ThepracticewhichobtainsamongsttheAmericansoffixingthestandardoftheirjudgmentinthemselvesalone，leadsthemtootherhabitsofmind。Astheyperceivethattheysucceedinresolvingwithoutassistanceallthelittledifficultieswhichtheirpracticallifepresents，theyreadilyconcludethateverythingintheworldmaybeexplained，andthatnothinginittranscendsthelimitsoftheunderstanding。Thustheyfalltodenyingwhattheycannotcomprehend;whichleavesthembutlittlefaithforwhateverisextraordinary，andanalmostinsurmountabledistasteforwhateverissupernatural。Asitisontheirowntestimonythattheyareaccustomedtorely，theyliketodiscerntheobjectwhichengagestheirattentionwithextremeclearness;
theythereforestripoffasmuchaspossibleallthatcoversit，theyridthemselvesofwhateverseparatesthemfromit，theyremovewhateverconcealsitfromsight，inordertoviewitmorecloselyandinthebroadlightofday。Thisdispositionofthemindsoonleadsthemtocontemnforms，whichtheyregardasuselessandinconvenientveilsplacedbetweenthemandthetruth。
TheAmericansthenhavenotrequiredtoextracttheirphilosophicalmethodfrombooks;theyhavefounditinthemselves。ThesamethingmayberemarkedinwhathastakenplaceinEurope。ThissamemethodhasonlybeenestablishedandmadepopularinEuropeinproportionastheconditionofsocietyhasbecomemoreequal，andmenhavegrownmorelikeeachother。
Letusconsiderforamomenttheconnectionoftheperiodsinwhichthischangemaybetraced。InthesixteenthcenturytheReformerssubjectedsomeofthedogmasoftheancientfaithtothescrutinyofprivatejudgment;buttheystillwithheldfromitthejudgmentofalltherest。Intheseventeenthcentury，Baconinthenaturalsciences，andDescartesinthestudyofphilosophyinthestrictsenseoftheterm，abolishedrecognizedformulas，destroyedtheempireoftradition，andoverthrewtheauthorityoftheschools。Thephilosophersoftheeighteenthcentury，generalizingatlengththesameprinciple，undertooktosubmittotheprivatejudgmentofeachmanalltheobjectsofhisbelief。
WhodoesnotperceivethatLuther，Descartes，andVoltaireemployedthesamemethod，andthattheydifferedonlyinthegreaterorlessusewhichtheyprofessedshouldbemadeofit？
WhydidtheReformersconfinethemselvessocloselywithinthecircleofreligiousideas？WhydidDescartes，choosingonlytoapplyhismethodtocertainmatters，thoughhehadmadeitfittobeappliedtoall，declarethatmenmightjudgeforthemselvesinmattersphilosophicalbutnotinmatterspolitical？Howhappeneditthatintheeighteenthcenturythosegeneralapplicationswereallatoncedrawnfromthissamemethod，whichDescartesandhispredecessorshadeithernotperceivedorhadrejected？Towhat，lastly，isthefacttobeattributed，thatatthisperiodthemethodwearespeakingofsuddenlyemergedfromtheschools，topenetrateintosocietyandbecomethecommonstandardofintelligence;andthat，afterithadbecomepopularamongtheFrench，ithasbeenostensiblyadoptedorsecretlyfollowedbyallthenationsofEurope？
Thephilosophicalmethodheredesignatedmayhavebeenengenderedinthesixteenthcentury—itmayhavebeenmoreaccuratelydefinedandmoreextensivelyappliedintheseventeenth;butneitherintheonenorintheothercoulditbecommonlyadopted。Politicallaws，theconditionofsociety，andthehabitsofmindwhicharederivedfromthesecauses，wereasyetopposedtoit。Itwasdiscoveredatatimewhenmenwerebeginningtoequalizeandassimilatetheirconditions。Itcouldonlybegenerallyfollowedinageswhenthoseconditionshadatlengthbecomenearlyequal，andmennearlyalike。
ThephilosophicalmethodoftheeighteenthcenturyisthennotonlyFrench，butitisdemocratic;andthisexplainswhyitwassoreadilyadmittedthroughoutEurope，whereithascontributedsopowerfullytochangethefaceofsociety。ItisnotbecausetheFrenchhavechangedtheirformeropinions，andalteredtheirformermanners，thattheyhaveconvulsedtheworld;
butbecausetheywerethefirsttogeneralizeandbringtolightaphilosophicalmethod，bytheassistanceofwhichitbecameeasytoattackallthatwasold，andtoopenapathtoallthatwasnew。
Ifitbeaskedwhy，atthepresentday，thissamemethodismorerigorouslyfollowedandmorefrequentlyappliedbytheFrenchthanbytheAmericans，althoughtheprincipleofequalitybenolesscomplete，andofmoreancientdate，amongstthelatterpeople，thefactmaybeattributedtotwocircumstances，whichitisessentialtohaveclearlyunderstoodinthefirstinstance。
ItmustneverbeforgottenthatreligiongavebirthtoAnglo—Americansociety。IntheUnitedStatesreligionisthereforecommingledwithallthehabitsofthenationandallthefeelingsofpatriotism;whenceitderivesapeculiarforce。
Tothispowerfulreasonanotherofnolessintensitymaybeadded:inAmericanreligionhas，asitwere，laiddownitsownlimits。Religiousinstitutionshaveremainedwhollydistinctfrompoliticalinstitutions，sothatformerlawshavebeeneasilychangedwhilstformerbeliefhasremainedunshaken。ChristianityhasthereforeretainedastrongholdonthepublicmindinAmerica;and，Iwouldmoreparticularlyremark，thatitsswayisnotonlythatofaphilosophicaldoctrinewhichhasbeenadopteduponinquiry，butofareligionwhichisbelievedwithoutdiscussion。IntheUnitedStatesChristiansectsareinfinitelydiversifiedandperpetuallymodified;butChristianityitselfisafactsoirresistiblyestablished，thatnooneundertakeseithertoattackortodefendit。TheAmericans，havingadmittedtheprincipaldoctrinesoftheChristianreligionwithoutinquiry，areobligedtoacceptinlikemanneragreatnumberofmoraltruthsoriginatinginitandconnectedwithit。Hencetheactivityofindividualanalysisisrestrainedwithinnarrowlimits，andmanyofthemostimportantofhumanopinionsareremovedfromtherangeofitsinfluence。
ThesecondcircumstancetowhichIhavealludedisthefollowing:thesocialconditionandtheconstitutionoftheAmericansaredemocratic，buttheyhavenothadademocraticrevolution。Theyarriveduponthesoiltheyoccupyinnearlytheconditioninwhichweseethematthepresentday;andthisisofveryconsiderableimportance。
Therearenorevolutionswhichdonotshakeexistingbelief，enervateauthority，andthrowdoubtsovercommonlyreceivedideas。Theeffectofallrevolutionsistherefore，moreorless，tosurrendermentotheirownguidance，andtoopentothemindofeverymanavoidandalmostunlimitedrangeofspeculation。
Whenequalityofconditionssucceedsaprotractedconflictbetweenthedifferentclassesofwhichtheeldersocietywascomposed，envy，hatred，anduncharitableness，pride，andexaggeratedself—confidenceareapttoseizeuponthehumanheart，andplanttheirswaythereforatime。This，independentlyofequalityitself，tendspowerfullytodividemen—toleadthemtomistrustthejudgmentofothers，andtoseekthelightoftruthnowherebutintheirownunderstandings。
Everyonethenattemptstobehisownsufficientguide，andmakesithisboasttoformhisownopinionsonallsubjects。Menarenolongerboundtogetherbyideas，butbyinterests;anditwouldseemasifhumanopinionswerereducedtoasortofintellectualdust，scatteredoneveryside，unabletocollect，unabletocohere。
Thus，thatindependenceofmindwhichequalitysupposestoexist，isneversogreat，noreverappearssoexcessive，asatthetimewhenequalityisbeginningtoestablishitself，andinthecourseofthatpainfullaborbywhichitisestablished。
Thatsortofintellectualfreedomwhichequalitymaygiveought，therefore，tobeverycarefullydistinguishedfromtheanarchywhichrevolutionbrings。Eachofthesetwothingsmustbeseverallyconsidered，inordernottoconceiveexaggeratedhopesorfearsofthefuture。
Ibelievethatthemenwhowillliveunderthenewformsofsocietywillmakefrequentuseoftheirprivatejudgment;butI
amfarfromthinkingthattheywilloftenabuseit。Thisisattributabletoacauseofmoregeneralapplicationtoalldemocraticcountries，andwhich，inthelongrun，mustneedsrestraininthemtheindependenceofindividualspeculationwithinfixed，andsometimesnarrow，limits。Ishallproceedtopointoutthiscauseinthenextchapter。
ChapterII:OfThePrincipalSourceOfBeliefAmongDemocraticNationsAtdifferentperiodsdogmaticalbeliefismoreorlessabundant。Itarisesindifferentways，anditmaychangeitsobjectoritsform;butundernocircumstanceswilldogmaticalbeliefceasetoexist，or，inotherwords，menwillneverceasetoentertainsomeimplicitopinionswithouttryingthembyactualdiscussion。Ifeveryoneundertooktoformhisownopinionsandtoseekfortruthbyisolatedpathsstruckoutbyhimselfalone，itisnottobesupposedthatanyconsiderablenumberofmenwouldeveruniteinanycommonbelief。Butobviouslywithoutsuchcommonbeliefnosocietycanprosper—sayrathernosocietycansubsist;forwithoutideasheldincommon，thereisnocommonaction，andwithoutcommonaction，theremaystillbemen，butthereisnosocialbody。Inorderthatsocietyshouldexist，and，afortiori，thatasocietyshouldprosper，itisrequiredthatallthemindsofthecitizensshouldberalliedandheldtogetherbycertainpredominantideas;andthiscannotbethecase，unlesseachofthemsometimesdrawshisopinionsfromthecommonsource，andconsentstoacceptcertainmattersofbeliefatthehandsofthecommunity。
IfInowconsidermaninhisisolatedcapacity，Ifindthatdogmaticalbeliefisnotlessindispensabletohiminordertolivealone，thanitistoenablehimtoco—operatewithhisfellow—creatures。Ifmanwereforcedtodemonstratetohimselfallthetruthsofwhichhemakesdailyuse，histaskwouldneverend。Hewouldexhausthisstrengthinpreparatoryexercises，withoutadvancingbeyondthem。As，fromtheshortnessofhislife，hehasnotthetime，nor，fromthelimitsofhisintelligence，thecapacity，toaccomplishthis，heisreducedtotakeupontrustanumberoffactsandopinionswhichhehasnothadeitherthetimeorthepowertoverifyhimself，butwhichmenofgreaterabilityhavesoughtout，orwhichtheworldadopts。Onthisgroundworkheraisesforhimselfthestructureofhisownthoughts;norisheledtoproceedinthismannerbychoicesomuchasheisconstrainsdbytheinflexiblelawofhiscondition。
Thereisnophilosopherofsuchgreatpartsintheworld，butthathebelievesamillionofthingsonthefaithofotherpeople，andsupposesagreatmanymoretruthsthanhedemonstrates。Thisisnotonlynecessarybutdesirable。Amanwhoshouldundertaketoinquireintoeverythingforhimself，coulddevotetoeachthingbutlittletimeandattention。Histaskwouldkeephismindinperpetualunrest，whichwouldpreventhimfrompenetratingtothedepthofanytruth，orofgrapplinghismindindissolublytoanyconviction。Hisintellectwouldbeatonceindependentandpowerless。Hemustthereforemakehischoicefromamongstthevariousobjectsofhumanbelief，andhemustadoptmanyopinionswithoutdiscussion，inordertosearchthebetterintothatsmallernumberwhichhesetsapartforinvestigation。Itistruethatwhoeverreceivesanopiniononthewordofanother，doessofarenslavehismind;butitisasalutaryservitudewhichallowshimtomakeagooduseoffreedom。
Aprincipleofauthoritymustthenalwaysoccur，underallcircumstances，insomepartorotherofthemoralandintellectualworld。Itsplaceisvariable，butaplaceitnecessarilyhas。Theindependenceofindividualmindsmaybegreater，oritmaybeless:unboundeditcannotbe。Thusthequestionis，nottoknowwhetheranyintellectualauthorityexistsintheagesofdemocracy，butsimplywhereitresidesandbywhatstandarditistobemeasured。
Ihaveshownintheprecedingchapterhowtheequalityofconditionsleadsmentoentertainasortofinstinctiveincredulityofthesupernatural，andaveryloftyandoftenexaggeratedopinionofthehumanunderstanding。Themenwholiveataperiodofsocialequalityarenotthereforeeasilyledtoplacethatintellectualauthoritytowhichtheyboweitherbeyondorabovehumanity。Theycommonlyseekforthesourcesoftruthinthemselves，orinthosewhoarelikethemselves。Thiswouldbeenoughtoprovethatatsuchperiodsnonewreligioncouldbeestablished，andthatallschemesforsuchapurposewouldbenotonlyimpiousbutabsurdandirrational。Itmaybeforeseenthatademocraticpeoplewillnoteasilygivecredencetodivinemissions;thattheywillturnmodernprophetstoareadyjest;
andtheythatwillseektodiscoverthechiefarbiteroftheirbeliefwithin，andnotbeyond，thelimitsoftheirkind。
Whentheranksofsocietyareunequal，andmenunlikeeachotherincondition，therearesomeindividualsinvestedwithallthepowerofsuperiorintelligence，learning，andenlightenment，whilstthemultitudeissunkinignoranceandprejudice。Menlivingatthesearistocraticperiodsarethereforenaturallyinducedtoshapetheiropinionsbythesuperiorstandardofapersonoraclassofpersons，whilsttheyareaversetorecognizetheinfallibilityofthemassofthepeople。
Thecontrarytakesplaceinagesofequality。Thenearerthecitizensaredrawntothecommonlevelofanequalandsimilarcondition，thelesspronedoeseachmanbecometoplaceimplicitfaithinacertainmanoracertainclassofmen。Buthisreadinesstobelievethemultitudeincreases，andopinionismorethanevermistressoftheworld。Notonlyiscommonopiniontheonlyguidewhichprivatejudgmentretainsamongstademocraticpeople，butamongstsuchapeopleitpossessesapowerinfinitelybeyondwhatithaselsewhere。Atperiodsofequalitymenhavenofaithinoneanother，byreasonoftheircommonresemblance;butthisveryresemblancegivesthemalmostunboundedconfidenceinthejudgmentofthepublic;foritwouldnotseemprobable，astheyareallendowedwithequalmeansofjudging，butthatthegreatertruthshouldgowiththegreaternumber。
Whentheinhabitantofademocraticcountrycompareshimselfindividuallywithallthoseabouthim，hefeelswithpridethatheistheequalofanyoneofthem;butwhenhecomestosurveythetotalityofhisfellows，andtoplacehimselfincontrasttosohugeabody，heisinstantlyoverwhelmedbythesenseofhisowninsignificanceandweakness。Thesameequalitywhichrendershimindependentofeachofhisfellow—citizenstakenseverally，exposeshimaloneandunprotectedtotheinfluenceofthegreaternumber。Thepublichasthereforeamongademocraticpeopleasingularpower，ofwhicharistocraticnationscouldneversomuchasconceiveanidea;foritdoesnotpersuadetocertainopinions，butitenforcesthem，andinfusesthemintothefacultiesbyasortofenormouspressureofthemindsofalluponthereasonofeach。
IntheUnitedStatesthemajorityundertakestosupplyamultitudeofready—madeopinionsfortheuseofindividuals，whoarethusrelievedfromthenecessityofformingopinionsoftheirown。Everybodythereadoptsgreatnumbersoftheories，onphilosophy，morals，andpolitics，withoutinquiry，uponpublictrust;andifwelooktoitverynarrowly，itwillbeperceivedthatreligionherselfholdsherswaythere，muchlessasadoctrineofrevelationthanasacommonlyreceivedopinion。ThefactthatthepoliticallawsoftheAmericansaresuchthatthemajorityrulesthecommunitywithsovereignsway，materiallyincreasesthepowerwhichthatmajoritynaturallyexercisesoverthemind。Fornothingismorecustomaryinmanthantorecognizesuperiorwisdominthepersonofhisoppressor。ThispoliticalomnipotenceofthemajorityintheUnitedStatesdoubtlessaugmentstheinfluencewhichpublicopinionwouldobtainwithoutitoverthemindofeachmemberofthecommunity;butthefoundationsofthatinfluencedonotrestuponit。Theymustbesoughtforintheprincipleofequalityitself，notinthemoreorlesspopularinstitutionswhichmenlivingunderthatconditionmaygivethemselves。Theintellectualdominionofthegreaternumberwouldprobablybelessabsoluteamongstademocraticpeoplegovernedbyakingthaninthesphereofapuredemocracy，butitwillalwaysbeextremelyabsolute;andbywhateverpoliticallawsmenaregovernedintheagesofequality，itmaybeforeseenthatfaithinpublicopinionwillbecomeaspeciesofreligionthere，andthemajorityitsministeringprophet。
Thusintellectualauthoritywillbedifferent，butitwillnotbediminished;andfarfromthinkingthatitwilldisappear，Iaugurthatitmayreadilyacquiretoomuchpreponderance，andconfinetheactionofprivatejudgmentwithinnarrowerlimitsthanaresuitedeithertothegreatnessorthehappinessofthehumanrace。IntheprincipleofequalityIveryclearlydiscerntwotendencies;theoneleadingthemindofeverymantountriedthoughts，theotherinclinedtoprohibithimfromthinkingatall。AndIperceivehow，underthedominionofcertainlaws，democracywouldextinguishthatlibertyofthemindtowhichademocraticsocialconditionisfavorable;sothat，afterhavingbrokenallthebondageonceimposedonitbyranksorbymen，thehumanmindwouldbecloselyfetteredtothegeneralwillofthegreatestnumber。
Iftheabsolutepowerofthemajorityweretobesubstitutedbydemocraticnations，forallthedifferentpowerswhichcheckedorretardedovermuchtheenergyofindividualminds，theevilwouldonlyhavechangeditssymptoms。Menwouldnothavefoundthemeansofindependentlife;theywouldsimplyhaveinvented（noeasytask）anewdressforservitude。Thereis—andI
cannotrepeatittoooften—thereisinthismatterforprofoundreflectionforthosewholookonfreedomasaholything，andwhohatenotonlythedespot，butdespotism。Formyself，whenIfeelthehandofpowerlieheavyonmybrow，Icarebutlittletoknowwhooppressesme;andIamnotthemoredisposedtopassbeneaththeyoke，becauseitisheldouttomebythearmsofamillionofmen。
BookOne—ChaptersIII—V
ChapterIII:WhyTheAmericansDisplayMoreReadinessAndMoreTasteForGeneralIdeasThanTheirForefathers，TheEnglishTheDeitydoesnotregardthehumanracecollectively。Hesurveysatoneglanceandseverallyallthebeingsofwhommankindiscomposed，andhediscernsineachmantheresemblanceswhichassimilatehimtoallhisfellows，andthedifferenceswhichdistinguishhimfromthem。God，therefore，standsinnoneedofgeneralideas;thatistosay，heisneversensibleofthenecessityofcollectingaconsiderablenumberofanalogousobjectsunderthesameformforgreaterconvenienceinthinking。
Suchis，however，notthecasewithman。Ifthehumanmindweretoattempttoexamineandpassajudgmentonalltheindividualcasesbeforeit，theimmensityofdetailwouldsoonleaditastrayandbewilderitsdiscernment:inthisstrait，manhasrecoursetoanimperfectbutnecessaryexpedient，whichatonceassistsanddemonstrateshisweakness。Havingsuperficiallyconsideredacertainnumberofobjects，andremarkedtheirresemblance，heassignstothemacommonname，setsthemapart，andproceedsonwards。
Generalideasarenoproofofthestrength，butratheroftheinsufficiencyofthehumanintellect;forthereareinnaturenobeingsexactlyalike，nothingspreciselyidentical，noranyrulesindiscriminatelyandalikeapplicabletoseveralobjectsatonce。Thechiefmeritofgeneralideasis，thattheyenablethehumanmindtopassarapidjudgmentonagreatmanyobjectsatonce;but，ontheotherhand，thenotionstheyconveyareneverotherwisethanincomplete，andtheyalwayscausethemindtoloseasmuchinaccuracyasitgainsincomprehensiveness。Associalbodiesadvanceincivilization，theyacquiretheknowledgeofnewfacts，andtheydailylayholdalmostunconsciouslyofsomeparticulartruths。Themoretruthsofthiskindamanapprehends，themoregeneralideasishenaturallyledtoconceive。Amultitudeofparticularfactscannotbeseenseparately，withoutatlastdiscoveringthecommontiewhichconnectsthem。Severalindividualsleadtotheperceptionofthespecies;severalspeciestothatofthegenus。Hencethehabitandthetasteforgeneralideaswillalwaysbegreatestamongstapeopleofancientcultivationandextensiveknowledge。
Butthereareotherreasonswhichimpelmentogeneralizetheirideas，orwhichrestrainthemfromit。
TheAmericansaremuchmoreaddictedtotheuseofgeneralideasthantheEnglish，andentertainamuchgreaterrelishforthem:thisappearsverysingularatfirstsight，whenitisrememberedthatthetwonationshavethesameorigin，thattheylivedforcenturiesunderthesamelaws，andthattheystillincessantlyinterchangetheiropinionsandtheirmanners。Thiscontrastbecomesmuchmorestrikingstill，ifwefixoureyesonourownpartoftheworld，andcomparetogetherthetwomostenlightenednationswhichinhabitit。ItwouldseemasifthemindoftheEnglishcouldonlytearitselfreluctantlyandpainfullyawayfromtheobservationofparticularfacts，torisefromthemtotheircauses;andthatitonlygeneralizesinspiteofitself。AmongsttheFrench，onthecontrary，thetasteforgeneralideaswouldseemtohavegrowntosoardentapassion，thatitmustbesatisfiedoneveryoccasion。Iaminformed，everymorningwhenIwake，thatsomegeneralandeternallawhasjustbeendiscovered，whichIneverheardmentionedbefore。
Thereisnotamediocrescribblerwhodoesnottryhishandatdiscoveringtruthsapplicabletoagreatkingdom，andwhoisveryillpleasedwithhimselfifhedoesnotsucceedincompressingthehumanraceintothecompassofanarticle。Sogreatadissimilaritybetweentwoveryenlightenednationssurprisesme。
IfIagainturnmyattentiontoEngland，andobservetheeventswhichhaveoccurredthereinthelasthalf—century，IthinkImayaffirmthatatasteforgeneralideasincreasesinthatcountryinproportionasitsancientconstitutionisweakened。
Thestateofcivilizationisthereforeinsufficientbyitselftoexplainwhatsuggeststothehumanmindtheloveofgeneralideas，ordivertsitfromthem。Whentheconditionsofmenareveryunequal，andinequalityitselfisthepermanentstateofsociety，individualmengraduallybecomesodissimilarthateachclassassumestheaspectofadistinctrace:onlyoneoftheseclassesiseverinviewatthesameinstant;andlosingsightofthatgeneraltiewhichbindsthemallwithinthevastbosomofmankind，theobservationinvariablyrestsnotonman，butoncertainmen。Thosewholiveinthisaristocraticstateofsocietynever，therefore，conceiveverygeneralideasrespectingthemselves，andthatisenoughtoimbuethemwithanhabitualdistrustofsuchideas，andaninstinctiveaversionofthem。
He，onthecontrary，whoinhabitsademocraticcountry，seesaroundhim，oneveryhand，mendifferingbutlittlefromeachother;hecannotturnhismindtoanyoneportionofmankind，withoutexpandinganddilatinghisthoughttillitembracethewhole。Allthetruthswhichareapplicabletohimself，appeartohimequallyandsimilarlyapplicabletoeachofhisfellow—citizensandfellow—men。Havingcontractedthehabitofgeneralizinghisideasinthestudywhichengageshimmost，andinterestshimmorethanothers，hetransfersthesamehabittoallhispursuits;andthusitisthatthecravingtodiscovergenerallawsineverything，toincludeagreatnumberofobjectsunderthesameformula，andtoexplainamassoffactsbyasinglecause，becomesanardent，andsometimesanundiscerning，passioninthehumanmind。
Nothingshowsthetruthofthispropositionmoreclearlythantheopinionsoftheancientsrespectingtheirslaves。ThemostprofoundandcapaciousmindsofRomeandGreecewereneverabletoreachtheidea，atoncesogeneralandsosimple，ofthecommonlikenessofmen，andofthecommonbirthrightofeachtofreedom:theystrovetoprovethatslaverywasintheorderofnature，andthatitwouldalwaysexist。Nay，more，everythingshowsthatthoseoftheancientswhohadpassedfromtheserviletothefreecondition，manyofwhomhaveleftusexcellentwritings，didthemselvesregardservitudeinnootherlight。
Allthegreatwritersofantiquitybelongedtothearistocracyofmasters，oratleasttheysawthataristocracyestablishedanduncontestedbeforetheireyes。Theirmind，afterithadexpandeditselfinseveraldirections，wasbarredfromfurtherprogressinthisone;andtheadventofJesusChristuponearthwasrequiredtoteachthatallthemembersofthehumanracearebynatureequalandalike。
Intheagesofequalityallmenareindependentofeachother，isolatedandweak。Themovementsofthemultitudearenotpermanentlyguidedbythewillofanyindividuals;atsuchtimeshumanityseemsalwaystoadvanceofitself。Inorder，therefore，toexplainwhatispassingintheworld，manisdriventoseekforsomegreatcauses，which，actinginthesamemanneronallourfellow—creatures，thusimpelthemallinvoluntarilytopursuethesametrack。Thisagainnaturallyleadsthehumanmindtoconceivegeneralideas，andsuperinducesatasteforthem。
Ihavealreadyshowninwhatwaytheequalityofconditionsleadseverymantoinvestigatetruthsforhimself。Itmayreadilybeperceivedthatamethodofthiskindmustinsensiblybegetatendencytogeneralideasinthehumanmind。WhenI
repudiatethetraditionsofrank，profession，andbirth;whenI
escapefromtheauthorityofexample，toseekout，bythesingleeffortofmyreason，thepathtobefollowed，Iaminclinedtoderivethemotivesofmyopinionsfromhumannatureitself;whichleadsmenecessarily，andalmostunconsciously，toadoptagreatnumberofverygeneralnotions。
AllthatIhaveheresaidexplainsthereasonsforwhichtheEnglishdisplaymuchlessreadinessandtasteorthegeneralizationofideasthantheirAmericanprogeny，andstilllessagainthantheirFrenchneighbors;andlikewisethereasonforwhichtheEnglishofthepresentdaydisplaymoreofthesequalitiesthantheirforefathersdid。TheEnglishhavelongbeenaveryenlightenedandaveryaristocraticnation;theirenlightenedconditionurgedthemconstantlytogeneralize，andtheiraristocratichabitsconfinedthemtoparticularize。Hencearosethatphilosophy，atonceboldandtimid，broadandnarrow，whichhashithertoprevailedinEngland，andwhichstillobstructsandstagnatesinsomanymindsinthatcountry。
IndependentlyofthecausesIhavepointedoutinwhatgoesbefore，othersmaybediscernedlessapparent，butnolessefficacious，whichengenderamongstalmosteverydemocraticpeopleataste，andfrequentlyapassion，forgeneralideas。Anaccuratedistinctionmustbetakenbetweenideasofthiskind。
Somearetheresultofslow，minute，andconscientiouslaborofthemind，andtheseextendthesphereofhumanknowledge;othersspringupatoncefromthefirstrapidexerciseofthewits，andbegetnonebutverysuperficialandveryuncertainnotions。Menwholiveinagesofequalityhaveagreatdealofcuriosityandverylittleleisure;theirlifeissopractical，soconfused，soexcited，soactive，thatbutlittletimeremainstothemforthought。Suchmenarepronetogeneralideasbecausetheysparethemthetroubleofstudyingparticulars;theycontain，ifImaysospeak，agreatdealinalittlecompass，andgive，inalittletime，agreatreturn。Ifthen，uponabriefandinattentiveinvestigation，acommonrelationisthoughttobedetectedbetweencertainobtects，inquiryisnotpushedanyfurther;andwithoutexaminingindetailhowfarthesedifferentobjectsdifferoragree，theyarehastilyarrangedunderoneformulary，inordertopasstoanothersubject。
Oneofthedistinguishingcharacteristicsofademocraticperiodisthetasteallmenhaveatsuchtiesforeasysuccessandpresentenjoyment。Thisoccursinthepursuitsoftheintellectaswellasinallothers。Mostofthosewholiveatatimeofequalityarefullofanambitionatonceaspiringandrelaxed:theywouldfainsucceedbrilliantlyandatonce，buttheywouldbedispensedfromgreateffortstoobtainsuccess。
Theseconflictingtendenciesleadstraighttotheresearchofgeneralideas，byaidofwhichtheyflatterthemselvesthattheycanfigureveryimportantlyatasmallexpense，anddrawtheattentionofthepublicwithverylittletrouble。AndIknownotwhethertheybewronginthinkingthus。Fortheirreadersareasmuchaversetoinvestigatinganythingtothebottomastheycanbethemselves;andwhatisgenerallysoughtintheproductionsofthemindiseasypleasureandinformationwithoutlabor。
Ifaristocraticnationsdonotmakesufficientuseofgeneralideas，andfrequentlytreatthemwithinconsideratedisdain，itistrue，ontheotherhand，thatademocraticpeopleiseverreadytocarryideasofthiskindtoexcess，andtoespousethewithinjudiciouswarmth。
ChapterIV:WhyTheAmericansHaveNeverBeenSoEagerAsTheFrenchForGeneralIdeasInPoliticalMattersIobservedinthelastchapter，thattheAmericansshowalessdecidedtasteforgeneralideasthantheFrench;thisismoreespeciallytrueinpoliticalmatters。AlthoughtheAmericansinfuseintotheirlegislationinfinitelymoregeneralideasthantheEnglish，andalthoughtheypaymuchmoreattentionthanthelatterpeopletotheadjustmentofthepracticeofaffairstotheory，nopoliticalbodiesintheUnitedStateshaveevershownsowarmanattachmenttogeneralideasastheConstituentAssemblyandtheConventioninFrance。AtnotimehastheAmericanpeoplelaidholdonideasofthiskindwiththepassionateenergyoftheFrenchpeopleintheeighteenthcentury，ordisplayedthesameblindconfidenceinthevalueandabsolutetruthofanytheory。ThisdifferencebetweentheAmericansandtheFrenchoriginatesinseveralcauses，butprincipallyinthefollowingone。TheAmericansformademocraticpeople，whichhasalwaysitselfdirectedpublicaffairs。TheFrenchareademocraticpeople，who，foralongtime，couldonlyspeculateonthebestmannerofconductingthem。ThesocialconditionofFranceledthatpeopletoconceiveverygeneralideasonthesubjectofgovernment，whilstitspoliticalconstitutionpreventeditfromcorrectingthoseideasbyexperiment，andfromgraduallydetectingtheirinsufficiency;whereasinAmericathetwothingsconstantlybalanceandcorrecteachother。
Itmayseem，atfirstsight，thatthisisverymuchopposedtowhatIhavesaidbefore，thatdemocraticnationsderivetheirloveoftheoryfromtheexcitementoftheiractivelife。Amoreattentiveexaminationwillshowthatthereisnothingcontradictoryintheproposition。Menlivingindemocraticcountrieseagerlylayholdofgeneralideasbecausetheyhavebutlittleleisure，andbecausetheseideassparethemthetroubleofstudyingparticulars。Thisistrue;butitisonlytobeunderstoodtoapplytothosematterswhicharenotthenecessaryandhabitualsubjectsoftheirthoughts。Mercantilemenwilltakeupveryeagerly，andwithoutanyveryclosescrutiny，allthegeneralideasonphilosophy，politics，science，orthearts，whichmaybepresentedtothem;butforsuchasrelatetocommerce，theywillnotreceivethemwithoutinquiry，oradoptthemwithoutreserve。Thesamethingappliestostatesmenwithregardtogeneralideasinpolitics。If，then，therebeasubjectuponwhichademocraticpeopleispeculiarlyliabletoabandonitself，blindlyandextravagantly，togeneralideas，thebestcorrectivethatcanbeusedwillbetomakethatsubjectapartofthedailypracticaloccupationofthatpeople。Thepeoplewillthenbecompelledtoenteruponitsdetails，andthedetailswillteachthemtheweakpointsofthetheory。Thisremedymayfrequentlybeapainfulone，butitseffectiscertain。
Thusithappens，thatthedemocraticinstitutionswhichcompeleverycitizentotakeapracticalpartinthegovernment，moderatethatexcessivetasteforgeneraltheoriesinpoliticswhichtheprincipleofequalitysuggests。
ChapterV:OfTheMannerInWhichReligionInTheUnitedStatesAvailsItselfOfDemocraticTendenciesIhavelaiditdowninaprecedingchapterthatmencannotdowithoutdogmaticalbelief;andeventhatitisverymuchtobedesiredthatsuchbeliefshouldexistamongstthem。Inowadd，thatofallthekindsofdogmaticalbeliefthemostdesirableappearstometobedogmaticalbeliefinmattersofreligion;andthisisaveryclearinference，evenfromnohigherconsiderationthantheinterestsofthisworld。Thereishardlyanyhumanaction，howeverparticularacharacterbeassignedtoit，whichdoesnotoriginateinsomeverygeneralideamenhaveconceivedoftheDeity，ofhisrelationtomankind，ofthenatureoftheirownsouls，andoftheirdutiestotheirfellow—creatures。Norcananythingpreventtheseideasfrombeingthecommonspringfromwhicheverythingelseemanates。MenarethereforeimmeasurablyinterestedinacquiringfixedideasofGod，ofthesoul，andoftheircommondutiestotheirCreatorandtotheirfellow—men;fordoubtonthesefirstprincipleswouldabandonalltheiractionstotheimpulseofchance，andwouldcondemnthemtolive，toacertainextent，powerlessandundisciplined。