ThemembersofthelegalprofessionhavetakenanimportantpartinallthevicissitudesofpoliticalsocietyinEuropeduringthelastfivehundredyears。Atonetimetheyhavebeentheinstrumentsofthosewhowereinvestedwithpoliticalauthority，andatanothertheyhavesucceededinconvertingpoliticalauthoritiesintotheirinstrument。IntheMiddleAgestheyaffordedapowerfulsupporttotheCrown，andsincethatperiodtheyhaveexertedthemselvestotheutmosttolimittheroyalprerogative。InEnglandtheyhavecontractedaclosealliancewiththearistocracy;inFrancetheyhaveprovedtobethemostdangerousenemiesofthatclass。Itismyobjecttoinquirewhether，underallthesecircumstances，themembersofthelegalprofessionhavebeenswayedbysuddenandmomentaryimpulses;orwhethertheyhavebeenimpelledbyprincipleswhichareinherentintheirpursuits，andwhichwillalwaysrecurinhistory。Iamincitedtothisinvestigationbyreflectingthatthisparticularclassofmenwillmostlikelyplayaprominentpartinthatorderofthingstowhichtheeventsofourtimearegivingbirth。
Menwhohavemoreespeciallydevotedthemselvestolegalpursuitsderivefromthoseoccupationscertainhabitsoforder，atasteforformalities，andakindofinstinctiveregardfortheregularconnectionofideas，whichnaturallyrenderthemveryhostiletotherevolutionaryspiritandtheunreflectingpassionsofthemultitude。
Thespecialinformationwhichlawyersderivefromtheirstudiesensuresthemaseparatestationinsociety，andtheyconstituteasortofprivilegedbodyinthescaleofintelligence。Thisnotionoftheirsuperiorityperpetuallyrecurstotheminthepracticeoftheirprofession:theyarethemastersofasciencewhichisnecessary，butwhichisnotverygenerallyknown;theyserveasarbitersbetweenthecitizens;andthehabitofdirectingtheblindpassionsofpartiesinlitigationtotheirpurposeinspiresthemwithacertaincontemptforthejudgmentofthemultitude。Tothisitmaybeaddedthattheynaturallyconstituteabody，notbyanypreviousunderstanding，orbyanagreementwhichdirectsthemtoacommonend;buttheanalogyoftheirstudiesandtheuniformityoftheirproceedingsconnecttheirmindstogether，asmuchasacommoninterestcouldcombinetheirendeavors。
Aportionofthetastesandofthehabitsofthearistocracymayconsequentlybediscoveredinthecharactersofmenintheprofessionofthelaw。Theyparticipateinthesameinstinctiveloveoforderandofformalities;andtheyentertainthesamerepugnancetotheactionsofthemultitude，andthesamesecretcontemptofthegovernmentofthepeople。Idonotmeantosaythatthenaturalpropensitiesoflawyersaresufficientlystrongtoswaythemirresistibly;forthey，likemostothermen，aregovernedbytheirprivateinterestsandtheadvantagesofthemoment。
Inastateofsocietyinwhichthemembersofthelegalprofessionarepreventedfromholdingthatrankinthepoliticalworldwhichtheyenjoyinprivatelife，wemayrestassuredthattheywillbetheforemostagentsofrevolution。Butitmustthenbeinquiredwhetherthecausewhichinducesthemtoinnovateandtodestroyisaccidental，orwhetheritbelongstosomelastingpurposewhichtheyentertain。ItistruethatlawyersmainlycontributedtotheoverthrowoftheFrenchmonarchyin1789;butitremainstobeseenwhethertheyactedthusbecausetheyhadstudiedthelaws，orbecausetheywereprohibitedfromco—operatingintheworkoflegislation。
FivehundredyearsagotheEnglishnoblesheadedthepeople，andspokeinitsname;atthepresenttimethearistocracysupportsthethrone，anddefendstheroyalprerogative。Butaristocracyhas，notwithstandingthis，itspeculiarinstinctsandpropensities。Wemustbecarefulnottoconfoundisolatedmembersofabodywiththebodyitself。Inallfreegovernments，ofwhatsoeverformtheymaybe，membersofthelegalprofessionwillbefoundattheheadofallparties。Thesameremarkisalsoapplicabletothearistocracy;foralmostallthedemocraticconvulsionswhichhaveagitatedtheworldhavebeendirectedbynobles。
Aprivilegedbodycanneversatisfytheambitionofallitsmembers;ithasalwaysmoretalentsandmorepassionstocontentandtoemploythanitcanfindplaces;sothataconsiderablenumberofindividualsareusuallytobemetwithwhoareinclinedtoattackthoseveryprivilegeswhichtheyfinditimpossibletoturntotheirownaccount。
Idonot，then，assertthatallthemembersofthelegalprofessionareatalltimesthefriendsoforderandtheopponentsofinnovation，butmerelythatmostofthemusuallyareso。Inacommunityinwhichlawyersareallowedtooccupy，withoutopposition，thathighstationwhichnaturallybelongstothem，theirgeneralspiritwillbeeminentlyconservativeandanti—democratic。Whenanaristocracyexcludestheleadersofthatprofessionfromitsranks，itexcitesenemieswhicharethemoreformidabletoitssecurityastheyareindependentofthenobilitybytheirindustriouspursuits;andtheyfeelthemselvestobeitsequalinpointofintelligence，althoughtheyenjoylessopulenceandlesspower。Butwheneveranaristocracyconsentstoimpartsomeofitsprivilegestothesesameindividuals，thetwoclassescoalesceveryreadily，andassume，asitwere，theconsistencyofasingleorderoffamilyinterests。
Iam，inlikemanner，inclinedtobelievethatamonarchwillalwaysbeabletoconvertlegalpractitionersintothemostserviceableinstrumentsofhisauthority。Thereisafargreateraffinitybetweenthisclassofindividualsandtheexecutivepowerthanthereisbetweenthemandthepeople;justasthereisagreaternaturalaffinitybetweenthenoblesandthemonarchthanbetweenthenoblesandthepeople，althoughthehigherordersofsocietyhaveoccasionallyresistedtheprerogativeoftheCrowninconcertwiththelowerclasses。
Lawyersareattachedtopublicorderbeyondeveryotherconsideration，andthebestsecurityofpublicorderisauthority。Itmustnotbeforgottenthat，iftheyprizethefreeinstitutionsoftheircountrymuch，theyneverthelessvaluethelegalityofthoseinstitutionsfarmore:theyarelessafraidoftyrannythanofarbitrarypower;andprovidedthatthelegislaturetakeuponitselftodeprivemenoftheirindependence，theyarenotdissatisfied。
Iamthereforeconvincedthattheprincewho，inpresenceofanencroachingdemocracy，shouldendeavortoimpairthejudicialauthorityinhisdominions，andtodiminishthepoliticalinfluenceoflawyers，wouldcommitagreatmistake。Hewouldletslipthesubstanceofauthoritytograspattheshadow。Hewouldactmorewiselyinintroducingmenconnectedwiththelawintothegovernment;andifheentrustedthemwiththeconductofadespoticpower，bearingsomemarksofviolence，thatpowerwouldmostlikelyassumetheexternalfeaturesofjusticeandoflegalityintheirhands。
Thegovernmentofdemocracyisfavorabletothepoliticalpoweroflawyers;forwhenthewealthy，thenoble，andtheprinceareexcludedfromthegovernment，theyaresuretooccupythehigheststations，intheirownright，asitwere，sincetheyaretheonlymenofinformationandsagacity，beyondthesphereofthepeople，whocanbetheobjectofthepopularchoice。If，then，theyareledbytheirtastestocombinewiththearistocracyandtosupporttheCrown，theyarenaturallybroughtintocontactwiththepeoplebytheirinterests。Theylikethegovernmentofdemocracy，withoutparticipatinginitspropensitiesandwithoutimitatingitsweaknesses;whencetheyderiveatwofoldauthority，fromitandoverit。Thepeopleindemocraticstatesdoesnotmistrustthemembersofthelegalprofession，becauseitiswellknownthattheyareinterestedinservingthepopularcause;anditlistenstothemwithoutirritation，becauseitdoesnotattributetothemanysinisterdesigns。Theobjectoflawyersisnot，indeed，tooverthrowtheinstitutionsofdemocracy，buttheyconstantlyendeavortogiveitanimpulsewhichdivertsitfromitsrealtendency，bymeanswhichareforeigntoitsnature。Lawyersbelongtothepeoplebybirthandinterest，tothearistocracybyhabitandbytaste，andtheymaybelookeduponasthenaturalbondandconnectinglinkofthetwogreatclassesofsociety。
Theprofessionofthelawistheonlyaristocraticelementwhichcanbeamalgamatedwithoutviolencewiththenaturalelementsofdemocracy，andwhichcanbeadvantageouslyandpermanentlycombinedwiththem。Iamnotunacquaintedwiththedefectswhichareinherentinthecharacterofthatbodyofmen;
butwithoutthisadmixtureoflawyer—likesobrietywiththedemocraticprinciple，Iquestionwhetherdemocraticinstitutionscouldlongbemaintained，andIcannotbelievethatarepubliccouldsubsistatthepresenttimeiftheinfluenceoflawyersinpublicbusinessdidnotincreaseinproportiontothepowerofthepeople。
Thisaristocraticcharacter，whichIholdtobecommontothelegalprofession，ismuchmoredistinctlymarkedintheUnitedStatesandinEnglandthaninanyothercountry。ThisproceedsnotonlyfromthelegalstudiesoftheEnglishandAmericanlawyers，butfromthenatureofthelegislation，andthepositionwhichthosepersonsoccupyinthetwocountries。TheEnglishandtheAmericanshaveretainedthelawofprecedents;
thatistosay，theycontinuetofoundtheirlegalopinionsandthedecisionsoftheircourtsupontheopinionsandthedecisionsoftheirforefathers。InthemindofanEnglishorAmericanlawyeratasteandareverenceforwhatisoldisalmostalwaysunitedtoaloveofregularandlawfulproceedings。
Thispredispositionhasanothereffectuponthecharacterofthelegalprofessionanduponthegeneralcourseofsociety。TheEnglishandAmericanlawyersinvestigatewhathasbeendone;theFrenchadvocateinquireswhatshouldhavebeendone;theformerproduceprecedents，thelatterreasons。AFrenchobserverissurprisedtohearhowoftenanEnglishdranAmericanlawyerquotestheopinionsofothers，andhowlittlehealludestohisown;whilstthereverseoccursinFrance。Therethemosttriflinglitigationisneverconductedwithouttheintroductionofanentiresystemofideaspeculiartothecounselemployed;
andthefundamentalprinciplesoflawarediscussedinordertoobtainaperchoflandbythedecisionofthecourt。Thisabnegationofhisownopinion，andthisimplicitdeferencetotheopinionofhisforefathers，whicharecommontotheEnglishandAmericanlawyer，thissubjectionofthoughtwhichheisobligedtoprofess，necessarilygivehimmoretimidhabitsandmoresluggishinclinationsinEnglandandAmericathaninFrance。
TheFrenchcodesareoftendifficultofcomprehension，buttheycanbereadbyeveryone;nothing，ontheotherhand，canbemoreimpenetrabletotheuninitiatedthanalegislationfoundeduponprecedents。TheindispensablewantoflegalassistancewhichisfeltinEnglandandintheUnitedStates，andthehighopinionwhichisgenerallyentertainedoftheabilityofthelegalprofession，tendtoseparateitmoreandmorefromthepeople，andtoplaceitinadistinctclass。TheFrenchlawyerissimplyamanextensivelyacquaintedwiththestatutesofhiscountry;buttheEnglishorAmericanlawyerresemblesthehierophantsofEgypt，for，likethem，heisthesoleinterpreterofanoccultscience。
ThestationwhichlawyersoccupyinEnglandandAmericaexercisesnolessaninfluenceupontheirhabitsandtheiropinions。TheEnglisharistocracy，whichhastakencaretoattracttoitsspherewhateverisatallanalogoustoitself，hasconferredahighdegreeofimportanceandofauthorityuponthemembersofthelegalprofession。InEnglishsocietylawyersdonotoccupythefirstrank，buttheyarecontentedwiththestationassignedtothem;theyconstitute，asitwere，theyoungerbranchoftheEnglisharistocracy，andtheyareattachedtotheirelderbrothers，althoughtheydonotenjoyalltheirprivileges。TheEnglishlawyersconsequentlyminglethetasteandtheideasofthearistocraticcirclesinwhichtheymovewiththearistocraticinterestsoftheirprofession。
Andindeedthelawyer—likecharacterwhichIamendeavoringtodepictismostdistinctlytobemetwithinEngland:therelawsareesteemednotsomuchbecausetheyaregoodasbecausetheyareold;andifitbenecessarytomodifytheminanyrespect，ortoadaptthemthechangeswhichtimeoperatesinsociety，recourseishadtothemostinconceivablecontrivancesinordertoupholdthetraditionaryfabric，andtomaintainthatnothinghasbeendonewhichdoesnotsquarewiththeintentionsandcompletethelaborsofformergenerations。Theveryindividualswhoconductthesechangesdisclaimallintentionofinnovation，andtheyhadratherresorttoabsurdexpedientsthanpleadguiltytosogreatacrime。ThisspiritappertainsmoreespeciallytotheEnglishlawyers;theyseemindifferenttotherealmeaningofwhattheytreat，andtheydirectalltheirattentiontotheletter，seeminginclinedtoinfringetherulesofcommonsenseandofhumanityratherthantoswerveonetitlefromthelaw。TheEnglishlegislationmaybecomparedtothestockofanoldtree，uponwhichlawyershaveengraftedthemostvariousshoots，withthehopethat，althoughtheirfruitsmaydiffer，theirfoliageatleastwillbeconfoundedwiththevenerabletrunkwhichsupportsthemall。
InAmericatherearenonoblesormenofletters，andthepeopleisapttomistrustthewealthy;lawyersconsequentlyformthehighestpoliticalclass，andthemostcultivatedcircleofsociety。Theyhavethereforenothingtogainbyinnovation，whichaddsaconservativeinteresttotheirnaturaltasteforpublicorder。IfIwereaskedwhereIplacetheAmericanaristocracy，Ishouldreplywithouthesitationthatitisnotcomposedoftherich，whoareunitedtogetherbynocommontie，butthatitoccupiesthejudicialbenchandthebar。
ThemorewereflectuponallthatoccursintheUnitedStatesthemoreshallwebepersuadedthatthelawyersasabodyformthemostpowerful，ifnottheonly，counterpoisetothedemocraticelement。Inthatcountryweperceivehoweminentlythelegalprofessionisqualifiedbyitspowers，andevenbyitsdefects，toneutralizetheviceswhichareinherentinpopulargovernment。WhentheAmericanpeopleisintoxicatedbypassion，orcarriedawaybytheimpetuosityofitsideas，itischeckedandstoppedbythealmostinvisibleinfluenceofitslegalcounsellors，whosecretlyopposetheiraristocraticpropensitiestoitsdemocraticinstincts，theirsuperstitiousattachmenttowhatisantiquetoitsloveofnovelty，theirnarrowviewstoitsimmensedesigns，andtheirhabitualprocrastinationtoitsardentimpatience。
Thecourtsofjusticearethemostvisibleorgansbywhichthelegalprofessionisenabledtocontrolthedemocracy。Thejudgeisalawyer，who，independentlyofthetasteforregularityandorderwhichhehascontractedinthestudyoflegislation，derivesanadditionalloveofstabilityfromhisowninalienablefunctions。Hislegalattainmentshavealreadyraisedhimtoadistinguishedrankamongsthisfellow—citizens;hispoliticalpowercompletesthedistinctionofhisstation，andgiveshimtheinclinationsnaturaltoprivilegedclasses。
Armedwiththepowerofdeclaringthelawstobeunconstitutional，*atheAmericanmagistrateperpetuallyinterferesinpoliticalaffairs。Hecannotforcethepeopletomakelaws，butatleasthecanobligeitnottodisobeyitsownenactments;ortoactinconsistentlywithitsownprinciples。I
amawarethatasecrettendencytodiminishthejudicialpowerexistsintheUnitedStates，andbymostoftheconstitutionsoftheseveralStatestheGovernmentcan，uponthedemandofthetwohousesofthelegislature，removethejudgesfromtheirstation。
Bysomeotherconstitutionsthemembersofthetribunalsareelected，andtheyareevensubjectedtofrequentre—elections。I
venturetopredictthattheseinnovationswillsoonerorlaterbeattendedwithfatalconsequences，andthatitwillbefoundoutatsomefutureperiodthattheattackwhichismadeuponthejudicialpowerhasaffectedthedemocraticrepublicitself。
[Footnotea:SeechapterVI。onthe\"JudicialPowerintheUnitedStates。\"]
Itmustnot，however，besupposedthatthelegalspiritofwhichIhavebeenspeakinghasbeenconfined，intheUnitedStates，tothecourtsofjustice;itextendsfarbeyondthem。Asthelawyersconstitutetheonlyenlightenedclasswhichthepeopledoesnotmistrust，theyarenaturallycalledupontooccupymostofthepublicstations。Theyfillthelegislativeassemblies，andtheyconducttheadministration;theyconsequentlyexerciseapowerfulinfluenceupontheformationofthelaw，anduponitsexecution。Thelawyersare，however，obligedtoyieldtothecurrentofpublicopinion，whichistoostrongforthemtoresistit，butitiseasytofindindicationsofwhattheirconductwouldbeiftheywerefreetoactastheychose。TheAmericans，whohavemadesuchcopiousinnovationsintheirpoliticallegislation，haveintroducedverysparingalterationsintheircivillaws，andthatwithgreatdifficulty，althoughthoselawsarefrequentlyrepugnanttotheirsocialcondition。Thereasonofthisis，thatinmattersofcivillawthemajorityisobligedtodefertotheauthorityofthelegalprofession，andthattheAmericanlawyersaredisinclinedtoinnovatewhentheyarelefttotheirownchoice。
ItiscuriousforaFrenchman，accustomedtoaverydifferentstateofthings，toheartheperpetualcomplaintswhicharemadeintheUnitedStatesagainstthestationarypropensitiesoflegalmen，andtheirprejudicesinfavorofexistinginstitutions。
TheinfluenceofthelegalhabitswhicharecommoninAmericaextendsbeyondthelimitsIhavejustpointedout。
ScarcelyanyquestionarisesintheUnitedStateswhichdoesnotbecome，soonerorlater，asubjectofjudicialdebate;henceallpartiesareobligedtoborrowtheideas，andeventhelanguage，usualinjudicialproceedingsintheirdailycontroversies。Asmostpublicmenare，orhavebeen，legalpractitioners，theyintroducethecustomsandtechnicalitiesoftheirprofessionintotheaffairsofthecountry。Thejuryextendsthishabitudetoallclasses。Thelanguageofthelawthusbecomes，insomemeasure，avulgartongue;thespiritofthelaw，whichisproducedintheschoolsandcourtsofjustice，graduallypenetratesbeyondtheirwallsintothebosomofsociety，whereitdescendstothelowestclasses，sothatthewholepeoplecontractsthehabitsandthetastesofthemagistrate。ThelawyersoftheUnitedStatesformapartywhichisbutlittlefearedandscarcelyperceived，whichhasnobadgepeculiartoitself，whichadaptsitselfwithgreatflexibilitytotheexigenciesofthetime，andaccommodatesitselftoallthemovementsofthesocialbody;butthispartyextendsoverthewholecommunity，anditpenetratesintoallclassesofsociety;
itactsuponthecountryimperceptibly，butitfinallyfashionsittosuititspurposes。
ChapterXVI:CausesMitigatingTyrannyInTheUnitedStates—
PartII
TrialByJuryInTheUnitedStatesConsideredAsAPoliticalInstitutionTrialbyjury，whichisoneoftheinstrumentsofthesovereigntyofthepeople，deservestobecomparedwiththeotherlawswhichestablishthatsovereignty—CompositionofthejuryintheUnitedStates—Effectoftrialbyjuryuponthenationalcharacter—Iteducatesthepeople—Ittendstoestablishtheauthorityofthemagistratesandtoextendaknowledgeoflawamongthepeople。
SinceIhavebeenledbymysubjecttorecurtotheadministrationofjusticeintheUnitedStates，Iwillnotpassoverthispointwithoutadvertingtotheinstitutionofthejury。
Trialbyjurymaybeconsideredintwoseparatepointsofview，asajudicialandasapoliticalinstitution。Ifitenteredintomypresentpurposetoinquirehowfartrialbyjury（moreespeciallyincivilcases）contributestoinsurethebestadministrationofjustice，Iadmitthatitsutilitymightbecontested。Asthejurywasfirstintroducedatatimewhensocietywasinanuncivilizedstate，andwhencourtsofjusticeweremerelycalledupontodecideontheevidenceoffacts，itisnotaneasytasktoadaptittothewantsofahighlycivilizedcommunitywhenthemutualrelationsofmenaremultipliedtoasurprisingextent，andhaveassumedtheenlightenedandintellectualcharacteroftheage。*b[Footnoteb:Theinvestigationoftrialbyjuryasajudicialinstitution，andtheappreciationofitseffectsintheUnitedStates，togetherwiththeadvantagestheAmericanshavederivedfromit，wouldsufficetoformabook，andabookuponaveryusefulandcurioussubject。TheStateofLouisianawouldinparticularaffordthecuriousphenomenonofaFrenchandEnglishlegislation，aswellasaFrenchandEnglishpopulation，whicharegraduallycombiningwitheachother。Seethe\"DigestedesLoisdelaLouisiane，\"intwovolumes;andthe\"TraitesurlesReglesdesActionsciviles，\"printedinFrenchandEnglishatNewOrleansin1830。]
Mypresentobjectistoconsiderthejuryasapoliticalinstitution，andanyothercoursewoulddivertmefrommysubject。Oftrialbyjury，consideredasajudicialinstitution，Ishallheresaybutveryfewwords。WhentheEnglishadoptedtrialbyjurytheywereasemi—barbarouspeople;theyarebecome，incourseoftime，oneofthemostenlightenednationsoftheearth;andtheirattachmenttothisinstitutionseemstohaveincreasedwiththeirincreasingcultivation。Theysoonspreadbeyondtheirinsularboundariestoeverycornerofthehabitableglobe;somehaveformedcolonies，othersindependentstates;themother—countryhasmaintaineditsmonarchicalconstitution;manyofitsoffspringhavefoundedpowerfulrepublics;butwherevertheEnglishhavebeentheyhaveboastedoftheprivilegeoftrialbyjury。*cTheyhaveestablishedit，orhastenedtore—establishit，inalltheirsettlements。Ajudicialinstitutionwhichobtainsthesuffragesofagreatpeopleforsolongaseriesofages，whichiszealouslyrenewedateveryepochofcivilization，inalltheclimatesoftheearthandundereveryformofhumangovernment，cannotbecontrarytothespiritofjustice。*d[Footnotec:AlltheEnglishandAmericanjuristsareunanimousuponthishead。Mr。Story，judgeoftheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates，speaks，inhis\"TreatiseontheFederalConstitution，\"oftheadvantagesoftrialbyjuryincivilcases:
—\"Theinestimableprivilegeofatrialbyjuryincivilcases—
aprivilegescarcelyinferiortothatincriminalcases，whichiscountedbyallpersonstobeessentialtopoliticalandcivilliberty……\"（Story，bookiii。，chap。xxxviii。）]
[Footnoted:Ifitwereourprovincetopointouttheutilityofthejuryasajudicialinstitutioninthisplace，muchmightbesaid，andthefollowingargumentsmightbebroughtforwardamongstothers:—
Byintroducingthejuryintothebusinessofthecourtsyouareenabledtodiminishthenumberofjudges，whichisaverygreatadvantage。Whenjudgesareverynumerous，deathisperpetuallythinningtheranksofthejudicialfunctionaries，andlayingplacesvacantfornewcomers。Theambitionofthemagistratesisthereforecontinuallyexcited，andtheyarenaturallymadedependentuponthewillofthemajority，ortheindividualwhofillsupthevacantappointments;theofficersofthecourtthenriseliketheofficersofanarmy。Thisstateofthingsisentirelycontrarytothesoundadministrationofjustice，andtotheintentionsofthelegislator。Theofficeofajudgeismadeinalienableinorderthathemayremainindependent:butofwhatadvantageisitthathisindependenceshouldbeprotectedifhebetemptedtosacrificeitofhisownaccord？Whenjudgesareverynumerousmanyofthemmustnecessarilybeincapableofperformingtheirimportantduties，foragreatmagistrateisamanofnocommonpowers;andIaminclinedtobelievethatahalf—enlightenedtribunalistheworstofallinstrumentsforattainingthoseobjectswhichitisthepurposeofcourtsofjusticetoaccomplish。Formyownpart，Ihadrathersubmitthedecisionofacasetoignorantjurorsdirectedbyaskilfuljudgethantojudgesamajorityofwhomareimperfectlyacquaintedwithjurisprudenceandwiththelaws。]
Iturn，however，fromthispartofthesubject。Tolookuponthejuryasamerejudicialinstitutionistoconfineourattentiontoaverynarrowviewofit;forhowevergreatitsinfluencemaybeuponthedecisionsofthelawcourts，thatinfluenceisverysubordinatetothepowerfuleffectswhichitproducesonthedestiniesofthecommunityatlarge。Thejuryisaboveallapoliticalinstitution，anditmustberegardedinthislightinordertobedulyappreciated。
BythejuryImeanacertainnumberofcitizenschosenindiscriminately，andinvestedwithatemporaryrightofjudging。
Trialbyjury，asappliedtotherepressionofcrime，appearstometointroduceaneminentlyrepublicanelementintothegovernmentuponthefollowinggrounds:—
Theinstitutionofthejurymaybearistocraticordemocratic，accordingtotheclassofsocietyfromwhichthejurorsareselected;butitalwayspreservesitsrepublicancharacter，inasmuchasitplacestherealdirectionofsocietyinthehandsofthegoverned，orofaportionofthegoverned，insteadofleavingitundertheauthorityoftheGovernment。
Forceisnevermorethanatransientelementofsuccess;andafterforcecomesthenotionofright。Agovernmentwhichshouldonlybeabletocrushitsenemiesuponafieldofbattlewouldverysoonbedestroyed。Thetruesanctionofpoliticallawsistobefoundinpenallegislation，andifthatsanctionbewantingthelawwillsoonerorlaterloseitscogency。Hewhopunishesinfractionsofthelawisthereforetherealmasterofsociety。
Nowtheinstitutionofthejuryraisesthepeopleitself，oratleastaclassofcitizens，tothebenchofjudicialauthority。
Theinstitutionofthejuryconsequentlyinveststhepeople，orthatclassofcitizens，withthedirectionofsociety。*e[Footnotee:Animportantremarkmust，however，bemade。Trialbyjurydoesunquestionablyinvestthepeoplewithageneralcontrolovertheactionsofcitizens，butitdoesnotfurnishmeansofexercisingthiscontrolinallcases，orwithanabsoluteauthority。Whenanabsolutemonarchhastherightoftryingoffencesbyhisrepresentatives，thefateoftheprisoneris，asitwere，decidedbeforehand。Butevenifthepeoplewerepredisposedtoconvict，thecompositionandthenon—responsibilityofthejurywouldstillaffordsomechancesfavorabletotheprotectionofinnocence。]
InEnglandthejuryisreturnedfromthearistocraticportionofthenation;*fthearistocracymakesthelaws，appliesthelaws，andpunishesallinfractionsofthelaws;everythingisestablisheduponaconsistentfooting，andEnglandmaywithtruthbesaidtoconstituteanaristocraticrepublic。IntheUnitedStatesthesamesystemisappliedtothewholepeople。EveryAmericancitizenisqualifiedtobeanelector，ajuror，andiseligibletooffice。*gThesystemofthejury，asitisunderstoodinAmerica，appearstometobeasdirectandasextremeaconsequenceofthesovereigntyofthepeopleasuniversalsuffrage。Theseinstitutionsaretwoinstrumentsofequalpower，whichcontributetothesupremacyofthemajority。
Allthesovereignswhohavechosentogovernbytheirownauthority，andtodirectsocietyinsteadofobeyingitsdirections，havedestroyedorenfeebledtheinstitutionofthejury。ThemonarchsoftheHouseofTudorsenttoprisonjurorswhorefusedtoconvict，andNapoleoncausedthemtobereturnedbyhisagents。
[Footnotef:[Thismaybetruetosomeextentofspecialjuries，butnotofcommonjuries。TheauthorseemsnottohavebeenawarethatthequalificationsofjurorsinEnglandvaryexceedingly。]]
[Footnoteg:SeeAppendix，Q。]
Howeverclearmostofthesetruthsmayseemtobe，theydonotcommanduniversalassent，andinFrance，atleast，theinstitutionoftrialbyjuryisstillveryimperfectlyunderstood。Ifthequestionarisesastotheproperqualificationofjurors，itisconfinedtoadiscussionoftheintelligenceandknowledgeofthecitizenswhomaybereturned，asifthejurywasmerelyajudicialinstitution。Thisappearstometobetheleastpartofthesubject。Thejuryispre—eminentlyapoliticalinstitution;itmustberegardedasoneformofthesovereigntyofthepeople;whenthatsovereigntyisrepudiated，itmustberejected，oritmustbeadaptedtothelawsbywhichthatsovereigntyisestablished。Thejuryisthatportionofthenationtowhichtheexecutionofthelawsisentrusted，astheHousesofParliamentconstitutethatpartofthenationwhichmakesthelaws;andinorderthatsocietymaybegovernedwithconsistencyanduniformity，thelistofcitizensqualifiedtoserveonjuriesmustincreaseanddiminishwiththelistofelectors。ThisIholdtobethepointofviewmostworthyoftheattentionofthelegislator，andallthatremainsismerelyaccessory。
Iamsoentirelyconvincedthatthejuryispre—eminentlyapoliticalinstitutionthatIstillconsideritinthislightwhenitisappliedincivilcauses。Lawsarealwaysunstableunlesstheyarefoundeduponthemannersofanation;mannersaretheonlydurableandresistingpowerinapeople。Whenthejuryisreservedforcriminaloffences，thepeopleonlywitnessesitsoccasionalactionincertainparticularcases;theordinarycourseoflifegoesonwithoutitsinterference，anditisconsideredasaninstrument，butnotastheonlyinstrument，ofobtainingjustice。Thisistrueafortioriwhenthejuryisonlyappliedtocertaincriminalcauses。
When，onthecontrary，theinfluenceofthejuryisextendedtocivilcauses，itsapplicationisconstantlypalpable;itaffectsalltheinterestsofthecommunity;everyoneco—operatesinitswork:itthuspenetratesintoalltheusagesoflife，itfashionsthehumanmindtoitspeculiarforms，andisgraduallyassociatedwiththeideaofjusticeitself。
Theinstitutionofthejury，ifconfinedtocriminalcauses，isalwaysindanger，butwhenonceitisintroducedintocivilproceedingsitdefiestheaggressionsoftimeandofman。IfithadbeenaseasytoremovethejuryfromthemannersasfromthelawsofEngland，itwouldhaveperishedunderHenryVIII，andElizabeth，andtheciviljurydidinreality，atthatperiod，savethelibertiesofthecountry。Inwhatevermannerthejurybeapplied，itcannotfailtoexerciseapowerfulinfluenceuponthenationalcharacter;butthisinfluenceisprodigiouslyincreasedwhenitisintroducedintocivilcauses。Thejury，andmoreespeciallythejuryincivilcases，servestocommunicatethespiritofthejudgestothemindsofallthecitizens;andthisspirit，withthehabitswhichattendit，isthesoundestpreparationforfreeinstitutions。Itimbuesallclasseswitharespectforthethingjudged，andwiththenotionofright。Ifthesetwoelementsberemoved，theloveofindependenceisreducedtoameredestructivepassion。Itteachesmentopracticeequity，everymanlearnstojudgehisneighborashewouldhimselfbejudged;andthisisespeciallytrueofthejuryincivilcauses，for，whilstthenumberofpersonswhohavereasontoapprehendacriminalprosecutionissmall，everyoneisliabletohaveacivilactionbroughtagainsthim。Thejuryteacheseverymannottorecoilbeforetheresponsibilityofhisownactions，andimpresseshimwiththatmanlyconfidencewithoutwhichpoliticalvirtuecannotexist。Itinvestseachcitizenwithakindofmagistracy，itmakesthemallfeelthedutieswhichtheyareboundtodischargetowardssociety，andthepartwhichtheytakeintheGovernment。Byobligingmentoturntheirattentiontoaffairswhicharenotexclusivelytheirown，itrubsoffthatindividualegotismwhichistherustofsociety。
Thejurycontributesmostpowerfullytoformthejudgementandtoincreasethenaturalintelligenceofapeople，andthisis，inmyopinion，itsgreatestadvantage。Itmayberegardedasagratuitouspublicschooleveropen，inwhicheveryjurorlearnstoexercisehisrights，entersintodailycommunicationwiththemostlearnedandenlightenedmembersoftheupperclasses，andbecomespracticallyacquaintedwiththelawsofhiscountry，whicharebroughtwithinthereachofhiscapacitybytheeffortsofthebar，theadviceofthejudge，andevenbythepassionsoftheparties。IthinkthatthepracticalintelligenceandpoliticalgoodsenseoftheAmericansaremainlyattributabletothelongusewhichtheyhavemadeofthejuryincivilcauses。I
donotknowwhetherthejuryisusefultothosewhoareinlitigation;butIamcertainitishighlybeneficialtothosewhodecidethelitigation;andIlookuponitasoneofthemostefficaciousmeansfortheeducationofthepeoplewhichsocietycanemploy。