WhenIrefusetoobeyanunjustlaw，Idonotcontesttherightwhichthemajorityhasofcommanding，butIsimplyappealfromthesovereigntyofthepeopletothesovereigntyofmankind。
Ithasbeenassertedthatapeoplecanneverentirelyoutsteptheboundariesofjusticeandofreasoninthoseaffairswhicharemorepeculiarlyitsown，andthatconsequently，fullpowermayfearlesslybegiventothemajoritybywhichitisrepresented。
Butthislanguageisthatofaslave。
Amajoritytakencollectivelymayberegardedasabeingwhoseopinions，andmostfrequentlywhoseinterests，areopposedtothoseofanotherbeing，whichisstyledaminority。Ifitbeadmittedthataman，possessingabsolutepower，maymisusethatpowerbywronginghisadversaries，whyshouldamajoritynotbeliabletothesamereproach？Menarenotapttochangetheircharactersbyagglomeration;nordoestheirpatienceinthepresenceofobstaclesincreasewiththeconsciousnessoftheirstrength。*cAndforthesereasonsIcanneverwillinglyinvestanynumberofmyfellow—creatureswiththatunlimitedauthoritywhichIshouldrefusetoanyoneofthem。
[Footnotec:Noonewillassertthatapeoplecannotforciblywronganotherpeople;butpartiesmaybelookeduponaslessernationswithinagreaterone，andtheyarealienstoeachother:
if，therefore，itbeadmittedthatanationcanacttyrannicallytowardsanothernation，itcannotbedeniedthatapartymaydothesametowardsanotherparty。]
Idonotthinkthatitispossibletocombineseveralprinciplesinthesamegovernment，soasatthesametimetomaintainfreedom，andreallytoopposethemtooneanother。Theformofgovernmentwhichisusuallytermedmixedhasalwaysappearedtometobeamerechimera。Accuratelyspeakingthereisnosuchthingasamixedgovernment（withthemeaningusuallygiventothatword），becauseinallcommunitiessomeoneprincipleofactionmaybediscoveredwhichpreponderatesovertheothers。Englandinthelastcentury，whichhasbeenmoreespeciallycitedasanexampleofthisformofGovernment，wasinpointoffactanessentiallyaristocraticState，althoughitcomprisedverypowerfulelementsofdemocracy;forthelawsandcustomsofthecountryweresuchthatthearistocracycouldnotbutpreponderateintheend，andsubjectthedirectionofpublicaffairstoitsownwill。Theerrorarosefromtoomuchattentionbeingpaidtotheactualstrugglewhichwasgoingonbetweenthenoblesandthepeople，withoutconsideringtheprobableissueofthecontest，whichwasinrealitytheimportantpoint。Whenacommunityreallyhasamixedgovernment，thatistosay，whenitisequallydividedbetweentwoadverseprinciples，itmusteitherpassthrougharevolutionorfallintocompletedissolution。
Iamthereforeofopinionthatsomeonesocialpowermustalwaysbemadetopredominateovertheothers;butIthinkthatlibertyisendangeredwhenthispowerischeckedbynoobstacleswhichmayretarditscourse，andforceittomoderateitsownvehemence。
Unlimitedpowerisinitselfabadanddangerousthing;
humanbeingsarenotcompetenttoexerciseitwithdiscretion，andGodalonecanbeomnipotent，becauseHiswisdomandHisjusticearealwaysequaltoHispower。Butnopoweruponearthissoworthyofhonorforitself，orofreverentialobediencetotherightswhichitrepresents，thatIwouldconsenttoadmititsuncontrolledandall—predominantauthority。WhenIseethattherightandthemeansofabsolutecommandareconferredonapeopleoruponaking，uponanaristocracyorademocracy，amonarchyorarepublic，Irecognizethegermoftyranny，andIjourneyonwardtoalandofmorehopefulinstitutions。
InmyopinionthemainevilofthepresentdemocraticinstitutionsoftheUnitedStatesdoesnotarise，asisoftenassertedinEurope，fromtheirweakness，butfromtheiroverpoweringstrength;andIamnotsomuchalarmedattheexcessivelibertywhichreignsinthatcountryasattheveryinadequatesecuritieswhichexistagainsttyranny。
WhenanindividualorapartyiswrongedintheUnitedStates，towhomcanheapplyforredress？Iftopublicopinion，publicopinionconstitutesthemajority;iftothelegislature，itrepresentsthemajority，andimplicitlyobeysitsinjunctions;
iftotheexecutivepower，itisappointedbythemajority，andremainsapassivetoolinitshands;thepublictroopsconsistofthemajorityunderarms;thejuryisthemajorityinvestedwiththerightofhearingjudicialcases;andincertainStateseventhejudgesareelectedbythemajority。Howeveriniquitousorabsurdtheevilofwhichyoucomplainmaybe，youmustsubmittoitaswellasyoucan。*d[Footnoted:AstrikinginstanceoftheexcesseswhichmaybeoccasionedbythedespotismofthemajorityoccurredatBaltimoreintheyear1812。AtthattimethewarwasverypopularinBaltimore。Ajournalwhichhadtakentheothersideofthequestionexcitedtheindignationoftheinhabitantsbyitsopposition。Thepopulaceassembled，broketheprinting—presses，andattackedthehousesofthenewspapereditors。Themilitiawascalledout，butnooneobeyedthecall;andtheonlymeansofsavingthepoorwretcheswhowerethreatenedbythefrenzyofthemobwastothrowthemintoprisonascommonmalefactors。Buteventhisprecautionwasineffectual;themobcollectedagainduringthenight，themagistratesagainmadeavainattempttocalloutthemilitia，theprisonwasforced，oneofthenewspapereditorswaskilleduponthespot，andtheotherswereleftfordead;theguiltypartieswereacquittedbythejurywhentheywerebroughttotrial。
IsaidonedaytoaninhabitantofPennsylvania，\"BesogoodastoexplaintomehowithappensthatinaStatefoundedbyQuakers，andcelebratedforitstoleration，freedblacksarenotallowedtoexercisecivilrights。Theypaythetaxes;isitnotfairthattheyshouldhaveavote？\"
\"Youinsultus，\"repliedmyinformant，\"ifyouimaginethatourlegislatorscouldhavecommittedsogrossanactofinjusticeandintolerance。\"
\"What！thentheblackspossesstherightofvotinginthiscounty？\"
\"Withoutthesmallestdoubt。\"
\"Howcomesit，then，thatatthepolling—booththismorningIdidnotperceiveasinglenegrointhewholemeeting？\"
\"Thisisnotthefaultofthelaw:thenegroeshaveanundisputedrightofvoting，buttheyvoluntarilyabstainfrommakingtheirappearance。\"
\"Averyprettypieceofmodestyontheirparts！\"rejoinedI。
\"Why，thetruthis，thattheyarenotdisinclinedtovote，buttheyareafraidofbeingmaltreated;inthiscountrythelawissometimesunabletomaintainitsauthoritywithoutthesupportofthemajority。Butinthiscasethemajorityentertainsverystrongprejudicesagainsttheblacks，andthemagistratesareunabletoprotectthemintheexerciseoftheirlegalprivileges。\"
\"What！thenthemajorityclaimstherightnotonlyofmakingthelaws，butofbreakingthelawsithasmade？\"]
If，ontheotherhand，alegislativepowercouldbesoconstitutedastorepresentthemajoritywithoutnecessarilybeingtheslaveofitspassions;anexecutive，soastoretainacertaindegreeofuncontrolledauthority;andajudiciary，soastoremainindependentofthetwootherpowers;agovernmentwouldbeformedwhichwouldstillbedemocraticwithoutincurringanyriskoftyrannicalabuse。
IdonotsaythattyrannicalabusesfrequentlyoccurinAmericaatthepresentday，butImaintainthatnosurebarrierisestablishedagainstthem，andthatthecauseswhichmitigatethegovernmentaretobefoundinthecircumstancesandthemannersofthecountrymorethaninitslaws。
EffectsOfTheUnlimitedPowerOfTheMajorityUponTheArbitraryAuthorityOfTheAmericanPublicOfficersLibertyleftbytheAmericanlawstopublicofficerswithinacertainsphere—Theirpower。
Adistinctionmustbedrawnbetweentyrannyandarbitrarypower。Tyrannymaybeexercisedbymeansofthelaw，andinthatcaseitisnotarbitrary;arbitrarypowermaybeexercisedforthegoodofthecommunityatlarge，inwhichcaseitisnottyrannical。Tyrannyusuallyemploysarbitrarymeans，but，ifnecessary，itcanrulewithoutthem。
IntheUnitedStatestheunboundedpowerofthemajority，whichisfavorabletothelegaldespotismofthelegislature，islikewisefavorabletothearbitraryauthorityofthemagistrate。
Themajorityhasanentirecontroloverthelawwhenitismadeandwhenitisexecuted;andasitpossessesanequalauthorityoverthosewhoareinpowerandthecommunityatlarge，itconsiderspublicofficersasitspassiveagents，andreadilyconfidesthetaskofservingitsdesignstotheirvigilance。Thedetailsoftheirofficeandtheprivilegeswhichtheyaretoenjoyarerarelydefinedbeforehand;butthemajoritytreatsthemasamasterdoeshisservantswhentheyarealwaysatworkinhissight，andhehasthepowerofdirectingorreprimandingthemateveryinstant。
IngeneraltheAmericanfunctionariesarefarmoreindependentthantheFrenchcivilofficerswithinthespherewhichisprescribedtothem。Sometimes，even，theyareallowedbythepopularauthoritytoexceedthosebounds;andastheyareprotectedbytheopinion，andbackedbytheco—operation，ofthemajority，theyventureuponsuchmanifestationsoftheirpowerasastonishaEuropean。Bythismeanshabitsareformedintheheartofafreecountrywhichmaysomedayprovefataltoitsliberties。
PowerExercisedByTheMajorityInAmericaUponOpinionInAmerica，whenthemajorityhasonceirrevocablydecidedaquestion，alldiscussionceases—Reasonofthis—Moralpowerexercisedbythemajorityuponopinion—Democraticrepublicshavedepriveddespotismofitsphysicalinstruments—Theirdespotismswaysthemindsofmen。
ItisintheexaminationofthedisplayofpublicopinionintheUnitedStatesthatweclearlyperceivehowfarthepowerofthemajoritysurpassesallthepowerswithwhichweareacquaintedinEurope。Intellectualprinciplesexerciseaninfluencewhichissoinvisible，andoftensoinappreciable，thattheybafflethetoilsofoppression。AtthepresenttimethemostabsolutemonarchsinEuropeareunabletopreventcertainnotions，whichareopposedtotheirauthority，fromcirculatinginsecretthroughouttheirdominions，andevenintheircourts。
SuchisnotthecaseinAmerica;aslongasthemajorityisstillundecided，discussioniscarriedon;butassoonasitsdecisionisirrevocablypronounced，asubmissivesilenceisobserved，andthefriends，aswellastheopponents，ofthemeasureuniteinassentingtoitspropriety。Thereasonofthisisperfectlyclear:nomonarchissoabsoluteastocombineallthepowersofsocietyinhisownhands，andtoconqueralloppositionwiththeenergyofamajoritywhichisinvestedwiththerightofmakingandofexecutingthelaws。
Theauthorityofakingispurelyphysical，anditcontrolstheactionsofthesubjectwithoutsubduinghisprivatewill;butthemajoritypossessesapowerwhichisphysicalandmoralatthesametime;itactsuponthewillaswellasupontheactionsofmen，anditrepressesnotonlyallcontest，butallcontroversy。
IknownocountryinwhichthereissolittletrueindependenceofmindandfreedomofdiscussionasinAmerica。InanyconstitutionalstateinEuropeeverysortofreligiousandpoliticaltheorymaybeadvocatedandpropagatedabroad;forthereisnocountryinEuropesosubduedbyanysingleauthorityasnottocontaincitizenswhoarereadytoprotectthemanwhoraiseshisvoiceinthecauseoftruthfromtheconsequencesofhishardihood。Ifheisunfortunateenoughtoliveunderanabsolutegovernment，thepeopleisuponhisside;ifheinhabitsafreecountry，hemayfindashelterbehindtheauthorityofthethrone，ifherequireone。Thearistocraticpartofsocietysupportshiminsomecountries，andthedemocracyinothers。Butinanationwheredemocraticinstitutionsexist，organizedlikethoseoftheUnitedStates，thereisbutonesoleauthority，onesingleelementofstrengthandofsuccess，withnothingbeyondit。
InAmericathemajorityraisesveryformidablebarrierstothelibertyofopinion:withinthesebarriersanauthormaywritewhateverhepleases，buthewillrepentitifheeverstepbeyondthem。Notthatheisexposedtotheterrorsofanauto—da—fe，butheistormentedbytheslightsandpersecutionsofdailyobloquy。Hispoliticalcareerisclosedforever，sincehehasoffendedtheonlyauthoritywhichisabletopromotehissuccess。
Everysortofcompensation，eventhatofcelebrity，isrefusedtohim。Beforehepublishedhisopinionsheimaginedthatheheldthemincommonwithmanyothers;butnosoonerhashedeclaredthemopenlythanheisloudlycensuredbyhisoverbearingopponents，whilstthosewhothinkwithouthavingthecouragetospeak，likehim，abandonhiminsilence。Heyieldsatlength，oppressedbythedailyeffortshehasbeenmaking，andhesubsidesintosilence，asifhewastormentedbyremorseforhavingspokenthetruth。
Fettersandheadsmenwerethecoarseinstrumentswhichtyrannyformerlyemployed;butthecivilizationofouragehasrefinedtheartsofdespotismwhichseemed，however，tohavebeensufficientlyperfectedbefore。Theexcessesofmonarchicalpowerhaddevisedavarietyofphysicalmeansofoppression:thedemocraticrepublicsofthepresentdayhaverendereditasentirelyanaffairofthemindasthatwillwhichitisintendedtocoerce。Undertheabsoluteswayofanindividualdespotthebodywasattackedinordertosubduethesoul，andthesoulescapedtheblowswhichweredirectedagainstitandrosesuperiortotheattempt;butsuchisnotthecourseadoptedbytyrannyindemocraticrepublics;therethebodyisleftfree，andthesoulisenslaved。Thesovereigncannolongersay，\"YoushallthinkasIdoonpainofdeath;\"buthesays，\"Youarefreetothinkdifferentlyfromme，andtoretainyourlife，yourproperty，andallthatyoupossess;butifsuchbeyourdetermination，youarehenceforthanalienamongyourpeople。Youmayretainyourcivilrights，buttheywillbeuselesstoyou，foryouwillneverbechosenbyyourfellow—citizensifyousolicittheirsuffrages，andtheywillaffecttoscornyouifyousolicittheiresteem。Youwillremainamongmen，butyouwillbedeprivedoftherightsofmankind。Yourfellow—creatureswillshunyoulikeanimpurebeing，andthosewhoaremostpersuadedofyourinnocencewillabandonyoutoo，lesttheyshouldbeshunnedintheirturn。Goinpeace！Ihavegivenyouyourlife，butitisanexistenceincomparablyworsethandeath。\"
Monarchicalinstitutionshavethrownanodiumupondespotism;letusbewarelestdemocraticrepublicsshouldrestoreoppression，andshouldrenderitlessodiousandlessdegradingintheeyesofthemany，bymakingitstillmoreoneroustothefew。
WorkshavebeenpublishedintheproudestnationsoftheOldWorldexpresslyintendedtocensurethevicesandderidethefolliesofthetimes;LabruyereinhabitedthepalaceofLouisXIV
whenhecomposedhischapterupontheGreat，andMolierecriticisedthecourtiersintheverypieceswhichwereactedbeforetheCourt。ButtherulingpowerintheUnitedStatesisnottobemadegameof;thesmallestreproachirritatesitssensibility，andtheslightestjokewhichhasanyfoundationintruthrendersitindignant;fromthestyleofitslanguagetothemoresolidvirtuesofitscharacter，everythingmustbemadethesubjectofencomium。Nowriter，whateverbehiseminence，canescapefromthistributeofadulationtohisfellow—citizens。Themajoritylivesintheperpetualpracticeofself—applause，andtherearecertaintruthswhichtheAmericanscanonlylearnfromstrangersorfromexperience。
IfgreatwritershavenotatpresentexistedinAmerica，thereasonisverysimplygiveninthesefacts;therecanbenoliterarygeniuswithoutfreedomofopinion，andfreedomofopiniondoesnotexistinAmerica。TheInquisitionhasneverbeenabletopreventavastnumberofanti—religiousbooksfromcirculatinginSpain。TheempireofthemajoritysucceedsmuchbetterintheUnitedStates，sinceitactuallyremovesthewishofpublishingthem。UnbelieversaretobemetwithinAmerica，but，tosaythetruth，thereisnopublicorganofinfidelity。
Attemptshavebeenmadebysomegovernmentstoprotectthemoralityofnationsbyprohibitinglicentiousbooks。IntheUnitedStatesnooneispunishedforthissortofworks，butnooneisinducedtowritethem;notbecauseallthecitizensareimmaculateintheirmanners，butbecausethemajorityofthecommunityisdecentandorderly。
Inthesecasestheadvantagesderivedfromtheexerciseofthispowerareunquestionable，andIamsimplydiscussingthenatureofthepoweritself。Thisirresistibleauthorityisaconstantfact，anditsjudiciousexerciseisanaccidentaloccurrence。
EffectsOfTheTyrannyOfTheMajorityUponTheNationalCharacterOfTheAmericansEffectsofthetyrannyofthemajoritymoresensiblyfelthithertointhemannersthanintheconductofsociety—Theycheckthedevelopmentofleadingcharacters—DemocraticrepublicsorganizedliketheUnitedStatesbringthepracticeofcourtingfavorwithinthereachofthemany—ProofsofthisspiritintheUnitedStates—Whythereismorepatriotisminthepeoplethaninthosewhogoverninitsname。
ThetendencieswhichIhavejustalludedtoareasyetveryslightlyperceptibleinpoliticalsociety，buttheyalreadybegintoexerciseanunfavorableinfluenceuponthenationalcharacteroftheAmericans。Iaminclinedtoattributethesingularpaucityofdistinguishedpoliticalcharacterstotheever—increasingactivityofthedespotismofthemajorityintheUnitedStates。WhentheAmericanRevolutionbrokeouttheyaroseingreatnumbers，forpublicopinionthenserved，nottotyrannizeover，buttodirecttheexertionsofindividuals。
Thosecelebratedmentookafullpartinthegeneralagitationofmindcommonatthatperiod，andtheyattainedahighdegreeofpersonalfame，whichwasreflectedbackuponthenation，butwhichwasbynomeansborrowedfromit。
Inabsolutegovernmentsthegreatnobleswhoarenearesttothethroneflatterthepassionsofthesovereign，andvoluntarilytruckletohiscaprices。Butthemassofthenationdoesnotdegradeitselfbyservitude:itoftensubmitsfromweakness，fromhabit，orfromignorance，andsometimesfromloyalty。Somenationshavebeenknowntosacrificetheirowndesirestothoseofthesovereignwithpleasureandwithpride，thusexhibitingasortofindependenceintheveryactofsubmission。Thesepeoplesaremiserable，buttheyarenotdegraded。Thereisagreatdifferencebetweendoingwhatonedoesnotapproveandfeigningtoapprovewhatonedoes;theoneisthenecessarycaseofaweakperson，theotherbefitsthetemperofalackey。
Infreecountries，whereeveryoneismoreorlesscalledupontogivehisopinionintheaffairsofstate;indemocraticrepublics，wherepubliclifeisincessantlycommingledwithdomesticaffairs，wherethesovereignauthorityisaccessibleoneveryside，andwhereitsattentioncanalmostalwaysbeattractedbyvociferation，morepersonsaretobemetwithwhospeculateuponitsfoiblesandliveatthecostofitspassionsthaninabsolutemonarchies。NotbecausemenarenaturallyworseintheseStatesthanelsewhere，butthetemptationisstronger，andofeasieraccessatthesametime。Theresultisafarmoreextensivedebasementofthecharactersofcitizens。
Democraticrepublicsextendthepracticeofcurryingfavorwiththemany，andtheyintroduceitintoagreaternumberofclassesatonce:thisisoneofthemostseriousreproachesthatcanbeaddressedtothem。IndemocraticStatesorganizedontheprinciplesoftheAmericanrepublics，thisismoreespeciallythecase，wheretheauthorityofthemajorityissoabsoluteandsoirresistiblethatamanmustgiveuphisrightsasacitizen，andalmostabjurehisqualityasahumanbeing，ifteintendstostrayfromthetrackwhichitlaysdown。
InthatimmensecrowdwhichthrongstheavenuestopowerintheUnitedStatesIfoundveryfewmenwhodisplayedanyofthatmanlycandorandthatmasculineindependenceofopinionwhichfrequentlydistinguishedtheAmericansinformertimes，andwhichconstitutestheleadingfeatureindistinguishedcharacters，wheresoevertheymaybefound。Itseems，atfirstsight，asifallthemindsoftheAmericanswereformedupononemodel，soaccuratelydotheycorrespondintheirmannerofjudging。A
strangerdoes，indeed，sometimesmeetwithAmericanswhodissentfromtheserigorousformularies;withmenwhodeplorethedefectsofthelaws，themutabilityandtheignoranceofdemocracy;whoevengosofarastoobservetheeviltendencieswhichimpairthenationalcharacter，andtopointoutsuchremediesasitmightbepossibletoapply;butnooneistheretohearthesethingsbesidesyourself，andyou，towhomthesesecretreflectionsareconfided，areastrangerandabirdofpassage。Theyareveryreadytocommunicatetruthswhichareuselesstoyou，buttheycontinuetoholdadifferentlanguageinpublic。
IfevertheselinesarereadinAmerica，Iamwellassuredoftwothings:inthefirstplace，thatallwhoperusethemwillraisetheirvoicestocondemnme;andinthesecondplace，thatverymanyofthemwillacquitmeatthebottomoftheirconscience。
IhaveheardofpatriotismintheUnitedStates，anditisavirtuewhichmaybefoundamongthepeople，butneveramongtheleadersofthepeople。Thismaybeexplainedbyanalogy;
despotismdebasestheoppressedmuchmorethantheoppressor:inabsolutemonarchiesthekinghasoftengreatvirtues，butthecourtiersareinvariablyservile。ItistruethattheAmericancourtiersdonotsay\"Sire，\"or\"YourMajesty\"—adistinctionwithoutadifference。Theyareforevertalkingofthenaturalintelligenceofthepopulacetheyserve;theydonotdebatethequestionastowhichofthevirtuesoftheirmasterispre—eminentlyworthyofadmiration，fortheyassurehimthathepossessesallthevirtuesunderheavenwithouthavingacquiredthem，orwithoutcaringtoacquirethem;theydonotgivehimtheirdaughtersandtheirwivestoberaisedathispleasuretotherankofhisconcubines，but，bysacrificingtheiropinions，theyprostitutethemselves。MoralistsandphilosophersinAmericaarenotobligedtoconcealtheiropinionsundertheveilofallegory;but，beforetheyventureuponaharshtruth，theysay，\"Weareawarethatthepeoplewhichweareaddressingistoosuperiortoalltheweaknessesofhumannaturetolosethecommandofitstemperforaninstant;andweshouldnotholdthislanguageifwewerenotspeakingtomenwhomtheirvirtuesandtheirintelligencerendermoreworthyoffreedomthanalltherestoftheworld。\"ItwouldhavebeenimpossibleforthesycophantsofLouisXIVtoflattermoredexterously。Formypart，Iampersuadedthatinallgovernments，whatevertheirnaturemaybe，servilitywillcowertoforce，andadulationwillclingtopower。Theonlymeansofpreventingmenfromdegradingthemselvesistoinvestnoonewiththatunlimitedauthoritywhichisthesurestmethodofdebasingthem。
TheGreatestDangersOfTheAmericanRepublicsProceedFromTheUnlimitedPowerOfTheMajorityDemocraticrepublicsliabletoperishfromamisuseoftheirpower，andnotbyimpotence—TheGovernmentsoftheAmericanrepublicsaremorecentralizedandmoreenergeticthanthoseofthemonarchiesofEurope—Dangersresultingfromthis—OpinionsofHamiltonandJeffersonuponthispoint。
Governmentsusuallyfallasacrificetoimpotenceortotyranny。Intheformercasetheirpowerescapesfromthem;itiswrestedfromtheirgraspinthelatter。Manyobservers，whohavewitnessedtheanarchyofdemocraticStates，haveimaginedthatthegovernmentofthoseStateswasnaturallyweakandimpotent。
Thetruthis，thatwhenoncehostilitiesarebegunbetweenparties，thegovernmentlosesitscontroloversociety。ButIdonotthinkthatademocraticpowerisnaturallywithoutforceorwithoutresources:say，rather，thatitisalmostalwaysbytheabuseofitsforceandthemisemploymentofitsresourcesthatademocraticgovernmentfails。Anarchyisalmostalwaysproducedbyitstyrannyoritsmistakes，butnotbyitswantofstrength。
Itisimportantnottoconfoundstabilitywithforce，orthegreatnessofathingwithitsduration。Indemocraticrepublics，thepowerwhichdirects*esocietyisnotstable;foritoftenchangeshandsandassumesanewdirection。Butwhicheverwayitturns，itsforceisalmostirresistible。TheGovernmentsoftheAmericanrepublicsappeartometobeasmuchcentralizedasthoseoftheabsolutemonarchiesofEurope，andmoreenergeticthantheyare。Idonot，therefore，imaginethattheywillperishfromweakness。*f[Footnotee:Thispowermaybecentredinanassembly，inwhichcaseitwillbestrongwithoutbeingstable;oritmaybecentredinanindividual，inwhichcaseitwillbelessstrong，butmorestable。]
[Footnotef:Ipresumethatitisscarcelynecessarytoremindthereaderhere，aswellasthroughouttheremainderofthischapter，thatIamspeaking，notoftheFederalGovernment，butoftheseveralgovernmentsofeachState，whichthemajoritycontrolsatitspleasure。]
IfeverthefreeinstitutionsofAmericaaredestroyed，thateventmaybeattributedtotheunlimitedauthorityofthemajority，whichmayatsomefuturetimeurgetheminoritiestodesperation，andobligethemtohaverecoursetophysicalforce。
Anarchywillthenbetheresult，butitwillhavebeenbroughtaboutbydespotism。
Mr。Hamiltonexpressesthesameopinioninthe\"Federalist，\"
No。51。\"Itisofgreatimportanceinarepublicnotonlytoguardthesocietyagainsttheoppressionofitsrulers，buttoguardonepartofthesocietyagainsttheinjusticeoftheotherpart。Justiceistheendofgovernment。Itistheendofcivilsociety。Iteverhasbeen，andeverwillbe，pursueduntilitbeobtained，oruntillibertybelostinthepursuit。Inasociety，undertheformsofwhichthestrongerfactioncanreadilyuniteandoppresstheweaker，anarchymayastrulybesaidtoreignasinastateofnature，wheretheweakerindividualisnotsecuredagainsttheviolenceofthestronger:andasinthelatterstateeventhestrongerindividualsarepromptedbytheuncertaintyoftheirconditiontosubmittoagovernmentwhichmayprotecttheweakaswellasthemselves，sointheformerstatewillthemorepowerfulfactionsbegraduallyinducedbyalikemotivetowishforagovernmentwhichwillprotectallparties，theweakeraswellasthemorepowerful。Itcanbelittledoubtedthat，iftheStateofRhodeIslandwasseparatedfromtheConfederacyandlefttoitself，theinsecurityofrightunderthepopularformofgovernmentwithinsuchnarrowlimitswouldbedisplayedbysuchreiteratedoppressionsofthefactiousmajorities，thatsomepoweraltogetherindependentofthepeoplewouldsoonbecalledforbythevoiceoftheveryfactionswhosemisrulehadprovedthenecessityofit。\"
JeffersonhasalsothusexpressedhimselfinalettertoMadison:*g\"TheexecutivepowerinourGovernmentisnottheonly，perhapsnoteventheprincipal，objectofmysolicitude。
ThetyrannyoftheLegislatureisreallythedangermosttobefeared，andwillcontinuetobesoformanyyearstocome。Thetyrannyoftheexecutivepowerwillcomeinitsturn，butatamoredistantperiod。\"IamgladtocitetheopinionofJeffersonuponthissubjectratherthanthatofanother，becauseIconsiderhimtobethemostpowerfuladvocatedemocracyhaseversentforth。
[Footnoteg:March15，1789。]
ChapterXVI:CausesMitigatingTyrannyInTheUnitedStates—
PartI
ChapterSummaryThenationalmajoritydoesnotpretendtoconductallbusiness—
Isobligedtoemploythetownandcountymagistratestoexecuteitssupremedecisions。
Ihavealreadypointedoutthedistinctionwhichistobemadebetweenacentralizedgovernmentandacentralizedadministration。TheformerexistsinAmerica，butthelatterisnearlyunknownthere。IfthedirectingpoweroftheAmericancommunitieshadboththeseinstrumentsofgovernmentatitsdisposal，andunitedthehabitofexecutingitsowncommandstotherightofcommanding;if，afterhavingestablishedthegeneralprinciplesofgovernment，itdescendedtothedetailsofpublicbusiness;andif，havingregulatedthegreatinterestsofthecountry，itcouldpenetrateintotheprivacyofindividualinterests，freedomwouldsoonbebanishedfromtheNewWorld。
ButintheUnitedStatesthemajority，whichsofrequentlydisplaysthetastesandthepropensitiesofadespot，isstilldestituteofthemoreperfectinstrumentsoftyranny。IntheAmericanrepublicstheactivityofthecentralGovernmenthasneverasyetbeenextendedbeyondalimitednumberofobjectssufficientlyprominenttocallforthitsattention。Thesecondaryaffairsofsocietyhaveneverbeenregulatedbyitsauthority，andnothinghashithertobetrayeditsdesireofinterferinginthem。Themajorityisbecomemoreandmoreabsolute，butithasnotincreasedtheprerogativesofthecentralgovernment;thosegreatprerogativeshavebeenconfinedtoacertainsphere;andalthoughthedespotismofthemajoritymaybegallingupononepoint，itcannotbesaidtoextendtoall。Howeverthepredominantpartyinthenationmaybecarriedawaybyitspassions，howeverardentitmaybeinthepursuitofitsprojects，itcannotobligeallthecitizenstocomplywithitsdesiresinthesamemannerandatthesametimethroughoutthecountry。WhenthecentralGovernmentwhichrepresentsthatmajorityhasissuedadecree，itmustentrusttheexecutionofitswilltoagents，overwhomitfrequentlyhasnocontrol，andwhomitcannotperpetuallydirect。Thetownships，municipalbodies，andcountiesmaythereforebelookeduponasconcealedbreak—waters，whichcheckorpartthetideofpopularexcitement。
Ifanoppressivelawwerepassed，thelibertiesofthepeoplewouldstillbeprotectedbythemeansbywhichthatlawwouldbeputinexecution:themajoritycannotdescendtothedetailsand（asIwillventuretostylethem）thepuerilitiesofadministrativetyranny。Nordoesthepeopleentertainthatfullconsciousnessofitsauthoritywhichwouldpromptittointerfereinthesematters;itknowstheextentofitsnaturalpowers，butitisunacquaintedwiththeincreasedresourceswhichtheartofgovernmentmightfurnish。
Thispointdeservesattention，forifademocraticrepublicsimilartothatoftheUnitedStateswereeverfoundedinacountrywherethepowerofasingleindividualhadpreviouslysubsisted，andtheeffectsofacentralizedadministrationhadsunkdeepintothehabitsandthelawsofthepeople，Idonothesitatetoassert，thatinthatcountryamoreinsufferabledespotismwouldprevailthananywhichnowexistsinthemonarchicalStatesofEurope，orindeedthananywhichcouldbefoundonthissideoftheconfinesofAsia。
TheProfessionOfTheLawInTheUnitedStatesServesToCounterpoiseTheDemocracyUtilityofdiscriminatingthenaturalpropensitiesofthemembersofthelegalprofession—Thesemencalledupontoactaprominentpartinfuturesociety—Inwhatmannerthepeculiarpursuitsoflawyersgiveanaristocraticturntotheirideas—
Accidentalcauseswhichmaycheckthistendency—Easewithwhichthearistocracycoalesceswithlegalmen—Useoflawyerstoadespot—Theprofessionofthelawconstitutestheonlyaristocraticelementwithwhichthenaturalelementsofdemocracywillcombine—PeculiarcauseswhichtendtogiveanaristocraticturnofmindtotheEnglishandAmericanlawyers—ThearistocracyofAmericaisonthebenchandatthebar—InfluenceoflawyersuponAmericansociety—Theirpeculiarmagisterialhabitsaffectthelegislature，theadministration，andeventhepeople。
InvisitingtheAmericansandinstudyingtheirlawsweperceivethattheauthoritytheyhaveentrustedtomembersofthelegalprofession，andtheinfluencewhichtheseindividualsexerciseintheGovernment，isthemostpowerfulexistingsecurityagainsttheexcessesofdemocracy。Thiseffectseemstometoresultfromageneralcausewhichitisusefultoinvestigate，sinceitmayproduceanalogousconsequenceselsewhere。