Itcannotbedeniedthattheunrestrainedlibertyofassociationforpoliticalpurposesistheprivilegewhichapeopleislongestinlearninghowtoexercise。Ifitdoesnotthrowthenationintoanarchy，itperpetuallyaugmentsthechancesofthatcalamity。Ononepoint，however，thisperilouslibertyoffersasecurityagainstdangersofanotherkind;incountrieswhereassociationsarefree，secretsocietiesareunknown。InAmericatherearenumerousfactions，butnoconspiracies。
DifferentwaysinwhichtherightofassociationisunderstoodinEuropeandintheUnitedStates—Differentusewhichismadeofit。
Themostnaturalprivilegeofman，nexttotherightofactingforhimself，isthatofcombininghisexertionswiththoseofhisfellow—creatures，andofactingincommonwiththem。Iamthereforeledtoconcludethattherightofassociationisalmostasinalienableastherightofpersonalliberty。Nolegislatorcanattackitwithoutimpairingtheveryfoundationsofsociety。
Nevertheless，ifthelibertyofassociationisafruitfulsourceofadvantagesandprosperitytosomenations，itmaybepervertedorcarriedtoexcessbyothers，andtheelementoflifemaybechangedintoanelementofdestruction。Acomparisonofthedifferentmethodswhichassociationspursueinthosecountriesinwhichtheyaremanagedwithdiscretion，aswellasinthosewherelibertydegeneratesintolicense，mayperhapsbethoughtusefulbothtogovernmentsandtoparties。
ThegreaterpartofEuropeanslookuponanassociationasaweaponwhichistobehastilyfashioned，andimmediatelytriedintheconflict。Asocietyisformedfordiscussion，buttheideaofimpendingactionprevailsinthemindsofthosewhoconstituteit:itis，infact，anarmy;andthetimegiventoparleyservestoreckonupthestrengthandtoanimatethecourageofthehost，afterwhichtheydirecttheirmarchagainsttheenemy。Resourceswhichliewithintheboundsofthelawmaysuggestthemselvestothepersonswhocomposeitasmeans，butneverastheonlymeans，ofsuccess。
Such，however，isnotthemannerinwhichtherightofassociationisunderstoodintheUnitedStates。InAmericathecitizenswhoformtheminorityassociate，inorder，inthefirstplace，toshowtheirnumericalstrength，andsotodiminishthemoralauthorityofthemajority;and，inthesecondplace，tostimulatecompetition，andtodiscoverthoseargumentswhicharemostfittedtoactuponthemajority;fortheyalwaysentertainhopesofdrawingovertheiropponentstotheirownside，andofafterwardsdisposingofthesupremepowerintheirname。
PoliticalassociationsintheUnitedStatesarethereforepeaceableintheirintentions，andstrictlylegalinthemeanswhichtheyemploy;andtheyassertwithperfecttruththattheyonlyaimatsuccessbylawfulexpedients。
ThedifferencewhichexistsbetweentheAmericansandourselvesdependsonseveralcauses。InEuropetherearenumerouspartiessodiametricallyopposedtothemajoritythattheycanneverhopetoacquireitssupport，andatthesametimetheythinkthattheyaresufficientlystronginthemselvestostruggleandtodefendtheircause。Whenapartyofthiskindformsanassociation，itsobjectis，nottoconquer，buttofight。InAmericatheindividualswhoholdopinionsverymuchopposedtothoseofthemajorityarenosortofimpedimenttoitspower，andallotherpartieshopetowinitovertotheirownprinciplesintheend。Theexerciseoftherightofassociationbecomesdangerousinproportiontotheimpossibilitywhichexcludesgreatpartiesfromacquiringthemajority。InacountryliketheUnitedStates，inwhichthedifferencesofopinionaremeredifferencesofhue，therightofassociationmayremainunrestrainedwithoutevilconsequences。TheinexperienceofmanyoftheEuropeannationsintheenjoymentoflibertyleadsthemonlytolookuponthelibertyofassociationasarightofattackingtheGovernment。Thefirstnotionwhichpresentsitselftoaparty，aswellastoanindividual，whenithasacquiredaconsciousnessofitsownstrength，isthatofviolence:thenotionofpersuasionarisesatalaterperiodandisonlyderivedfromexperience。TheEnglish，whoaredividedintopartieswhichdiffermostessentiallyfromeachother，rarelyabusetherightofassociation，becausetheyhavelongbeenaccustomedtoexerciseit。InFrancethepassionforwarissointensethatthereisnoundertakingsomad，orsoinjurioustothewelfareoftheState，thatamandoesnotconsiderhimselfhonoredindefendingit，attheriskofhislife。
ButperhapsthemostpowerfulofthecauseswhichtendtomitigatetheexcessesofpoliticalassociationintheUnitedStatesisUniversalSuffrage。Incountriesinwhichuniversalsuffrageexiststhemajorityisneverdoubtful，becauseneitherpartycanpretendtorepresentthatportionofthecommunitywhichhasnotvoted。Theassociationswhichareformedareaware，aswellasthenationatlarge，thattheydonotrepresentthemajority:thisis，indeed，aconditioninseparablefromtheirexistence;foriftheydidrepresentthepreponderatingpower，theywouldchangethelawinsteadofsolicitingitsreform。TheconsequenceofthisisthatthemoralinfluenceoftheGovernmentwhichtheyattackisverymuchincreased，andtheirownpowerisverymuchenfeebled。
InEuropetherearefewassociationswhichdonotaffecttorepresentthemajority，orwhichdonotbelievethattheyrepresentit。Thisconvictionorthispretensiontendstoaugmenttheirforceamazingly，andcontributesnolesstolegalizetheirmeasures。Violencemayseemtobeexcusableindefenceofthecauseofoppressedright。Thusitis，inthevastlabyrinthofhumanlaws，thatextremelibertysometimescorrectstheabusesoflicense，andthatextremedemocracyobviatesthedangersofdemocraticgovernment。InEurope，associationsconsiderthemselves，insomedegree，asthelegislativeandexecutivecouncilsofthepeople，whichisunabletospeakforitself。InAmerica，wheretheyonlyrepresentaminorityofthenation，theyargueandtheypetition。
ThemeanswhichtheassociationsofEuropeemployareinaccordancewiththeendwhichtheyproposetoobtain。Astheprincipalaimofthesebodiesistoact，andnottodebate，tofightratherthantopersuade，theyarenaturallyledtoadoptaformoforganizationwhichdiffersfromtheordinarycustomsofcivilbodies，andwhichassumesthehabitsandthemaximsofmilitarylife。Theycentralizethedirectionoftheirresourcesasmuchaspossible，andtheyintrustthepowerofthewholepartytoaverysmallnumberofleaders。
Themembersoftheseassociationsrespondtoawatchword，likesoldiersonduty;theyprofessthedoctrineofpassiveobedience;sayrather，thatinunitingtogethertheyatonceabjuretheexerciseoftheirownjudgmentandfreewill;andthetyrannicalcontrolwhichthesesocietiesexerciseisoftenfarmoreinsupportablethantheauthoritypossessedoversocietybytheGovernmentwhichtheyattack。Theirmoralforceismuchdiminishedbytheseexcesses，andtheylosethepowerfulinterestwhichisalwaysexcitedbyastrugglebetweenoppressorsandtheoppressed。Themanwhoingivencasesconsentstoobeyhisfellowswithservility，andwhosubmitshisactivityandevenhisopinionstotheircontrol，canhavenoclaimtorankasafreecitizen。
TheAmericanshavealsoestablishedcertainformsofgovernmentwhichareappliedtotheirassociations，buttheseareinvariablyborrowedfromtheformsoftheciviladministration。
Theindependenceofeachindividualisformallyrecognized;thetendencyofthemembersoftheassociationpoints，asitdoesinthebodyofthecommunity，towardsthesameend，buttheyarenotobligedtofollowthesametrack。Nooneabjurestheexerciseofhisreasonandhisfreewill;buteveryoneexertsthatreasonandthatwillforthebenefitofacommonundertaking。
ChapterXIII:GovernmentOfTheDemocracyInAmerica—PartI
Iamwellawareofthedifficultieswhichattendthispartofmysubject，butalthougheveryexpressionwhichIamabouttomakeuseofmayclash，uponsomeonepoint，withthefeelingsofthedifferentpartieswhichdividemycountry，Ishallspeakmyopinionwiththemostperfectopenness。
InEuropeweareatalosshowtojudgethetruecharacterandthemorepermanentpropensitiesofdemocracy，becauseinEuropetwoconflictingprinciplesexist，andwedonotknowwhattoattributetotheprinciplesthemselves，andwhattorefertothepassionswhichtheybringintocollision。Such，however，isnotthecaseinAmerica;therethepeoplereignswithoutanyobstacle，andithasnoperilstodreadandnoinjuriestoavenge。InAmerica，democracyisswayedbyitsownfreepropensities;itscourseisnaturalanditsactivityisunrestrained;theUnitedStatesconsequentlyaffordthemostfavorableopportunityofstudyingitsrealcharacter。AndtonopeoplecanthisinquirybemorevitallyinterestingthantotheFrenchnation，whichisblindlydrivenonwardsbyadailyandirresistibleimpulsetowardsastateofthingswhichmayproveeitherdespoticorrepublican，butwhichwillassuredlybedemocratic。
UniversalSuffrageIhavealreadyobservedthatuniversalsuffragehasbeenadoptedinalltheStatesoftheUnion;itconsequentlyoccursamongstdifferentpopulationswhichoccupyverydifferentpositionsinthescaleofsociety。Ihavehadopportunitiesofobservingitseffectsindifferentlocalities，andamongstracesofmenwhoarenearlystrangerstoeachotherbytheirlanguage，theirreligion，andtheirmanneroflife;inLouisianaaswellasinNewEngland，inGeorgiaandinCanada。IhaveremarkedthatUniversalSuffrageisfarfromproducinginAmericaeitherallthegoodoralltheevilconsequenceswhichareassignedtoitinEurope，andthatitseffectsdifferverywidelyfromthosewhichareusuallyattributedtoit。
ChoiceOfThePeople，AndInstinctivePreferencesOfTheAmericanDemocracyIntheUnitedStatesthemostablemenarerarelyplacedattheheadofaffairs—Reasonofthispeculiarity—TheenvywhichprevailsinthelowerordersofFranceagainstthehigherclassesisnotaFrench，butapurelydemocraticsentiment—ForwhatreasonthemostdistinguishedmeninAmericafrequentlysecludethemselvesfrompublicaffairs。
ManypeopleinEuropeareapttobelievewithoutsayingit，ortosaywithoutbelievingit，thatoneofthegreatadvantagesofuniversalsuffrageis，thatitentruststhedirectionofpublicaffairstomenwhoareworthyofthepublicconfidence。
Theyadmitthatthepeopleisunabletogovernforitself，buttheyaverthatitisalwayssincerelydisposedtopromotethewelfareoftheState，andthatitinstinctivelydesignatesthosepersonswhoareanimatedbythesamegoodwishes，andwhoarethemostfittowieldthesupremeauthority。IconfessthattheobservationsImadeinAmericabynomeanscoincidewiththeseopinions。OnmyarrivalintheUnitedStatesIwassurprisedtofindsomuchdistinguishedtalentamongthesubjects，andsolittleamongtheheadsoftheGovernment。Itisawell—authenticatedfact，thatatthepresentdaythemostablemenintheUnitedStatesareveryrarelyplacedattheheadofaffairs;anditmustbeacknowledgedthatsuchhasbeentheresultinproportionasdemocracyhasoutsteppedallitsformerlimits。TheraceofAmericanstatesmenhasevidentlydwindledmostremarkablyinthecourseofthelastfiftyyears。
Severalcausesmaybeassignedtothisphenomenon。Itisimpossible，notwithstandingthemoststrenuousexertions，toraisetheintelligenceofthepeopleaboveacertainlevel。
Whatevermaybethefacilitiesofacquiringinformation，whatevermaybetheprofusionofeasymethodsandofcheapscience，thehumanmindcanneverbeinstructedandeducatedwithoutdevotingaconsiderablespaceoftimetothoseobjects。
Thegreaterorthelesserpossibilityofsubsistingwithoutlaboristhereforethenecessaryboundaryofintellectualimprovement。Thisboundaryismoreremoteinsomecountriesandmorerestrictedinothers;butitmustexistsomewhereaslongasthepeopleisconstrainedtoworkinordertoprocurethemeansofphysicalsubsistence，thatistosay，aslongasitretainsitspopularcharacter。ItisthereforequiteasdifficulttoimagineaStateinwhichallthecitizensshouldbeverywellinformedasaStateinwhichtheyshouldallbewealthy;thesetwodifficultiesmaybelookeduponascorrelative。Itmayveryreadilybeadmittedthatthemassofthecitizensaresincerelydisposedtopromotethewelfareoftheircountry;naymore，itmayevenbeallowedthatthelowerclassesarelessapttobeswayedbyconsiderationsofpersonalinterestthanthehigherorders:butitisalwaysmoreorlessimpossibleforthemtodiscernthebestmeansofattainingtheendwhichtheydesirewithsincerity。Longandpatientobservation，joinedtoamultitudeofdifferentnotions，isrequiredtoformajustestimateofthecharacterofasingleindividual;andcanitbesupposedthatthevulgarhavethepowerofsucceedinginaninquirywhichmisleadsthepenetrationofgeniusitself？Thepeoplehasneitherthetimenorthemeanswhichareessentialtotheprosecutionofaninvestigationofthiskind:itsconclusionsarehastilyformedfromasuperficialinspectionofthemoreprominentfeaturesofaquestion。Henceitoftenassentstotheclamorofamountebankwhoknowsthesecretofstimulatingitstastes，whileitstruestfriendsfrequentlyfailintheirexertions。
Moreover，thedemocracyisnotonlydeficientinthatsoundnessofjudgmentwhichisnecessarytoselectmenreallydeservingofitsconfidence，butithasneitherthedesirenortheinclinationtofindthemout。Itcannotbedeniedthatdemocraticinstitutionshaveaverystrongtendencytopromotethefeelingofenvyinthehumanheart;notsomuchbecausetheyaffordtoeveryonethemeansofrisingtothelevelofanyofhisfellow—citizens，asbecausethosemeansperpetuallydisappointthepersonswhoemploythem。Democraticinstitutionsawakenandfosterapassionforequalitywhichtheycanneverentirelysatisfy。Thiscompleteequalityeludesthegraspofthepeopleattheverymomentatwhichitthinkstoholditfast，and\"flies，\"asPascalsays，\"witheternalflight\";thepeopleisexcitedinthepursuitofanadvantage，whichismorepreciousbecauseitisnotsufficientlyremotetobeunknown，orsufficientlyneartobeenjoyed。Thelowerordersareagitatedbythechanceofsuccess，theyareirritatedbyitsuncertainty;andtheypassfromtheenthusiasmofpursuittotheexhaustionofill—success，andlastlytotheacrimonyofdisappointment。
Whatevertranscendstheirownlimitsappearstobeanobstacletotheirdesires，andthereisnokindofsuperiority，howeverlegitimateitmaybe，whichisnotirksomeintheirsight。
IthasbeensupposedthatthesecretinstinctwhichleadsthelowerorderstoremovetheirsuperiorsasmuchaspossiblefromthedirectionofpublicaffairsispeculiartoFrance。
This，however，isanerror;thepropensitytowhichIalludeisnotinherentinanyparticularnation，butindemocraticinstitutionsingeneral;andalthoughitmayhavebeenheightenedbypeculiarpoliticalcircumstances，itowesitsorigintoahighercause。
IntheUnitedStatesthepeopleisnotdisposedtohatethesuperiorclassesofsociety;butitisnotveryfavorablyinclinedtowardsthem，anditcarefullyexcludesthemfromtheexerciseofauthority。Itdoesnotentertainanydreadofdistinguishedtalents，butitisrarelycaptivatedbythem;anditawardsitsapprobationverysparinglytosuchashaverisenwithoutthepopularsupport。
Whilstthenaturalpropensitiesofdemocracyinducethepeopletorejectthemostdistinguishedcitizensasitsrulers，theseindividualsarenolessapttoretirefromapoliticalcareerinwhichitisalmostimpossibletoretaintheirindependence，ortoadvancewithoutdegradingthemselves。ThisopinionhasbeenverycandidlysetforthbyChancellorKent，whosays，inspeakingwithgreateulogiumsofthatpartoftheConstitutionwhichempowerstheExecutivetonominatethejudges:
\"Itisindeedprobablethatthemenwhoarebestfittedtodischargethedutiesofthishighofficewouldhavetoomuchreserveintheirmanners，andtoomuchausterityintheirprinciples，forthemtobereturnedbythemajorityatanelectionwhereuniversalsuffrageisadopted。\"SuchweretheopinionswhichwereprintedwithoutcontradictioninAmericaintheyear1830！
Iholdittobesufficientlydemonstratedthatuniversalsuffrageisbynomeansaguaranteeofthewisdomofthepopularchoice，andthat，whateveritsadvantagesmaybe，thisisnotoneofthem。
CausesWhichMayPartlyCorrectTheseTendenciesOfTheDemocracyContraryeffectsproducedonpeoplesaswellasonindividualsbygreatdangers—WhysomanydistinguishedmenstoodattheheadofaffairsinAmericafiftyyearsago—Influencewhichtheintelligenceandthemannersofthepeopleexerciseuponitschoice—ExampleofNewEngland—StatesoftheSouthwest—
Influenceofcertainlawsuponthechoiceofthepeople—
Electionbyanelectedbody—ItseffectsuponthecompositionoftheSenate。
WhenaStateisthreatenedbyseriousdangers，thepeoplefrequentlysucceedsinselectingthecitizenswhoarethemostabletosaveit。Ithasbeenobservedthatmanrarelyretainshiscustomarylevelinpresenceofverycriticalcircumstances;
herisesaboveorhesinksbelowhisusualcondition，andthesamethingoccursinnationsatlarge。Extremeperilssometimesquenchtheenergyofapeopleinsteadofstimulatingit;theyexcitewithoutdirectingitspassions，andinsteadofclearingtheyconfuseitspowersofperception。TheJewsdelugedthesmokingruinsoftheirtemplewiththecarnageoftheremnantoftheirhost。Butitismorecommon，bothinthecaseofnationsandinthatofindividuals，tofindextraordinaryvirtuesarisingfromtheveryimminenceofthedanger。Greatcharactersarethenthrownintorelief，asedificeswhichareconcealedbythegloomofnightareilluminatedbytheglareofaconflagration。Atthosedangeroustimesgeniusnolongerabstainsfrompresentingitselfinthearena;andthepeople，alarmedbytheperilsofitssituation，buriesitsenviouspassionsinashortoblivion。Greatnamesmaythenbedrawnfromtheballoting—box。
IhavealreadyobservedthattheAmericanstatesmenofthepresentdayareveryinferiortothosewhostoodattheheadofaffairsfiftyyearsago。Thisisasmuchaconsequenceofthecircumstancesasofthelawsofthecountry。WhenAmericawasstrugglinginthehighcauseofindependencetothrowofftheyokeofanothercountry，andwhenitwasabouttousheranewnationintotheworld，thespiritsofitsinhabitantswererousedtotheheightwhichtheirgreateffortsrequired。Inthisgeneralexcitementthemostdistinguishedmenwerereadytoforestallthewantsofthecommunity，andthepeopleclungtothemforsupport，andplacedthematitshead。Buteventsofthismagnitudearerare，anditisfromaninspectionoftheordinarycourseofaffairsthatourjudgmentmustbeformed。
Ifpassingoccurrencessometimesactaschecksuponthepassionsofdemocracy，theintelligenceandthemannersofthecommunityexerciseaninfluencewhichisnotlesspowerfulandfarmorepermanent。ThisisextremelyperceptibleintheUnitedStates。
InNewEnglandtheeducationandthelibertiesofthecommunitieswereengenderedbythemoralandreligiousprinciplesoftheirfounders。Wheresocietyhasacquiredasufficientdegreeofstabilitytoenableittoholdcertainmaximsandtoretainfixedhabits，thelowerordersareaccustomedtorespectintellectualsuperiorityandtosubmittoitwithoutcomplaint，althoughtheysetatnaughtallthoseprivilegeswhichwealthandbirthhaveintroducedamongmankind。ThedemocracyinNewEnglandconsequentlymakesamorejudiciouschoicethanitdoeselsewhere。
ButaswedescendtowardstheSouth，tothoseStatesinwhichtheconstitutionofsocietyismoremodernandlessstrong，whereinstructionislessgeneral，andwheretheprinciplesofmorality，ofreligion，andoflibertyarelesshappilycombined，weperceivethatthetalentsandthevirtuesofthosewhoareinauthoritybecomemoreandmorerare。
Lastly，whenwearriveatthenewSouth—westernStates，inwhichtheconstitutionofsocietydatesbutfromyesterday，andpresentsanagglomerationofadventurersandspeculators，weareamazedatthepersonswhoareinvestedwithpublicauthority，andweareledtoaskbywhatforce，independentofthelegislationandofthemenwhodirectit，theStatecanbeprotected，andsocietybemadetoflourish。
Therearecertainlawsofademocraticnaturewhichcontribute，nevertheless，tocorrect，insomemeasure，thedangeroustendenciesofdemocracy。OnenteringtheHouseofRepresentativesofWashingtononeisstruckbythevulgardemeanorofthatgreatassembly。Theeyefrequentlydoesnotdiscoveramanofcelebritywithinitswalls。Itsmembersarealmostallobscureindividualswhosenamespresentnoassociationstothemind:theyaremostlyvillagelawyers，menintrade，orevenpersonsbelongingtothelowerclassesofsociety。
Inacountryinwhicheducationisverygeneral，itissaidthattherepresentativesofthepeopledonotalwaysknowhowtowritecorrectly。
Atafewyards’distancefromthisspotisthedooroftheSenate，whichcontainswithinasmallspacealargeproportionofthecelebratedmenofAmerica。Scarcelyanindividualistobeperceivedinitwhodoesnotrecalltheideaofanactiveandillustriouscareer:theSenateiscomposedofeloquentadvocates，distinguishedgenerals，wisemagistrates，andstatesmenofnote，whoselanguagewouldatalltimesdohonortothemostremarkableparliamentarydebatesofEurope。
Whatthenisthecauseofthisstrangecontrast，andwhyarethemostablecitizenstobefoundinoneassemblyratherthanintheother？Whyistheformerbodyremarkableforitsvulgarityanditspovertyoftalent，whilstthelatterseemstoenjoyamonopolyofintelligenceandofsoundjudgment？Bothoftheseassembliesemanatefromthepeople;bothofthemarechosenbyuniversalsuffrage;andnovoicehashithertobeenheardtoassertinAmericathattheSenateishostiletotheinterestsofthepeople。Fromwhatcause，then，doessostartlingadifferencearise？Theonlyreasonwhichappearstomeadequatelytoaccountforitis，thattheHouseofRepresentativesiselectedbythepopulacedirectly，andthattheSenateiselectedbyelectedbodies。ThewholebodyofthecitizensnamesthelegislatureofeachState，andtheFederalConstitutionconvertstheselegislaturesintosomanyelectoralbodies，whichreturnthemembersoftheSenate。Thesenatorsareelectedbyanindirectapplicationofuniversalsuffrage;forthelegislatureswhichnamethemarenotaristocraticorprivilegedbodieswhichexercisetheelectoralfranchiseintheirownright;buttheyarechosenbythetotalityofthecitizens;theyaregenerallyelectedeveryyear，andnewmembersmayconstantlybechosenwhowillemploytheirelectoralrightsinconformitywiththewishesofthepublic。Butthistransmissionofthepopularauthoritythroughanassemblyofchosenmenoperatesanimportantchangeinit，byrefiningitsdiscretionandimprovingtheformswhichitadopts。Menwhoarechoseninthismanneraccuratelyrepresentthemajorityofthenationwhichgovernsthem;buttheyrepresenttheelevatedthoughtswhicharecurrentinthecommunity，thepropensitieswhichpromptitsnobleractions，ratherthanthepettypassionswhichdisturbortheviceswhichdisgraceit。
ThetimemaybealreadyanticipatedatwhichtheAmericanRepublicswillbeobligedtointroducetheplanofelectionbyanelectedbodymorefrequentlyintotheirsystemofrepresentation，ortheywillincurnosmallriskofperishingmiserablyamongsttheshoalsofdemocracy。
AndhereIhavenoscrupleinconfessingthatIlookuponthispeculiarsystemofelectionastheonlymeansofbringingtheexerciseofpoliticalpowertothelevelofallclassesofthepeople。Thosethinkerswhoregardthisinstitutionastheexclusiveweaponofaparty，andthosewhofear，ontheotherhand，tomakeuseofit，seemtometofallintoasgreatanerrorintheonecaseasintheother。
InfluenceWhichTheAmericanDemocracyHasExercisedOnTheLawsRelatingToElectionsWhenelectionsarerare，theyexposetheStatetoaviolentcrisis—Whentheyarefrequent，theykeepupadegreeoffeverishexcitement—TheAmericanshavepreferredthesecondofthesetwoevils—Mutabilityofthelaws—OpinionsofHamiltonandJeffersononthissubject。
WhenelectionsrecuratlongintervalstheStateisexposedtoviolentagitationeverytimetheytakeplace。Partiesexertthemselvestotheutmostinordertogainaprizewhichissorarelywithintheirreach;andastheevilisalmostirremediableforthecandidateswhofail，theconsequencesoftheirdisappointedambitionmayprovemostdisastrous;if，ontheotherhand，thelegalstrugglecanberepeatedwithinashortspaceoftime，thedefeatedpartiestakepatience。Whenelectionsoccurfrequently，theirrecurrencekeepssocietyinaperpetualstateoffeverishexcitement，andimpartsacontinualinstabilitytopublicaffairs。
Thus，ontheonehandtheStateisexposedtotheperilsofarevolution，ontheothertoperpetualmutability;theformersystemthreatenstheveryexistenceoftheGovernment，thelatterisanobstacletoallsteadyandconsistentpolicy。TheAmericanshavepreferredthesecondoftheseevilstothefirst;
buttheywereledtothisconclusionbytheirinstinctmuchmorethanbytheirreason;foratasteforvarietyisoneofthecharacteristicpassionsofdemocracy。Anextraordinarymutabilityhas，bythismeans，beenintroducedintotheirlegislation。ManyoftheAmericansconsidertheinstabilityoftheirlawsasanecessaryconsequenceofasystemwhosegeneralresultsarebeneficial。ButnooneintheUnitedStatesaffectstodenythefactofthisinstability，ortocontendthatitisnotagreatevil。
Hamilton，afterhavingdemonstratedtheutilityofapowerwhichmightprevent，orwhichmightatleastimpede，thepromulgationofbadlaws，adds:\"Itmightperhapsbesaidthatthepowerofpreventingbadlawsincludesthatofpreventinggoodones，andmaybeusedtotheonepurposeaswellastotheother。
Butthisobjectionwillhavelittleweightwiththosewhocanproperlyestimatethemischiefsofthatinconstancyandmutabilityinthelawswhichformthegreatestblemishinthecharacterandgeniusofourgovernments。\"（Federalist，No。73。）
AndagaininNo。62ofthesameworkheobserves:\"Thefacilityandexcessoflaw—makingseemtobethediseasestowhichourgovernmentsaremostliable……Themischievouseffectsofthemutabilityinthepubliccouncilsarisingfromarapidsuccessionofnewmemberswouldfillavolume:everynewelectionintheStatesisfoundtochangeone—halfoftherepresentatives。Fromthischangeofmenmustproceedachangeofopinionsandofmeasures，whichforfeitstherespectandconfidenceofothernations，poisonstheblessingsoflibertyitself，anddiminishestheattachmentandreverenceofthepeopletowardapoliticalsystemwhichbetrayssomanymarksofinfirmity。\"
Jeffersonhimself，thegreatestDemocratwhomthedemocracyofAmericahasyetproduced，pointedoutthesameevils。\"Theinstabilityofourlaws，\"saidheinalettertoMadison，\"isreallyaveryseriousinconvenience。Ithinkthatweoughttohaveobviateditbydecidingthatawholeyearshouldalwaysbeallowedtoelapsebetweenthebringinginofabillandthefinalpassingofit。Itshouldafterwardbediscussedandputtothevotewithoutthepossibilityofmakinganyalterationinit;andifthecircumstancesofthecaserequiredamorespeedydecision，thequestionshouldnotbedecidedbyasimplemajority，butbyamajorityofatleasttwo—thirdsofbothhouses。\"
PublicOfficersUnderTheControlOfTheDemocracyInAmericaSimpleexterioroftheAmericanpublicofficers—Noofficialcostume—Allpublicofficersareremunerated—Politicalconsequencesofthissystem—NopubliccareerexistsinAmerica—Resultofthis。
PublicofficersintheUnitedStatesarecommingledwiththecrowdofcitizens;theyhaveneitherpalaces，norguards，norceremonialcostumes。ThissimpleexteriorofthepersonsinauthorityisconnectednotonlywiththepeculiaritiesoftheAmericancharacter，butwiththefundamentalprinciplesofthatsociety。Intheestimationofthedemocracyagovernmentisnotabenefit，butanecessaryevil。Acertaindegreeofpowermustbegrantedtopublicofficers，fortheywouldbeofnousewithoutit。Buttheostensiblesemblanceofauthorityisbynomeansindispensabletotheconductofaffairs，anditisneedlesslyoffensivetothesusceptibilityofthepublic。Thepublicofficersthemselvesarewellawarethattheyonlyenjoythesuperiorityovertheirfellow—citizenswhichtheyderivefromtheirauthorityuponconditionofputtingthemselvesonalevelwiththewholecommunitybytheirmanners。ApublicofficerintheUnitedStatesisuniformlycivil，accessibletoalltheworld，attentivetoallrequests，andobliginginhisreplies。I
waspleasedbythesecharacteristicsofademocraticgovernment;
andIwasstruckbythemanlyindependenceofthecitizens，whorespecttheofficemorethantheofficer，andwhoarelessattachedtotheemblemsofauthoritythantothemanwhobearsthem。
Iaminclinedtobelievethattheinfluencewhichcostumesreallyexercise，inanagelikethatinwhichwelive，hasbeenagooddealexaggerated。IneverperceivedthatapublicofficerinAmericawasthelessrespectedwhilsthewasinthedischargeofhisdutiesbecausehisownmeritwassetoffbynoadventitioussigns。Ontheotherhand，itisverydoubtfulwhetherapeculiardresscontributestotherespectwhichpubliccharactersoughttohavefortheirownposition，atleastwhentheyarenototherwiseinclinedtorespectit。Whenamagistrate（andinFrancesuchinstancesarenotrare）indulgeshistrivialwitattheexpenseoftheprisoner，orderidesthepredicamentinwhichaculpritisplaced，itwouldbewelltodeprivehimofhisrobesofoffice，toseewhetherhewouldrecallsomeportionofthenaturaldignityofmankindwhenheisreducedtotheapparelofaprivatecitizen。
Ademocracymay，however，allowacertainshowofmagisterialpomp，andclotheitsofficersinsilksandgold，withoutseriouslycompromisingitsprinciples。Privilegesofthiskindaretransitory;theybelongtotheplace，andaredistinctfromtheindividual:butifpublicofficersarenotuniformlyremuneratedbytheState，thepublicchargesmustbeentrustedtomenofopulenceandindependence，whoconstitutethebasisofanaristocracy;andifthepeoplestillretainsitsrightofelection，thatelectioncanonlybemadefromacertainclassofcitizens。Whenademocraticrepublicrendersofficeswhichhadformerlybeenremuneratedgratuitous，itmaysafelybebelievedthattheStateisadvancingtomonarchicalinstitutions;
andwhenamonarchybeginstoremuneratesuchofficersashadhithertobeenunpaid，itisasuresignthatitisapproachingtowardadespoticorarepublicanformofgovernment。Thesubstitutionofpaidforunpaidfunctionariesisofitself，inmyopinion，sufficienttoconstituteaseriousrevolution。
IlookupontheentireabsenceofgratuitousfunctionariesinAmericaasoneofthemostprominentsignsoftheabsolutedominionwhichdemocracyexercisesinthatcountry。Allpublicservices，ofwhatsoevernaturetheymaybe，arepaid;sothateveryonehasnotmerelytheright，butalsothemeansofperformingthem。Although，indemocraticStates，allthecitizensarequalifiedtooccupystationsintheGovernment，allarenottemptedtotryforthem。Thenumberandthecapacitiesofthecandidatesaremoreapttorestrictthechoiceofelectorsthantheconeitionsofthecandidateship。