[Footnotec:Thisdecreewasprecededbyareportofthecommitteebywhichitwasframed，containingtheexplanationofthemotivesandobjectofthelaw。Thefollowingpassageoccursinit，p。34:—\"WhentherightsreservedbytheConstitutiontothedifferentStatesaredeliberatelyviolated，itisthedutyandtherightofthoseStatestointerfere，inordertochecktheprogressoftheevil;toresistusurpation，andtomaintain，withintheirrespectivelimits，thosepowersandprivilegeswhichbelongtothemasindependentsovereignStates。Iftheyweredestituteofthisright，theywouldnotbesovereign。SouthCarolinadeclaresthatsheacknowledgesnotribunaluponearthaboveherauthority。ShehasindeedenteredintoasolemncompactofunionwiththeotherStates;butshedemands，andwillexercise，therightofputtingherownconstructionuponit;andwhenthiscompactisviolatedbyhersisterStates，andbytheGovernmentwhichtheyhavecreated，sheisdeterminedtoavailherselfoftheunquestionablerightofjudgingwhatistheextentoftheinfraction，andwhatarethemeasuresbestfittedtoobtainjustice。\"]
ChapterXVIII:FutureConditionOfThreeRaces—PartIX
InthemeantimeSouthCarolinaarmedhermilitia，andpreparedforwar。ButCongress，whichhadslighteditssuppliantsubjects，listenedtotheircomplaintsassoonastheywerefoundtohavetakenuparms。*dAlawwaspassed，bywhichthetariffdutiesweretobeprogressivelyreducedfortenyears，untiltheywerebroughtsolowasnottoexceedtheamountofsuppliesnecessarytotheGovernment。*eThusCongresscompletelyabandonedtheprincipleofthetariff;andsubstitutedamerefiscalimposttoasystemofprotectiveduties。*fTheGovernmentoftheUnion，inordertoconcealitsdefeat，hadrecoursetoanexpedientwhichisverymuchinvoguewithfeeblegovernments。
Ityieldedthepointdefacto，butitremainedinflexibleupontheprinciplesinquestion;andwhilstCongresswasalteringthetarifflaw，itpassedanotherbill，bywhichthePresidentwasinvestedwithextraordinarypowers，enablinghimtoovercomebyforcearesistancewhichwasthennolongertobeapprehended。
[Footnoted:CongresswasfinallydecidedtotakethisstepbytheconductofthepowerfulStateofVirginia，whoselegislatureofferedtoserveasmediatorbetweentheUnionandSouthCarolina。HithertothelatterStatehadappearedtobeentirelyabandoned，evenbytheStateswhichhadjoinedinherremonstrances。]
[Footnotee:ThislawwaspassedonMarch2，1833。]
[Footnotef:ThisbillwasbroughtinbyMr。Clay，anditpassedinfourdaysthroughbothHousesofCongressbyanimmensemajority。]
ButSouthCarolinadidnotconsenttoleavetheUnionintheenjoymentofthesescantytrophiesofsuccess:thesamenationalConventionwhichhadannulledthetariffbill，metagain，andacceptedtheprofferedconcession;butatthesametimeitdeclareditunabatedperseveranceinthedoctrineofNullification:andtoprovewhatitsaid，itannulledthelawinvestingthePresidentwithextraordinarypowers，althoughitwasverycertainthattheclausesofthatlawwouldneverbecarriedintoeffect。
AlmostallthecontroversiesofwhichIhavebeenspeakinghavetakenplaceunderthePresidencyofGeneralJackson;anditcannotbedeniedthatinthequestionofthetariffhehassupportedtheclaimsoftheUnionwithvigorandwithskill。I
am，however，ofopinionthattheconductoftheindividualwhonowrepresentstheFederalGovernmentmaybereckonedasoneofthedangerswhichthreatenitscontinuance。
SomepersonsinEuropehaveformedanopinionofthepossibleinfluenceofGeneralJacksonupontheaffairsofhiscountry，whichappearshighlyextravaganttothosewhohaveseenmoreofthesubject。WehavebeentoldthatGeneralJacksonhaswonsundrybattles，thatheisanenergeticman，pronebynatureandbyhabittotheuseofforce，covetousofpower，andadespotbytaste。Allthismayperhapsbetrue;buttheinferenceswhichhavebeendrawnfromthesetruthsareexceedinglyerroneous。IthasbeenimaginedthatGeneralJacksonisbentonestablishingadictatorshipinAmerica，onintroducingamilitaryspirit，andongivingadegreeofinfluencetothecentralauthoritywhichcannotbutbedangeroustoprovincialliberties。ButinAmericathetimeforsimilarundertakings，andtheageformenofthiskind，isnotyetcome:ifGeneralJacksonhadentertainedahopeofexercisinghisauthorityinthismanner，hewouldinfalliblyhaveforfeitedhispoliticalstation，andcompromisedhislife;
accordinglyhehasnotbeensoimprudentastomakeanysuchattempt。
Farfromwishingtoextendthefederalpower，thePresidentbelongstothepartywhichisdesirousoflimitingthatpowertothebareandpreciseletteroftheConstitution，andwhichneverputsaconstructionuponthatactfavorabletotheGovernmentoftheUnion;farfromstandingforthasthechampionofcentralization，GeneralJacksonistheagentofallthejealousiesoftheStates;andhewasplacedintheloftystationheoccupiesbythepassionsofthepeoplewhicharemostopposedtothecentralGovernment。Itisbyperpetuallyflatteringthesepassionsthathemaintainshisstationandhispopularity。
GeneralJacksonistheslaveofthemajority:heyieldstoitswishes，itspropensities，anditsdemands;sayrather，thatheanticipatesandforestallsthem。
WheneverthegovernmentsoftheStatescomeintocollisionwiththatoftheUnion，thePresidentisgenerallythefirsttoquestionhisownrights:healmostalwaysoutstripsthelegislature;andwhentheextentofthefederalpoweriscontroverted，hetakespart，asitwere，againsthimself;heconcealshisofficialinterests，andextinguisheshisownnaturalinclinations。NotindeedthatheisnaturallyweakorhostiletotheUnion;forwhenthemajoritydecidedagainsttheclaimsofthepartisansofnullification，heputhimselfatitshead，assertedthedoctrineswhichthenationhelddistinctlyandenergetically，andwasthefirsttorecommendforciblemeasures;
butGeneralJacksonappearstome，ifImayusetheAmericanexpressions，tobeaFederalistbytaste，andaRepublicanbycalculation。
GeneralJacksonstoopstogainthefavorofthemajority，butwhenhefeelsthathispopularityissecure，heoverthrowsallobstaclesinthepursuitoftheobjectswhichthecommunityapproves，orofthosewhichitdoesnotlookuponwithajealouseye。Heissupportedbyapowerwithwhichhispredecessorswereunacquainted;andhetramplesonhispersonalenemieswhenevertheycrosshispathwithafacilitywhichnoformerPresidenteverenjoyed;hetakesuponhimselftheresponsibilityofmeasureswhichnoonebeforehimwouldhaveventuredtoattempt:
heeventreatsthenationalrepresentativeswithdisdainapproachingtoinsult;heputshisvetouponthelawsofCongress，andfrequentlyneglectstoreplytothatpowerfulbody。
Heisafavoritewhosometimestreatshismasterroughly。ThepowerofGeneralJacksonperpetuallyincreases;butthatofthePresidentdeclines;inhishandstheFederalGovernmentisstrong，butitwillpassenfeebledintothehandsofhissuccessor。
IamstrangelymistakeniftheFederalGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesbenotconstantlylosingstrength，retiringgraduallyfrompublicaffairs，andnarrowingitscircleofactionmoreandmore。Itisnaturallyfeeble，butitnowabandonsevenitspretensionstostrength。Ontheotherhand，IthoughtthatI
remarkedamorelivelysenseofindependence，andamoredecidedattachmenttoprovincialgovernmentintheStates。TheUnionistosubsist，buttosubsistasashadow;itistobestrongincertaincases，andweakinallothers;intimeofwarfare，itistobeabletoconcentratealltheforcesofthenationandalltheresourcesofthecountryinitshands;andintimeofpeaceitsexistenceistobescarcelyperceptible:asifthisalternatedebilityandvigorwerenaturalorpossible。
Idonotforeseeanythingforthepresentwhichmaybeabletocheckthisgeneralimpulseofpublicopinion;thecausesinwhichitoriginateddonotceasetooperatewiththesameeffect。
Thechangewillthereforegoon，anditmaybepredictedthat，unlesssomeextraordinaryeventoccurs，theGovernmentoftheUnionwillgrowweakerandweakereveryday。
Ithink，however，thattheperiodisstillremoteatwhichthefederalpowerwillbeentirelyextinguishedbyitsinabilitytoprotectitselfandtomaintainpeaceinthecountry。TheUnionissanctionedbythemannersanddesiresofthepeople;itsresultsarepalpable，itsbenefitsvisible。WhenitisperceivedthattheweaknessoftheFederalGovernmentcompromisestheexistenceoftheUnion，Idonotdoubtthatareactionwilltakeplacewithaviewtoincreaseitsstrength。
TheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesis，ofallthefederalgovernmentswhichhavehithertobeenestablished，theonewhichismostnaturallydestinedtoact。Aslongasitisonlyindirectlyassailedbytheinterpretationofitslaws，andaslongasitssubstanceisnotseriouslyaltered，achangeofopinion，aninternalcrisis，orawar，mayrestoreallthevigorwhichitrequires。ThepointwhichIhavebeenmostanxioustoputinaclearlightissimplythis:Manypeople，especiallyinFrance，imaginethatachangeinopinionisgoingonintheUnitedStates，whichisfavorabletoacentralizationofpowerinthehandsofthePresidentandtheCongress。Iholdthatacontrarytendencymaydistinctlybeobserved。SofaristheFederalGovernmentfromacquiringstrength，andfromthreateningthesovereigntyoftheStates，asitgrowsolder，thatImaintainittobegrowingweakerandweaker，andthatthesovereigntyoftheUnionaloneisindanger。Sucharethefactswhichthepresenttimediscloses。Thefutureconcealsthefinalresultofthistendency，andtheeventswhichmaycheck，retard，oracceleratethechangesIhavedescribed;butIdonotaffecttobeabletoremovetheveilwhichhidesthemfromoursight。
OfTheRepublicanInstitutionsOfTheUnitedStates，AndWhatTheirChancesOfDurationAreTheUnionisaccidental—TheRepublicaninstitutionshavemoreprospectofpermanence—ArepublicforthepresentthenaturalstateoftheAnglo—Americans—Reasonofthis—Inordertodestroyit，allthelawsmustbechangedatthesametime，andagreatalterationtakeplaceinmanners—DifficultiesexperiencedbytheAmericansincreatinganaristocracy。
ThedismembermentoftheUnion，bytheintroductionofwarintotheheartofthoseStateswhicharenowconfederate，withstandingarmies，adictatorship，andaheavytaxation，might，eventually，compromisethefateoftherepublicaninstitutions。
ButweoughtnottoconfoundthefutureprospectsoftherepublicwiththoseoftheUnion。TheUnionisanaccident，whichwillonlylastaslongascircumstancesarefavorabletoitsexistence;butarepublicanformofgovernmentseemstometobethenaturalstateoftheAmericans;whichnothingbutthecontinuedactionofhostilecauses，alwaysactinginthesamedirection，couldchangeintoamonarchy。TheUnionexistsprincipallyinthelawwhichformedit;onerevolution，onechangeinpublicopinion，mightdestroyitforever;buttherepublichasamuchdeeperfoundationtorestupon。
WhatisunderstoodbyarepublicangovernmentintheUnitedStatesistheslowandquietactionofsocietyuponitself。Itisaregularstateofthingsreallyfoundedupontheenlightenedwillofthepeople。Itisaconciliatorygovernmentunderwhichresolutionsareallowedtimetoripen;andinwhichtheyaredeliberatelydiscussed，andexecutedwithmaturejudgment。TherepublicansintheUnitedStatessetahighvalueuponmorality，respectreligiousbelief，andacknowledgetheexistenceofrights。Theyprofesstothinkthatapeopleoughttobemoral，religious，andtemperate，inproportionasitisfree。
WhatiscalledtherepublicintheUnitedStates，isthetranquilruleofthemajority，which，afterhavinghadtimetoexamineitself，andtogiveproofofitsexistence，isthecommonsourceofallthepowersoftheState。Butthepowerofthemajorityisnotofitselfunlimited。Inthemoralworldhumanity，justice，andreasonenjoyanundisputedsupremacy;inthepoliticalworldvestedrightsaretreatedwithnolessdeference。Themajorityrecognizesthesetwobarriers;andifitnowandthenoverstepthem，itisbecause，likeindividuals，ithaspassions，and，likethem，itispronetodowhatiswrong，whilstitdiscernswhatisright。
ButthedemagoguesofEuropehavemadestrangediscoveries。
Arepublicisnot，accordingtothem，theruleofthemajority，ashashithertobeenthought，buttheruleofthosewhoarestrenuouspartisansofthemajority。Itisnotthepeoplewhopreponderatesinthiskindofgovernment，butthosewhoarebestversedinthegoodqualitiesofthepeople。Ahappydistinction，whichallowsmentoactinthenameofnationswithoutconsultingthem，andtoclaimtheirgratitudewhilsttheirrightsarespurned。Arepublicangovernment，moreover，istheonlyonewhichclaimstherightofdoingwhateveritchooses，anddespisingwhatmenhavehithertorespected，fromthehighestmoralobligationstothevulgarrulesofcommon—sense。Ithadbeensupposed，untilourtime，thatdespotismwasodious，underwhateverformitappeared。Butitisadiscoveryofmoderndaysthattherearesuchthingsaslegitimatetyrannyandholyinjustice，providedtheyareexercisedinthenameofthepeople。
TheideaswhichtheAmericanshaveadoptedrespectingtherepublicanformofgovernment，renderiteasyforthemtoliveunderit，andinsureitsduration。If，intheircountry，thisformbeoftenpracticallybad，atleastitistheoreticallygood;
and，intheend，thepeoplealwaysactsinconformitytoit。
ItwasimpossibleatthefoundationoftheStates，anditwouldstillbedifficult，toestablishacentraladministrationinAmerica。Theinhabitantsaredispersedovertoogreataspace，andseparatedbytoomanynaturalobstacles，foronemantoundertaketodirectthedetailsoftheirexistence。Americaisthereforepre—eminentlythecountryofprovincialandmunicipalgovernment。Tothiscause，whichwasplainlyfeltbyalltheEuropeansoftheNewWorld，theAnglo—Americansaddedseveralotherspeculiartothemselves。
AtthetimeofthesettlementoftheNorthAmericancolonies，municipallibertyhadalreadypenetratedintothelawsaswellasthemannersoftheEnglish;andtheemigrantsadoptedit，notonlyasanecessarything，butasabenefitwhichtheyknewhowtoappreciate。Wehavealreadyseenthemannerinwhichthecolonieswerefounded:everyprovince，andalmosteverydistrict，waspeopledseparatelybymenwhowerestrangerstoeachother，orwhoassociatedwithverydifferentpurposes。TheEnglishsettlersintheUnitedStates，therefore，earlyperceivedthattheyweredividedintoagreatnumberofsmallanddistinctcommunitieswhichbelongedtonocommoncentre;andthatitwasneedfulforeachoftheselittlecommunitiestotakecareofitsownaffairs，sincetheredidnotappeartobeanycentralauthoritywhichwasnaturallyboundandeasilyenabledtoprovideforthem。Thus，thenatureofthecountry，themannerinwhichtheBritishcolonieswerefounded，thehabitsofthefirstemigrants，inshorteverything，unitedtopromote，inanextraordinarydegree，municipalandprovincialliberties。
IntheUnitedStates，therefore，themassoftheinstitutionsofthecountryisessentiallyrepublican;andinorderpermanentlytodestroythelawswhichformthebasisoftherepublic，itwouldbenecessarytoabolishallthelawsatonce。
AtthepresentdayitwouldbeevenmoredifficultforapartytosucceedinfoundingamonarchyintheUnitedStatesthanforasetofmentoproclaimthatFranceshouldhenceforwardbearepublic。Royaltywouldnotfindasystemoflegislationpreparedforitbeforehand;andamonarchywouldthenexist，reallysurroundedbyrepublicaninstitutions。ThemonarchicalprinciplewouldlikewisehavegreatdifficultyinpenetratingintothemannersoftheAmericans。
IntheUnitedStates，thesovereigntyofthepeopleisnotanisolateddoctrinebearingnorelationtotheprevailingmannersandideasofthepeople:itmay，onthecontrary，beregardedasthelastlinkofachainofopinionswhichbindsthewholeAnglo—Americanworld。ThatProvidencehasgiventoeveryhumanbeingthedegreeofreasonnecessarytodirecthimselfintheaffairswhichinteresthimexclusively—suchisthegrandmaximuponwhichcivilandpoliticalsocietyrestsintheUnitedStates。Thefatherofafamilyappliesittohischildren;themastertohisservants;thetownshiptoitsofficers;theprovincetoitstownships;theStatetoitsprovinces;theUniontotheStates;andwhenextendedtothenation，itbecomesthedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeople。
Thus，intheUnitedStates，thefundamentalprincipleoftherepublicisthesamewhichgovernsthegreaterpartofhumanactions;republicannotionsinsinuatethemselvesintoalltheideas，opinions，andhabitsoftheAmericans，whilsttheyareformerlyrecognizedbythelegislation:andbeforethislegislationcanbealteredthewholecommunitymustundergoveryseriouschanges。IntheUnitedStates，eventhereligionofmostofthecitizensisrepublican，sinceitsubmitsthetruthsoftheotherworldtoprivatejudgment:asinpoliticsthecareofitstemporalinterestsisabandonedtothegoodsenseofthepeople。
Thuseverymanisallowedfreelytotakethatroadwhichhethinkswillleadhimtoheaven;justasthelawpermitseverycitizentohavetherightofchoosinghisgovernment。
Itisevidentthatnothingbutalongseriesofevents，allhavingthesametendency，cansubstituteforthiscombinationoflaws，opinions，andmanners，amassofoppositeopinions，manners，andlaws。
IfrepublicanprinciplesaretoperishinAmerica，theycanonlyyieldafteralaborioussocialprocess，ofteninterrupted，andasoftenresumed;theywillhavemanyapparentrevivals，andwillnotbecometotallyextinctuntilanentirelynewpeopleshallhavesucceededtothatwhichnowexists。Now，itmustbeadmittedthatthereisnosymptomorpresageoftheapproachofsucharevolution。ThereisnothingmorestrikingtoapersonnewlyarrivedintheUnitedStates，thanthekindoftumultuousagitationinwhichhefindspoliticalsociety。Thelawsareincessantlychanging，andatfirstsightitseemsimpossiblethatapeoplesovariableinitsdesiresshouldavoidadopting，withinashortspaceoftime，acompletelynewformofgovernment。Suchapprehensionsare，however，premature;theinstabilitywhichaffectspoliticalinstitutionsisoftwokinds，whichoughtnottobeconfounded:thefirst，whichmodifiessecondarylaws，isnotincompatiblewithaverysettledstateofsociety;theothershakestheveryfoundationsoftheConstitution，andattacksthefundamentalprinciplesoflegislation;thisspeciesofinstabilityisalwaysfollowedbytroublesandrevolutions，andthenationwhichsuffersunderitisinastateofviolenttransition。
Experienceshowsthatthesetwokindsoflegislativeinstabilityhavenonecessaryconnection;fortheyhavebeenfoundunitedorseparate，accordingtotimesandcircumstances。
ThefirstiscommonintheUnitedStates，butnotthesecond:theAmericansoftenchangetheirlaws，butthefoundationoftheConstitutionisrespected。
InourdaystherepublicanprinciplerulesinAmerica，asthemonarchicalprincipledidinFranceunderLouisXIV。TheFrenchofthatperiodwerenotonlyfriendsofthemonarchy，buttheythoughtitimpossibletoputanythinginitsplace;theyreceiveditaswereceivetheraysofthesunandthereturnoftheseasons。Amongstthemtheroyalpowerhadneitheradvocatesnoropponents。InlikemannerdoestherepublicangovernmentexistinAmerica，withoutcontentionoropposition;withoutproofsandarguments，byatacitagreement，asortofconsensusuniversalis。Itis，however，myopinionthatbychangingtheiradministrativeformsasoftenastheydo，theinhabitantsoftheUnitedStatescompromisethefuturestabilityoftheirgovernment。
Itmaybeapprehendedthatmen，perpetuallythwartedintheirdesignsbythemutabilityofthelegislation，willlearntolookuponrepublicaninstitutionsasaninconvenientformofsociety;theevilresultingfromtheinstabilityofthesecondaryenactmentsmightthenraiseadoubtastothenatureofthefundamentalprinciplesoftheConstitution，andindirectlybringaboutarevolution;butthisepochisstillveryremote。
Itmay，however，beforeseenevennow，thatwhentheAmericanslosetheirrepublicaninstitutionstheywillspeedilyarriveatadespoticgovernment，withoutalongintervaloflimitedmonarchy。Montesquieuremarked，thatnothingismoreabsolutethantheauthorityofaprincewhoimmediatelysucceedsarepublic，sincethepowerswhichhadfearlesslybeenintrustedtoanelectedmagistratearethentransferredtoahereditarysovereign。Thisistrueingeneral，butitismorepeculiarlyapplicabletoademocraticrepublic。IntheUnitedStates，themagistratesarenotelectedbyaparticularclassofcitizens，butbythemajorityofthenation;theyaretheimmediaterepresentativesofthepassionsofthemultitude;andastheyarewhollydependentuponitspleasure，theyexciteneitherhatrednorfear:hence，asIhavealreadyshown，verylittlecarehasbeentakentolimittheirinfluence，andtheyareleftinpossessionofavastdealofarbitrarypower。Thisstateofthingshasengenderedhabitswhichwouldoutliveitself;theAmericanmagistratewouldretainhispower，buthewouldceasetoberesponsiblefortheexerciseofit;anditisimpossibletosaywhatboundscouldthenbesettotyranny。
SomeofourEuropeanpoliticiansexpecttoseeanaristocracyariseinAmerica，andtheyalreadypredicttheexactperiodatwhichitwillbeabletoassumethereinsofgovernment。Ihavepreviouslyobserved，andIrepeatmyassertion，thatthepresenttendencyofAmericansocietyappearstometobecomemoreandmoredemocratic。Nevertheless，IdonotassertthattheAmericanswillnot，atsomefuturetime，restrictthecircleofpoliticalrightsintheircountry，orconfiscatethoserightstotheadvantageofasingleindividual;butI
cannotimaginethattheywilleverbestowtheexclusiveexerciseofthemuponaprivilegedclassofcitizens，or，inotherwords，thattheywilleverfoundanaristocracy。
Anaristocraticbodyiscomposedofacertainnumberofcitizenswho，withoutbeingveryfarremovedfromthemassofthepeople，are，nevertheless，permanentlystationedaboveit:abodywhichitiseasytotouchanddifficulttostrike;withwhichthepeopleareindailycontact，butwithwhichtheycannevercombine。Nothingcanbeimaginedmorecontrarytonatureandtothesecretpropensitiesofthehumanheartthanasubjectionofthiskind;andmenwhoarelefttofollowtheirownbentwillalwayspreferthearbitrarypowerofakingtotheregularadministrationofanaristocracy。Aristocraticinstitutionscannotsubsistwithoutlayingdowntheinequalityofmenasafundamentalprinciple，asapartandparcelofthelegislation，affectingtheconditionofthehumanfamilyasmuchasitaffectsthatofsociety;butthesearethingssorepugnanttonaturalequitythattheycanonlybeextortedfrommenbyconstraint。
Idonotthinkasinglepeoplecanbequoted，sincehumansocietybegantoexist，whichhas，byitsownfreewillandbyitsownexertions，createdanaristocracywithinitsownbosom。
AllthearistocraciesoftheMiddleAgeswerefoundedbymilitaryconquest;theconquerorwasthenoble，thevanquishedbecametheserf。Inequalitywasthenimposedbyforce;andafterithadbeenintroducedintothemanersofthecountryitmaintaineditsownauthority，andwassanctionedbythelegislation。
Communitieshaveexistedwhichwerearistocraticfromtheirearliestorigin，owingtocircumstancesanteriortothatevent，andwhichbecamemoredemocraticineachsucceedingage。SuchwasthedestinyoftheRomans，andofthebarbariansafterthem。
Butapeople，havingtakenitsriseincivilizationanddemocracy，whichshouldgraduallyestablishaninequalityofconditions，untilitarrivedatinviolableprivilegesandexclusivecastes，wouldbeanoveltyintheworld;andnothingintimatesthatAmericaislikelytofurnishsosingularanexample。
ReflectionOnTheCausesOfTheCommercialProsperityOfTheOfTheUnitedStatesTheAmericansdestinedbyNaturetobeagreatmaritimepeople—
Extentoftheircoasts—Depthoftheirports—Sizeoftheirrivers—ThecommercialsuperiorityoftheAnglo—Americanslessattributable，however，tophysicalcircumstancesthantomoralandintellectualcauses—Reasonofthisopinion—FuturedestinyoftheAnglo—Americansasacommercialnation—ThedissolutionoftheUnionwouldnotcheckthemaritimevigoroftheStates—
Reasonofthis—Anglo—AmericanswillnaturallysupplythewantsoftheinhabitantsofSouthAmerica—Theywillbecome，liketheEnglish，thefactorsofagreatportionoftheworld。
ThecoastoftheUnitedStates，fromtheBayofFundytotheSabineRiverintheGulfofMexico，ismorethantwothousandmilesinextent。Theseshoresformanunbrokenline，andtheyareallsubjecttothesamegovernment。Nonationintheworldpossessesvaster，deeper，ormoresecureportsforshippingthantheAmericans。
TheinhabitantsoftheUnitedStatesconstituteagreatcivilizedpeople，whichfortunehasplacedinthemidstofanuncultivatedcountryatadistanceofthreethousandmilesfromthecentralpointofcivilization。AmericaconsequentlystandsindailyneedofEuropeantrade。TheAmericanswill，nodoubt，ultimatelysucceedinproducingormanufacturingathomemostofthearticleswhichtheyrequire;butthetwocontinentscanneverbeindependentofeachother，sonumerousarethenaturaltieswhichexistbetweentheirwants，theirideas，theirhabits，andtheirmanners。
TheUnionproducespeculiarcommoditieswhicharenowbecomenecessarytous，butwhichcannotbecultivated，orcanonlyberaisedatanenormousexpense，uponthesoilofEurope。TheAmericansonlyconsumeasmallportionofthisproduce，andtheyarewillingtosellustherest。EuropeisthereforethemarketofAmerica，asAmericaisthemarketofEurope;andmaritimecommerceisnolessnecessarytoenabletheinhabitantsoftheUnitedStatestotransporttheirrawmaterialstotheportsofEurope，thanitistoenableustosupplythemwithourmanufacturedproduce。TheUnitedStateswerethereforenecessarilyreducedtothealternativeofincreasingthebusinessofothermaritimenationstoagreatextent，iftheyhadthemselvesdeclinedtoenterintocommerce，astheSpaniardsofMexicohavehithertodone;or，inthesecondplace，ofbecomingoneofthefirsttradingpowersoftheglobe。
TheAnglo—Americanshavealwaysdisplayedaverydecidedtasteforthesea。TheDeclarationofIndependencebrokethecommercialrestrictionswhichunitedthemtoEngland，andgaveafreshandpowerfulstimulustotheirmaritimegenius。Eversincethattime，theshippingoftheUnionhasincreasedinalmostthesamerapidproportionasthenumberofitsinhabitants。TheAmericansthemselvesnowtransporttotheirownshoresnine—tenthsoftheEuropeanproducewhichtheyconsume。*gAndtheyalsobringthree—quartersoftheexportsoftheNewWorldtotheEuropeanconsumer。*hTheshipsoftheUnitedStatesfillthedocksofHavreandofLiverpool;whilstthenumberofEnglishandFrenchvesselswhicharetobeseenatNewYorkiscomparativelysmall。*i[Footnoteg:ThetotalvalueofgoodsimportedduringtheyearwhichendedonSeptember30，1832，was$101，129，266。Thevalueofthecargoesofforeignvesselsdidnotamountto$10，731，039，oraboutone—tenthoftheentiresum。]
[Footnoteh:Thevalueofgoodsexportedduringthesameyearamountedto$87，176，943;thevalueofgoodsexportedbyforeignvesselsamountedto$21，036，183，oraboutonequarterofthewholesum。（Williams’s\"Register，\"1833，p。398。）]
[Footnotei:ThetonnageofthevesselswhichenteredalltheportsoftheUnionintheyears1829，1830，and1831，amountedto3，307，719tons，ofwhich544，571tonswereforeignvessels;theystood，therefore，totheAmericanvesselsinaratioofabout16
to100。（\"NationalCalendar，\"1833，p。304。）ThetonnageoftheEnglishvesselswhichenteredtheportsofLondon，Liverpool，andHull，intheyears1820，1826，and1831，amountedto443，800
tons。Theforeignvesselswhichenteredthesameportsduringthesameyearsamountedto159，431tons。Theratiobetweenthemwas，therefore，about36to100。（\"CompaniontotheAlmanac，\"
1834，p。169。）Intheyear1832theratiobetweentheforeignandBritishshipswhichenteredtheportsofGreatBritainwas29to100。[Thesestatementsrelatetoaconditionofaffairswhichhasceasedtoexist;theCivilWarandtheheavytaxationoftheUnitedStatesentirelyalteredthetradeandnavigationofthecountry。]]
Thus，notonlydoestheAmericanmerchantfacethecompetitionofhisowncountrymen，butheevensupportsthatofforeignnationsintheirownportswithsuccess。ThisisreadilyexplainedbythefactthatthevesselsoftheUnitedStatescancrosstheseasatacheaperratethananyothervesselsintheworld。AslongasthemercantileshippingoftheUnitedStatespreservesthissuperiority，itwillnotonlyretainwhatithasacquired，butitwillconstantlyincreaseinprosperity。
ChapterXVIII:FutureConditionOfThreeRaces—PartX
ItisdifficulttosayforwhatreasontheAmericanscantradeatalowerratethanothernations;andoneisatfirstledtoattributethiscircumstancetothephysicalornaturaladvantageswhicharewithintheirreach;butthissuppositioniserroneous。TheAmericanvesselscostalmostasmuchtobuildasourown;*jtheyarenotbetterbuilt，andtheygenerallylastforashortertime。ThepayoftheAmericansailorismoreconsiderablethanthepayonboardEuropeanships;whichisprovedbythegreatnumberofEuropeanswhoaretobemetwithinthemerchantvesselsoftheUnitedStates。ButIamofopinionthatthetruecauseoftheirsuperioritymustnotbesoughtforinphysicaladvantages，butthatitiswhollyattributabletotheirmoralandintellectualqualities。
[Footnotej:Materialsare，generallyspeaking，lessexpensiveinAmericathaninEurope，butthepriceoflaborismuchhigher。]
Thefollowingcomparisonwillillustratemymeaning。DuringthecampaignsoftheRevolutiontheFrenchintroducedanewsystemoftacticsintotheartofwar，whichperplexedtheoldestgenerals，andverynearlydestroyedthemostancientmonarchiesinEurope。Theyundertook（whathadneverbeforebeenattempted）
tomakeshiftwithoutanumberofthingswhichhadalwaysbeenheldtobeindispensableinwarfare;theyrequirednovelexertionsonthepartoftheirtroopswhichnocivilizednationshadeverthoughtof;theyachievedgreatactionsinanincrediblyshortspaceoftime;andtheyriskedhumanlifewithouthesitationtoobtaintheobjectinview。TheFrenchhadlessmoneyandfewermenthantheirenemies;theirresourceswereinfinitelyinferior;neverthelesstheywereconstantlyvictorious，untiltheiradversarieschosetoimitatetheirexample。
TheAmericanshaveintroducedasimilarsystemintotheircommercialspeculations;andtheydoforcheapnesswhattheFrenchdidforconquest。TheEuropeansailornavigateswithprudence;heonlysetssailwhentheweatherisfavorable;ifanunforseenaccidentbefallshim，heputsintoport;atnighthefurlsaportionofhiscanvas;andwhenthewhiteningbillowsintimatethevicinityofland，hecheckshisway，andtakesanobservationofthesun。ButtheAmericanneglectstheseprecautionsandbravesthesedangers。Heweighsanchorinthemidstoftempestuousgales;bynightandbydayhespreadshissheetstothewind;herepairsashegoesalongsuchdamageashisvesselmayhavesustainedfromthestorm;andwhenheatlastapproachesthetermofhisvoyage，hedartsonwardtotheshoreasifhealreadydescriedaport。TheAmericansareoftenshipwrecked，butnotradercrossestheseassorapidly。Andastheyperformthesamedistanceinashortertime，theycanperformitatacheaperrate。