstomaketohimselfsomesortofarbitraryandvariablerule，fromtheremnantofformerusages;sothatmannershaveneithertheregularityandthedignitywhichtheyoftendisplayamongstaristocraticnations，northesimplicityandfreedomwhichtheysometimesassumeindemocracies;theyareatonceconstrainedandwithoutconstraint。
This，however，isnotthenormalstateofthings。Whentheequalityofconditionsislongestablishedandcomplete，asallmenentertainnearlythesamenotionsanddonearlythesamethings，theydonotrequiretoagreeortocopyfromoneanotherinordertospeakoractinthesamemanner:theirmannersareconstantlycharacterizedbyanumberoflesserdiversities，butnotbyanygreatdifferences。Theyareneverperfectlyalike，becausetheydonotcopyfromthesamepattern;theyareneververyunlike，becausetheirsocialconditionisthesame。AtfirstsightatravellerwouldobservethatthemannersofalltheAmericansareexactlysimilar;itisonlyuponcloseexaminationthatthepeculiaritiesinwhichtheydiffermaybedetected。
TheEnglishmakegameofthemannersoftheAmericans;butitissingularthatmostofthewriterswhohavedrawntheseludicrousdelineationsbelongedthemselvestothemiddleclassesinEngland，towhomthesamedelineationsareexceedinglyapplicable:sothatthesepitilesscensorsforthemostpartfurnishanexampleoftheverythingtheyblameintheUnitedStates;theydonotperceivethattheyarederidingthemselves，tothegreatamusementofthearistocracyoftheirowncountry。
Nothingismoreprejudicialtodemocracythanitsoutwardformsofbehavior:manymenwouldwillinglyendureitsvices，whocannotsupportitsmanners。Icannot，however，admitthatthereisnothingcommendableinthemannersofademocraticpeople。
Amongstaristocraticnations，allwholivewithinreachofthefirstclassinsocietycommonlystraintobelikeit，whichgivesrisetoridiculousandinsipidimitations。Asademocraticpeopledoesnotpossessanymodelsofhighbreeding，atleastitescapesthedailynecessityofseeingwretchedcopiesofthem。
Indemocraciesmannersareneversorefinedasamongstaristocraticnations，butontheotherhandtheyareneversocoarse。Neitherthecoarseoathsofthepopulace，northeelegantandchoiceexpressionsofthenobilityaretobeheardthere:themannersofsuchapeopleareoftenvulgar，buttheyareneitherbrutalnormean。Ihavealreadyobservedthatindemocraciesnosuchthingasaregularcodeofgoodbreedingcanbelaiddown;thishassomeinconveniencesandsomeadvantages。
Inaristocraciestherulesofproprietyimposethesamedemeanoroneveryone;theymakeallthemembersofthesameclassappearalike，inspiteoftheirprivateinclinations;theyadornandtheyconcealthenaturalman。Amongstademocraticpeoplemannersareneithersotutorednorsouniform，buttheyarefrequentlymoresincere。Theyform，asitwere，alightandlooselywovenveil，throughwhichtherealfeelingsandprivateopinionsofeachindividualareeasilydiscernible。Theformandthesubstanceofhumanactionsoften，therefore，standincloserrelation;andifthegreatpictureofhumanlifebelessembellished，itismoretrue。Thusitmaybesaid，inonesense，thattheeffectofdemocracyisnotexactlytogivemenanyparticularmanners，buttopreventthemfromhavingmannersatall。
Thefeelings，thepassions，thevirtues，andthevicesofanaristocracymaysometimesreappearinademocracy，butnotitsmanners;theyarelost，andvanishforever，assoonasthedemocraticrevolutioniscompleted。Itwouldseemthatnothingismorelastingthanthemannersofanaristocraticclass，fortheyarepreservedbythatclassforsometimeafterithaslostitswealthanditspower—norsofleeting，fornosoonerhavetheydisappearedthannotatraceofthemistobefound;anditisscarcelypossibletosaywhattheyhavebeenassoonastheyhaveceasedtobe。Achangeinthestateofsocietyworksthismiracle，andafewgenerationssufficetoconsummateit。Theprincipalcharacteristicsofaristocracyarehandeddownbyhistoryafteranaristocracyisdestroyed，butthelightandexquisitetouchesofmannersareeffacedfrommen’smemoriesalmostimmediatelyafteritsfall。Mencannolongerconceivewhatthesemannerswerewhentheyhaveceasedtowitnessthem;
theyaregone，andtheirdeparturewasunseen，unfelt;forinordertofeelthatrefinedenjoymentwhichisderivedfromchoiceanddistinguishedmanners，habitandeducationmusthavepreparedtheheart，andthetasteforthemislostalmostaseasilyasthepracticeofthem。Thusnotonlyademocraticpeoplecannothavearistocraticmanners，buttheyneithercomprehendnordesirethem;andastheyneverhavethoughtofthem，itistotheirmindsasifsuchthingshadneverbeen。Toomuchimportanceshouldnotbeattachedtothisloss，butitmaywellberegretted。
Iamawarethatithasnotunfrequentlyhappenedthatthesamemenhavehadveryhigh—bredmannersandverylow—bornfeelings:theinteriorofcourtshassufficientlyshownwhatimposingexternalsmayconcealthemeanesthearts。Butthoughthemannersofaristocracydidnotconstitutevirtue，theysometimesembellishvirtueitself。Itwasnoordinarysighttoseeanumerousandpowerfulclassofmen，whoseeveryoutwardactionseemedconstantlytobedictatedbyanaturalelevationofthoughtandfeeling，bydelicacyandregularityoftaste，andbyurbanityofmanners。Thosemannersthrewapleasingillusorycharmoverhumannature;andthoughthepicturewasoftenafalseone，itcouldnotbeviewedwithoutanoblesatisfaction。
BookThree—ChaptersXV—XVII
ChapterXV:OfTheGravityOfTheAmericans，AndWhyItDoesNotPreventThemFromOftenCommittingInconsiderateActionsMenwholiveindemocraticcountriesdonotvaluethesimple，turbulent，orcoarsediversionsinwhichthepeopleindulgeinaristocraticcommunities:suchdiversionsarethoughtbythemtobepuerileorinsipid。Norhavetheyagreaterinclinationfortheintellectualandrefinedamusementsofthearistocraticclasses。Theywantsomethingproductiveandsubstantialintheirpleasures;theywanttomixactualfruitionwiththeirjoy。Inaristocraticcommunitiesthepeoplereadilygivethemselvesuptoburstsoftumultuousandboisterousgayety，whichshakeoffatoncetherecollectionoftheirprivations:thenativesofdemocraciesarenotfondofbeingthusviolentlybrokeninupon，andtheyneverlosesightoftheirownselveswithoutregret。Theyprefertothesefrivolousdelightsthosemoreseriousandsilentamusementswhicharelikebusiness，andwhichdonotdrivebusinesswhollyfromtheirminds。AnAmerican，insteadofgoinginaleisurehourtodancemerrilyatsomeplaceofpublicresort，asthefellowsofhiscallingcontinuetodothroughoutthegreaterpartofEurope，shutshimselfupathometodrink。Hethusenjoystwopleasures;hecangoonthinkingofhisbusiness，andhecangetdrunkdecentlybyhisownfireside。
IthoughtthattheEnglishconstitutedthemostseriousnationonthefaceoftheearth，butIhavesinceseentheAmericansandhavechangedmyopinion。IdonotmeantosaythattemperamenthasnotagreatdealtodowiththecharacteroftheinhabitantsoftheUnitedStates，butIthinkthattheirpoliticalinstitutionsareastillmoreinfluentialcause。I
believetheseriousnessoftheAmericansarisespartlyfromtheirpride。Indemocraticcountriesevenpoormenentertainaloftynotionoftheirpersonalimportance:theylookuponthemselveswithcomplacency，andareapttosupposethatothersarelookingatthem，too。Withthisdispositiontheywatchtheirlanguageandtheiractionswithcare，anddonotlaythemselvesopensoastobetraytheirdeficiencies;topreservetheirdignitytheythinkitnecessarytoretaintheirgravity。
ButIdetectanothermoredeep—seatedandpowerfulcausewhichinstinctivelyproducesamongsttheAmericansthisastonishinggravity。Underadespotismcommunitiesgivewayattimestoburstsofvehementjoy;buttheyaregenerallygloomyandmoody，becausetheyareafraid。Underabsolutemonarchiestemperedbythecustomsandmannersofthecountry，theirspiritsareoftencheerfulandeven，becauseastheyhavesomefreedomandagooddealofsecurity，theyareexemptedfromthemostimportantcaresoflife;butallfreepeoplesareserious，becausetheirmindsarehabituallyabsorbedbythecontemplationofsomedangerousordifficultpurpose。Thisismoreespeciallythecaseamongstthosefreenationswhichformdemocraticcommunities。Thenthereareinallclassesaverylargenumberofmenconstantlyoccupiedwiththeseriousaffairsofthegovernment;andthosewhosethoughtsarenotengagedinthedirectionofthecommonwealtharewhollyengrossedbytheacquisitionofaprivatefortune。Amongstsuchapeopleaseriousdemeanorceasestobepeculiartocertainmen，andbecomesahabitofthenation。
Wearetoldofsmalldemocraciesinthedaysofantiquity，inwhichthecitizensmetuponthepublicplaceswithgarlandsofroses，andspentalmostalltheirtimeindancingandtheatricalamusements。IdonotbelieveinsuchrepublicsanymorethaninthatofPlato;or，ifthethingswereadofreallyhappened，Idonothesitatetoaffirmthatthesesupposeddemocracieswerecomposedofverydifferentelementsfromours，andthattheyhadnothingincommonwiththelatterexcepttheirname。Butitmustnotbesupposedthat，inthemidstofalltheirtoils，thepeoplewholiveindemocraciesthinkthemselvestobepitied;thecontraryisremarkedtobethecase。Nomenarefonderoftheirowncondition。Lifewouldhavenorelishforthemiftheyweredeliveredfromtheanxietieswhichharassthem，andtheyshowmoreattachmenttotheircaresthanaristocraticnationstotheirpleasures。
Iamnextledtoinquirehowitisthatthesesamedemocraticnations，whicharesoserious，sometimesactinsoinconsiderateamanner。TheAmericans，whoalmostalwayspreserveastaiddemeanorandafrigidair，neverthelessfrequentlyallowthemselvestobeborneaway，farbeyondtheboundofreason，byasuddenpassionorahastyopinion，andtheysometimesgravelycommitstrangeabsurdities。Thiscontrastoughtnottosurpriseus。Thereisonesortofignorancewhichoriginatesinextremepublicity。IndespoticStatesmenknownothowtoact，becausetheyaretoldnothing;indemocraticnationstheyoftenactatrandom，becausenothingistobeleftuntold。
Theformerdonotknow—thelatterforget;andthechieffeaturesofeachpicturearelosttotheminabewildermentofdetails。
Itisastonishingwhatimprudentlanguageapublicmanmaysometimesuseinfreecountries，andespeciallyindemocraticStates，withoutbeingcompromised;whereasinabsolutemonarchiesafewwordsdroppedbyaccidentareenoughtounmaskhimforever，andruinhimwithouthopeofredemption。Thisisexplainedbywhatgoesbefore。Whenamanspeaksinthemidstofagreatcrowd，manyofhiswordsarenotheard，orareforthwithobliteratedfromthememoriesofthosewhohearthem;butamidstthesilenceofamuteandmotionlessthrongtheslightestwhisperstrikestheear。
Indemocraciesmenareneverstationary;athousandchanceswaftthemtoandfro，andtheirlifeisalwaysthesportofunforeseenor（sotospeak）extemporaneouscircumstances。Thustheyareoftenobligedtodothingswhichtheyhaveimperfectlylearned，tosaythingstheyimperfectlyunderstand，andtodevotethemselvestoworkforwhichtheyareunpreparedbylongapprenticeship。Inaristocracieseverymanhasonesoleobjectwhichheunceasinglypursues，butamongstdemocraticnationstheexistenceofmanismorecomplex;thesamemindwillalmostalwaysembraceseveralobjectsatthesametime，andtheseobjectsarefrequentlywhollyforeigntoeachother:asitcannotknowthemallwell，themindisreadilysatisfiedwithimperfectnotionsofeach。
Whentheinhabitantofdemocraciesisnoturgedbyhiswants，heissoatleastbyhisdesires;forofallthepossessionswhichheseesaroundhim，nonearewhollybeyondhisreach。Hethereforedoeseverythinginahurry，heisalwayssatisfiedwith\"prettywell，\"andneverpausesmorethananinstanttoconsiderwhathehasbeendoing。Hiscuriosityisatonceinsatiableandcheaplysatisfied;forhecaresmoretoknowagreatdealquicklythantoknowanythingwell:hehasnotimeandbutlittletastetosearchthingstothebottom。Thusthendemocraticpeoplesaregrave，becausetheirsocialandpoliticalconditionconstantlyleadsthemtoengageinseriousoccupations;
andtheyactinconsiderately，becausetheygivebutlittletimeandattentiontoeachoftheseoccupations。Thehabitofinattentionmustbeconsideredasthegreatestbaneofthedemocraticcharacter。
ChapterXVI:WhyTheNationalVanityOfTheAmericansIsMoreRestlessAndCaptiousThanThatOfTheEnglishAllfreenationsarevainglorious，butnationalprideisnotdisplayedbyallinthesamemanner。TheAmericansintheirintercoursewithstrangersappearimpatientofthesmallestcensureandinsatiableofpraise。Themostslendereulogiumisacceptabletothem;themostexaltedseldomcontentsthem;theyunceasinglyharassyoutoextortpraise，andifyouresisttheirentreatiestheyfalltopraisingthemselves。Itwouldseemasif，doubtingtheirownmerit，theywishedtohaveitconstantlyexhibitedbeforetheireyes。Theirvanityisnotonlygreedy，butrestlessandjealous;itwillgrantnothing，whilstitdemandseverything，butisreadytobegandtoquarrelatthesametime。IfIsaytoanAmericanthatthecountryhelivesinisafineone，\"Ay，\"hereplies，\"thereisnotitsfellowintheworld。\"IfIapplaudthefreedomwhichitsinhabitantsenjoy，heanswers，\"Freedomisafinething，butfewnationsareworthytoenjoyit。\"IfIremarkthepurityofmoralswhichdistinguishestheUnitedStates，\"Icanimagine，\"sayshe，\"thatastranger，whohasbeenstruckbythecorruptionofallothernations，isastonishedatthedifference。\"AtlengthIleavehimtothecontemplationofhimself;buthereturnstothecharge，anddoesnotdesisttillhehasgotmetorepeatallIhadjustbeensaying。Itisimpossibletoconceiveamoretroublesomeormoregarrulouspatriotism;itwearieseventhosewhoaredisposedtorespectit。*a[Footnotea:SeeAppendixU。]
SuchisnotthecasewiththeEnglish。AnEnglishmancalmlyenjoystherealorimaginaryadvantageswhichinhisopinionhiscountrypossesses。Ifhegrantsnothingtoothernations，neitherdoeshesolicitanythingforhisown。Thecensureofforeignersdoesnotaffecthim，andtheirpraisehardlyflattershim;hispositionwithregardtotherestoftheworldisoneofdisdainfulandignorantreserve:hispriderequiresnosustenance，itnourishesitself。Itisremarkablethattwonations，sorecentlysprungfromthesamestock，shouldbesooppositetooneanotherintheirmanneroffeelingandconversing。
Inaristocraticcountriesthegreatpossessimmenseprivileges，uponwhichtheirpriderests，withoutseekingtorelyuponthelesseradvantageswhichaccruetothem。Astheseprivilegescametothembyinheritance，theyregardtheminsomesortasaportionofthemselves，oratleastasanaturalrightinherentintheirownpersons。Theythereforeentertainacalmsenseoftheirsuperiority;theydonotdreamofvauntingprivilegeswhicheveryoneperceivesandnoonecontests，andthesethingsarenotsufficientlynewtothemtobemadetopicsofconversation。Theystandunmovedintheirsolitarygreatness，wellassuredthattheyareseenofalltheworldwithoutanyefforttoshowthemselvesoff，andthatnoonewillattempttodrivethemfromthatposition。Whenanaristocracycarriesonthepublicaffairs，itsnationalpridenaturallyassumesthisreserved，indifferent，andhaughtyform，whichisimitatedbyalltheotherclassesofthenation。
When，onthecontrary，socialconditionsdifferbutlittle，theslightestprivilegesareofsomeimportance;aseverymanseesaroundhimselfamillionofpeopleenjoyingpreciselysimilaroranalogousadvantages，hispridebecomescravingandjealous，heclingstomeretrifles，anddoggedlydefendsthem。
Indemocracies，astheconditionsoflifeareveryfluctuating，menhavealmostalwaysrecentlyacquiredtheadvantageswhichtheypossess;theconsequenceisthattheyfeelextremepleasureinexhibitingthem，toshowothersandconvincethemselvesthattheyreallyenjoythem。Asatanyinstantthesesameadvantagesmaybelost，theirpossessorsareconstantlyonthealert，andmakeapointofshowingthattheystillretainthem。Menlivingindemocracieslovetheircountryjustastheylovethemselves，andtheytransferthehabitsoftheirprivatevanitytotheirvanityasanation。Therestlessandinsatiablevanityofademocraticpeopleoriginatessoentirelyintheequalityandprecariousnessofsocialconditions，thatthemembersofthehaughtiestnobilitydisplaytheverysamepassioninthoselesserportionsoftheirexistenceinwhichthereisanythingfluctuatingorcontested。Anaristocraticclassalwaysdiffersgreatlyfromtheotherclassesofthenation，bytheextentandperpetuityofitsprivileges;butitoftenhappensthattheonlydifferencesbetweenthememberswhobelongtoitconsistinsmalltransientadvantages，whichmayanydaybelostoracquired。
Themembersofapowerfularistocracy，collectedinacapitaloracourt，havebeenknowntocontestwithvirulencethosefrivolousprivilegeswhichdependonthecapriceoffashionorthewilloftheirmaster。Thesepersonsthendisplayedtowardseachotherpreciselythesamepuerilejealousieswhichanimatethemenofdemocracies，thesameeagernesstosnatchthesmallestadvantageswhichtheirequalscontested，andthesamedesiretoparadeostentatiouslythoseofwhichtheywereinpossession。Ifnationalprideeverenteredintothemindsofcourtiers，Idonotquestionthattheywoulddisplayitinthesamemannerasthemembersofademocraticcommunity。
ChapterXVII:ThatTheAspectOfSocietyInTheUnitedStatesIsAtOnceExcitedAndMonotonousItwouldseemthatnothingcanbemoreadaptedtostimulateandtofeedcuriositythantheaspectoftheUnitedStates。
Fortunes，opinions，andlawsarethereinceaselessvariation:itisasifimmutablenatureherselfweremutable，sucharethechangesworkeduponherbythehandofman。Yetintheendthesightofthisexcitedcommunitybecomesmonotonous，andafterhavingwatchedthemovingpageantforatimethespectatoristiredofit。Amongstaristocraticnationseverymanisprettynearlystationaryinhisownsphere;butmenareastonishinglyunlikeeachother—theirpassions，theirnotions，theirhabits，andtheirtastesareessentiallydifferent:nothingchangey，buteverythingdiffers。Indemocracies，onthecontrary，allmenarealikeanddothingsprettynearlyalike。Itistruethattheyaresubjecttogreatandfrequentvicissitudes;butasthesameeventsofgoodoradversefortunearecontinuallyrecurring，thenameoftheactorsonlyischanged，thepieceisalwaysthesame。
TheaspectofAmericansocietyisanimated，becausemenandthingsarealwayschanging;butitismonotonous，becauseallthesechangesarealike。
Menlivingindemocraticageshavemanypassions，butmostoftheirpassionseitherendintheloveofrichesorproceedfromit。Thecauseofthisis，notthattheirsoulsarenarrower，butthattheimportanceofmoneyisreallygreateratsuchtimes。Whenallthemembersofacommunityareindependentoforindifferenttoeachother，theco—operationofeachofthemcanonlybeobtainedbypayingforit:thisinfinitelymultipliesthepurposestowhichwealthmaybeapplied，andincreasesitsvalue。Whenthereverencewhichbelongedtowhatisoldhasvanished，birth，condition，andprofessionnolongerdistinguishmen，orscarcelydistinguishthematall:hardlyanythingbutmoneyremainstocreatestronglymarkeddifferencesbetweenthem，andtoraisesomeofthemabovethecommonlevel。Thedistinctionoriginatinginwealthisincreasedbythedisappearanceanddiminutionofallotherdistinctions。Amongstaristocraticnationsmoneyonlyreachestoafewpointsonthevastcircleofman’sdesires—indemocraciesitseemstoleadtoall。Theloveofwealthisthereforetobetraced，eitherasaprincipaloranaccessorymotive，atthebottomofallthattheAmericansdo:thisgivestoalltheirpassionsasortoffamilylikeness，andsoonrendersthesurveyofthemexceedinglywearisome。Thisperpetualrecurrenceofthesamepassionismonotonous;thepeculiarmethodsbywhichthispassionseeksitsowngratificationarenolessso。
InanorderlyandconstituteddemocracyliketheUnitedStates，wheremencannotenrichthemselvesbywar，bypublicoffice，orbypoliticalconfiscation，theloveofwealthmainlydrivesthemintobusinessandmanufactures。Althoughthesepursuitsoftenbringaboutgreatcommotionsanddisasters，theycannotprosperwithoutstrictlyregularhabitsandalongroutineofpettyuniformacts。Thestrongerthepassionis，themoreregulararethesehabits，andthemoreuniformaretheseacts。
ItmaybesaidthatitisthevehemenceoftheirdesireswhichmakestheAmericanssomethodical;itperturbstheirminds，butitdisciplinestheirlives。
TheremarkIhereapplytoAmericamayindeedbeaddressedtoalmostallourcontemporaries。Varietyisdisappearingfromthehumanrace;thesamewaysofacting，thinking，andfeelingaretobemetwithallovertheworld。Thisisnotonlybecausenationsworkmoreuponeachother，andaremorefaithfulintheirmutualimitation;butasthemenofeachcountryrelinquishmoreandmorethepeculiaropinionsandfeelingsofacaste，aprofession，orafamily，theysimultaneouslyarriveatsomethingnearertotheconstitutionofman，whichiseverywherethesame。
Thustheybecomemorealike，evenwithouthavingimitatedeachother。Liketravellersscatteredaboutsomelargewood，whichisintersectedbypathsconvergingtoonepoint，ifallofthemkeep，theireyesfixeduponthatpointandadvancetowardsit，theyinsensiblydrawnearertogether—thoughtheyseeknot，thoughtheyseenot，thoughtheyknownoteachother;andtheywillbesurprisedatlengthtofindthemselvesallcollectedonthesamespot。Allthenationswhichtake，notanyparticularman，butmanhimself，astheobjectoftheirresearchesandtheirimitations，aretendingintheendtoasimilarstateofsociety，likethesetravellersconvergingtothecentralplotoftheforest。
BookThree—ChapterXVIII
ChapterXVIII:OfHonorInTheUnitedStatesAndInDemocraticCommunitiesItwouldseemthatmenemploytwoverydistinctmethodsinthepublicestimation*aoftheactionsoftheirfellowmen;atonetimetheyjudgethembythosesimplenotionsofrightandwrongwhicharediffusedallovertheworld;atanothertheyrefertheirdecisiontoafewveryspecialnotionswhichbelongexclusivelytosomeparticularageandcountry。Itoftenhappensthatthesetworulesdiffer;theysometimesconflict:buttheyarenevereitherentirelyidentifiedorentirelyannulledbyoneanother。Honor，attheperiodsofitsgreatestpower，swaysthewillmorethanthebeliefofmen;andevenwhilsttheyyieldwithouthesitationandwithoutamurmurtoitsdictates，theyfeelnotwithstanding，byadimbutmightyinstinct，theexistenceofamoregeneral，moreancient，andmoreholylaw，whichtheysometimesdisobeyalthoughtheyceasenottoacknowledgeit。
Someactionshavebeenheldtobeatthesametimevirtuousanddishonorable—arefusaltofightaduelisacaseinpoint。
[Footnotea:Theword\"honor\"isnotalwaysusedinthesamesenseeitherinFrenchorEnglish。I。Itfirstsignifiesthedignity，glory，orreverencewhichamanreceivesfromhiskind;
andinthissenseamanissaidtoacquirehonor。2。Honorsignifiestheaggregateofthoserulesbytheassistanceofwhichthisdignity，glory，orreverenceisobtained。Thuswesaythatamanhasalwaysstrictlyobeyedthelawsofhonor;oramanhasviolatedhishonor。Inthischapterthewordisalwaysusedinthelattersense。]
Ithinkthesepeculiaritiesmaybeotherwiseexplainedthanbythemerecapricesofcertainindividualsandnations，ashashithertobeenthecustomarymodeofreasoningonthesubject。
Mankindissubjecttogeneralandlastingwantsthathaveengenderedmorallaws，totheneglectofwhichmenhaveeverandinallplacesattachedthenotionofcensureandshame:toinfringethemwas\"todoill\"—\"todowell\"wastoconformtothem。Withinthebosomofthisvastassociationofthehumanrace，lesserassociationshavebeenformedwhicharecallednations;andamidstthesenationsfurthersubdivisionshaveassumedthenamesofclassesorcastes。Eachoftheseassociationsforms，asitwere，aseparatespeciesofthehumanrace;andthoughithasnoessentialdifferencefromthemassofmankind，toacertainextentitstandsapartandhascertainwantspeculiartoitself。Tothesespecialwantsmustbeattributedthemodificationswhichaffectinvariousdegreesandindifferentcountriesthemodeofconsideringhumanactions，andtheestimatewhichoughttobeformedofthem。Itisthegeneralandpermanentinterestofmankindthatmenshouldnotkilleachother:butitmayhappentobethepeculiarandtemporaryinterestofapeopleoraclasstojustify，oreventohonor，homicide。