atfourpercentamonth，[59]andobtainedforthatpurposetwoSenatusConsulta；intheformerofwhichitwasexpresslymentionedthatthisloanshouldnotbeconsideredasanevasionofthelaw，[60]andthatthegovernorofSicilyshoulddetermineaccordingtothestipulationsmentionedinthebondoftheSalaminians。
AslendinguponinterestwasforbiddenbytheGabinianlawbetweenprovincialsandRomancitizens，andthelatteratthattimehadallthemoneyoftheglobeintheirhands，therewasanecessityfortemptingthemwiththebaitofextravagantinterest，totheendthattheavariciousmightthuslosesightofthedangeroflosingtheirmoney。
AndastheyweremenofgreatpowerinRome，whoawedthemagistratesandoverruledthelaws，theywereemboldenedtolend，andtoextortgreatusury。HencetheprovincesweresuccessivelyravagedbyeveryonewhohadanycreditinRome：andaseachgovernor，atenteringuponhisprovince，publishedhisedict[61]whereinhefixedtherateofinterestinwhatmannerhepleased，thelegislatureplayedintothehandsofavarice，andthelatterservedthemeanpurposesofthelegislator。
Butthepublicbusinessmustbecarriedon；andwhereveratotalinactionobtains，thestateisundone。Onsomeoccasionsthetowns，thecorporatebodiesandsocieties，aswellasprivatepeople，wereunderthenecessityofborrowing——anecessitybuttoourgent，wereitonlytorepairtheravagesofarmies，therapacityofmagistrates，theextortionsofcollectors，andthecorruptpracticesdailyintroduced；
forneverwasthereatoneperiodsomuchpovertyandopulence。Thesenate，beingpossessedoftheexecutivepower，granted，throughnecessity，andoftentimesthroughfavour，apermissionofborrowingfromRomancitizens，soastoenactdecreesforthatparticularpurpose。Buteventhesedecreeswerediscreditedbythelaw；fortheymightgiveoccasiontothepeople’sinsistinguponnewratesofinterest，whichwouldaugmentthedangeroflosingthecapital，whiletheymadeafurtherextensionofusury。[62]Ishalleverrepeatit，thatmankindaregovernednotbyextremes，butbyprinciplesofmoderation。
Hepaysleast，saysUlpian，whopayslatest。[63]Thisdecidesthequestionwhetherinterestbelawful；thatis，whetherthecreditorcanselltime，andthedebtorbuyit。
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1。ThesaltmadeuseofforthispurposeinAbyssiniahasthisdefect，thatitiscontinuallywastingaway。
2。Herodotus，Bk。i，tellsusthattheLydiansfoundouttheartofcoiningmoney；theGreekslearneditfromthem：theAtheniancoinhadtheimpressionoftheirancientox。IhaveseenoneofthosepiecesintheEarlofPembroke’scabinet。
3。ItisanancientcustominAlgiersforthefatherofafamilytohaveatreasureconcealedintheearth。——LaugierdeTassis，HistoryoftheKingdomofAlgiers。
4。C？sar，DeBelloCiv。，iii。
5。Tacitus，Annals，vi。17。
6。TheLawsoftheSaxons，18。
7。Seechapter12ofthisbook。
8。Supposingamarkofeightouncesofsilvertobeworthforty—ninelivres，andcoppertwentysolsperpound。
9。HistoryoftheCivilWarsoftheSpaniardsintheWestIndies。
10。InFrance，Law’sprojectwascalledbythisname。
11。Socrates，HistoryoftheChurch，ii。17。
12。Thereismuchspecieinaplacewhenthereismorespeciethanpaper；thereislittle，whenthereismorepaperthanspecie。
13。Withtheexpensesofcarriageandinsurancededucted。
14。In1744。
15。Seebookxx。23。
16。Pliny，NaturalHistory，xxxiii，art。13。
17。Ibid。
18。Theyreceivedtenouncesofcopperfortwenty。
19。Theyreceivedsixteenouncesofcopperfortwenty。
20。Pliny，xxxiii，art。5。
21。Freinshemius，dec。2，v。
22。Ibid。Theystruckalso，saysthesameauthor，halfdenarii，calledquinarii；andquarters，calledsesterces。
23。Aneighth，accordingtoBud？us；accordingtootherauthors，aseventh。
24。Pliny，NaturalHistory，xxxiii，art。13。
25。Ibid。
26。SeeFatherJoubert，ScienceofMedals，p。59，Paris，1739。
27。ExtractofVirtuesandVices。
28。SeeSavote，partII，12，andLeJournaldesSavantsofthe28thofJuly，1681，onadiscoveryoffiftythousandmedals。
29。SeeSavote，ibid。
30。Ibid。
31。Chapter21。
32。England。
33。Wedonotspeakhereofgoldandsilverconsideredasamerchandise。
34。Tacitus，Annals，vi。16。
35。UsuryandinterestamongtheRomanssignifiedthesamething。
36。SeeDionysiusHalicarnassus，whohasdescribeditsowell。
37。Usur？semisses，trientes，quadrantes。Seetheseveraltitlesofthedigestsandcodesonusury，andespeciallyLeg。17，withthenote，ff。
deusuris。
38。SeeAppius’sspeechonthissubject，inDionysiusHalicarnassus，v。
39。Annals，vi。16。
40。IntheyearofRome388。——Livy，vi。25。
41。Unciariausura。——Ibid。，vii。16。
42。Annals，vi。16。
43。UndertheconsulateofL。ManliusTorquatusandC。Plautius，accordingtoLivy，vii。27。ThisisthelawmentionedbyTacitus，Annals，vi。
44。Semiunciariausura。
45。AsTacitussays。Annals，vi。
46。ThislawwaspassedattheinstanceofM。Genucius，tribuneofthepeople。——Livy，vii，towardstheend。
47。Verterijammorefoenusreceptumerat。——Appian。OntheCivilWar，i。
48。Permisiteoslegibusagere。——Ibid。；andtheEpitomeofLivy，lxiv。
49。IntheyearofRome663。
50。Bookxi。19。
51。LetterstoAtticus，v。21。
52。Livy，xxxv。7。
53。Ibid。
54。Intheyear561ofRome。——SeeLivy，xxv。7。
55。Annals，vi。16。
56。Intheyear615ofRome。
57。SeeLetterstoAtticus，iv。15，16。
58。Ibid。，vi。i。
59。Pompeyhavinglent600talentstoKingAriobarzanes，madethatprincepayhimthirtyAttictalentseverythirtydays。——Ibid。，v。21，vi。1。
60。UtnequeSalaminiis，nequecuieisdedisset，fraudiesset。——Ibid。
61。Cicero’sedictfixedittoonepercentamonth，withinterestuponinterestattheexpirationoftheyear。Withregardtothefarmersoftherepublic，heengagedthemtograntarespitetotheirdebtors；ifthelatterdidnotpayatthetimefixed，heawardedtheinterestmentionedinthebond。——Ibid。，vi。1。
62。SeewhatLucretiussays，inthe21stlettertoAtticus，v。TherewasevenageneralSenatusConsultum，tofixtherateofinterestatonepercentpermonth。Seethesameletter。
63。Leg。12，ff。deverb。signif。
BookXXIII。OfLawsintheRelationTheyBeartotheNumberofInhabitants1。OfMenandAnimalswithrespecttotheMultiplicationoftheirSpecies。
Delightofhumankind，[1]andgodsabove；
ParentofRome，propitiousQueenofLove；
Forwhentherisingspringadornsthemead，Andanewsceneofnaturestandsdisplay’d；
Whenteemingbuds，andcheerfulgreensappear，Andwesterngalesunlockthelazyyear；
Thejoyousbirdsthywelcomefirstexpress，Whosenativesongsthygenialfireconfess：
Thensavagebeastsboundo’ertheirslightedfood，Struckwiththydarts，andtempttheragingflood：
Allnatureisthygift，earth，air，andsea；
Ofallthatbreathesthevariousprogeny，Stungwithdelight，isgoadedonbythee。
O’erbarrenmountains，o’ertheflow’ryplain，Theleafyforest，andtheliquidmain，Extendsthyuncontroll’dandboundlessreign。
Thro’allthelivingregionsthoudostmove，Andscatter’stwherethougo’stthekindlyseedsoflove。
Thefemalesofbruteshaveanalmostconstantfecundity。Butinthehumanspecies，themannerofthinking，thecharacter，thepassions，thehumour，thecaprice，theideaofpreservingbeauty，thepainofchild—bearing，andthefatigueofatoonumerousfamily，obstructpropagationinathousanddifferentways。
2。OfMarriage。Thenaturalobligationofthefathertoprovideforhischildrenhasestablishedmarriage，whichmakesknownthepersonwhooughttofulfilthisobligation。Thepeople[2]mentionedbyPomponiusMela[3]hadnootherwayofdiscoveringhimbutbyresemblance。
Amongcivilisednations，thefatheristhatpersononwhomthelaws，bytheceremonyofmarriage，havefixedthisduty，becausetheyfindinhimthemantheywant。[4]
Amongbrutesthisisanobligationwhichthemothercangenerallyperform；butitismuchmoreextensiveamongmen。Theirchildrenindeedhavereason；butthiscomesonlybyslowdegrees。Itisnotsufficienttonourishthem；wemustalsodirectthem：theycanalreadylive；buttheycannotgovernthemselves。
Illicitconjunctionscontributebutlittletothepropagationofthespecies。Thefather，whoisunderanaturalobligationtonourishandeducatehischildren，isnotthenfixed；andthemother，withwhomtheobligationremains，findsathousandobstaclesfromshame，remorse，theconstraintofhersex，andtherigouroflaws；andbesides，shegenerallywantsthemeans。
Womenwhohavesubmittedtopublicprostitutioncannothavetheconvenienceofeducatingtheirchildren：thetroubleofeducationisincompatiblewiththeirstation；andtheyaresocorruptthattheycanhavenoprotectionfromthelaw。
Itfollowsfromallthisthatpubliccontinenceisnaturallyconnectedwiththepropagationofthespecies。
3。OftheConditionofChildren。Itisadictateofreasonthatwhenthereisamarriage，childrenshouldfollowthestationorconditionofthefather；andthatwhenthereisnot，theycanbelongtothemotheronly。[5]
4。OfFamilies。Itisalmosteverywhereacustomforthewifetopassintothefamilyofthehusband。ThecontraryiswithoutanyinconvenienceestablishedatFormosa，[6]wherethehusbandentersintothefamilyofthewife。
Thislaw，whichfixesthefamilyinasuccessionofpersonsofthesamesex，greatlycontributes，independentlyofthefirstmotives，tothepropagationofthehumanspecies。Thefamilyisakindofproperty：amanwhohaschildrenofasexwhichdoesnotperpetuateitisneversatisfiedifhehasnotthosewhocanrenderitperpetual。
Names，wherebymenacquireanideaofathingwhichonewouldimagineoughtnottoperish，areextremelypropertoinspireeveryfamilywithadesireofextendingitsduration。Therearepeopleamongwhomnamesdistinguishfamilies：thereareotherswheretheyonlydistinguishpersons：thelatterhavenotthesameadvantageastheformer。
5。OftheseveralOrdersoflawfulWives。Lawsandreligionsometimesestablishmanykindsofcivilconjunctions；andthisisthecaseamongtheMahometans，wherethereareseveralordersofwives，thechildrenofwhomaredistinguishedbybeingborninthehouse，bycivilcontracts，orevenbytheslaveryofthemother，andthesubsequentacknowledgmentofthefather。
Itwouldbecontrarytoreasonthatthelawshouldstigmatisethechildrenforwhatitapprovedinthefather。Allthesechildrenought，therefore，tosucceed，atleastifsomeparticularreasondoesnotopposeit，asinJapan，wherenoneinheritbutthechildrenofthewifegivenbytheemperor。Theirpolicydemandsthatthegiftsoftheemperorshouldnotbetoomuchdivided，becausetheysubjectthemtoakindofservice，likethatofourancientfiefs。
Therearecountrieswhereawifeofthesecondrankenjoysnearlythesamehonoursinafamilyasinourpartoftheworldaregrantedtoanonlyconsort：therethechildrenofconcubinesaredeemedtobelongtothefirstorprincipalwife。ThusitisalsoestablishedinChina。
Filialrespect，[7]andtheceremonyofdeepmourning，arenotduetothenaturalmother，buttoherappointedbythelaw。
Bymeansofthisfictiontheyhavenobastardchildren；andwheresuchafictiondoesnottakeplace，itisobviousthatalawtolegitimatizethechildrenofconcubinesmustbeconsideredasanactofviolence，asthebulkofthenationwouldbestigmatisedbysuchadecree。Neitheristhereanyregulationinthosecountrieswithregardtochildrenborninadultery。Therecluselivesofwomen，thelocks，theinclosures，andtheeunuchsrenderallinfidelitytotheirhusbandssodifficult，thatthelawjudgesitimpossible。Besides，thesameswordwouldexterminatethemotherandthechild。
6。OfBastardsindifferentGovernments。Theyhavethereforenosuchthingasbastardswherepolygamyispermitted；thisdisgraceisknownonlyincountriesinwhichamanisallowedtomarrybutonewife。Heretheywereobligedtostampamarkofinfamyuponconcubinage，andconsequentlytheywereunderanecessityofstigmatisingtheissueofsuchunlawfulconjunctions。
Inrepublics，whereitisnecessarythatthereshouldbethepurestmorals，bastardsoughttobemoredegradedthaninmonarchies。
ThelawsmadeagainstthematRomewereperhapstoosevere；butastheancientinstitutionslaidallthecitizensunderanecessityofmarrying，andasmarriageswerealsosoftenedbythepermissiontorepudiateormakeadivorce，nothingbutanextremecorruptionofmannerscouldleadthemtoconcubinage。
Itisobservablethatasthequalityofacitizenwasaveryconsiderablethinginademocraticgovernment，whereitcarriedwithitthesovereignpower，theyfrequentlymadelawsinrespecttothestateofbastards，whichhadlessrelationtothethingitselfandtothehonestyofmarriagethantotheparticularconstitutionoftherepublic。
Thusthepeoplehavesometimesadmittedbastardsintothenumberofcitizens，inordertoincreasetheirpowerinoppositiontothegreat。[8]ThustheAtheniansexcludedbastardsfromtheprivilegeofbeingcitizens，thattheymightpossessagreatershareofthecornsentthembytheKingofEgypt。Infine，Aristotleinformsusthatinmanycitieswheretherewasnotasufficientnumberofcitizens，theirbastardssucceededtotheirpossessions；andthatwhentherewasapropernumber，theydidnotinherit。[9]
7。OftheFather’sConsenttoMarriage。Theconsentoffathersisfoundedontheirauthority，thatis，ontherightofproperty。Itisalsofoundedontheirlove，ontheirreason，andontheuncertaintyofthatoftheirchildren，whomyouthconfinesinastateofignoranceandpassioninastateofebriety。
Inthesmallrepublics，orsingularinstitutionsalreadymentioned，theymighthavelawswhichgavetomagistratesthatrightofinspectionoverthemarriagesofthechildrenofcitizenswhichnaturehadalreadygiventofathers。Theloveofthepublicmightthereequalorsurpassallotherlove。ThusPlatowouldhavemarriagesregulatedbythemagistrates：thistheLaced？monianmagistratesperformed。
Butincommoninstitutions，fathershavethedisposaloftheirchildreninmarriage：theirprudenceinthisrespectisalwayssupposedtobesuperiortothatofastranger。Naturegivestofathersadesireofprocuringsuccessorstotheirchildren，whentheyhavealmostlostthedesireofenjoymentthemselves。Intheseveraldegreesofprogeniture，theyseethemselvesinsensiblyadvancingtoakindofimmortality。Butwhatmustbedone，ifoppressionandavaricearisetosuchaheightastousurpalltheauthorityoffathers？LetushearwhatThomasGagesaysinregardtotheconductoftheSpaniardsintheWestIndies。[10]
\"Accordingtothenumberofthesonsanddaughtersthataremarriageable，thefather’stributeisraisedandincreased，untiltheyprovidehusbandsandwivesfortheirsonsanddaughters，who，assoonastheyaremarried，arechargedwithtribute；which，thatitmayincrease，theywillsuffernoneabovefifteenyearsofagetoliveunmarried。Nay，thesettimeofmarriageappointedfortheIndiansisatfourteenyearsfortheman，andthirteenforthewoman；allegingthattheyaresoonerripeforthefruitofwedlock，andsoonerripeinknowledgeandmalice，andstrengthforworkandservice，thananyotherpeople。Nay，sometimestheyforcethosetomarrywhoarescarcelytwelveandthirteenyearsofage，iftheyfindthemwell—limbedandstronginbody，explainingapointofoneofthecanons，whichallowethfourteenandfifteenyears。
Nisimalitiasuppleat？tatem。\"
Hesawalistofthesetaken。Itwas，sayshe，amostshamefulaffair。
Thusinanactionwhichoughttobethemostfree，theIndiansarethegreatestslaves。
8。ThesameSubjectcontinued。InEnglandthelawisfrequentlyabusedbythedaughtersmarryingaccordingtotheirownfancywithoutconsultingtheirparents。Thiscustomis，Iamapttoimagine，moretoleratedtherethananywhereelsefromaconsiderationthatasthelawshavenotestablishedamonasticcelibacy，thedaughtershavenootherstatetochoosebutthatofmarriage，andthistheycannotrefuse。InFrance，onthecontrary，youngwomenhavealwaystheresourceofcelibacy；andthereforethelawwhichordainsthattheyshallwaitfortheconsentoftheirfathersmaybemoreagreeable。InthislightthecustomofItalyandSpainmustbelessrational；conventsarethereestablished，andyettheymaymarrywithouttheconsentoftheirfathers。
9。OfyoungWomen。Youngwomenwhoareconductedbymarriagealonetolibertyandpleasure，whohaveamindwhichdaresnotthink，aheartwhichdaresnotfeel，eyeswhichdarenotsee，earswhichdarenothear，whoappearonlytoshowthemselvessilly，condemnedwithoutintermissiontotriflesandprecepts，havesufficientinducementstoleadthemontomarriage：itistheyoungmenthatwanttobeencouraged。
10。WhatitisthatdeterminesMarriage。Whereveraplaceisfoundinwhichtwopersonscanlivecommodiously，theretheyenterintomarriage。
Naturehasasufficientpropensitytoit，whenunrestrainedbythedifficultyofsubsistence。
Arisingpeopleincreaseandmultiplyextremely。Thisis，becausewiththemitwouldbeagreatinconveniencetoliveincelibacy；andnonetohavemanychildren。Thecontraryofwhichisthecasewhenanationisformed。
11。OftheSeverityofGovernment。Menwhohaveabsolutelynothing，suchasbeggars，havemanychildren。Thisproceedsfromtheirbeinginthecaseofarisingpeople：itcoststhefathernothingtogivehishearttohisoffspring，whoevenintheirinfancyaretheinstrumentsofthisart。Thesepeoplemultiplyinarichorsuperstitiouscountry，becausetheydonotsupporttheburdenofsociety，butarethemselvestheburden。Butmenwhoarepoor，onlybecausetheyliveunderaseveregovernment；whoregardtheirfieldslessasthesourceoftheirsubsistencethanasacauseofvexation；thesemen，Isay，havefewchildren：theyhavenotevensubsistenceforthemselves。Howthencantheythinkofdividingit？Theyareunabletotakecareoftheirownpersonswhentheyaresick。Howthencantheyattendtothewantsofcreatureswhoseinfancyisacontinualsickness？
Itispretendedbysomewhoareapttotalkofthingswhichtheyhaveneverexaminedthatthegreaterthepovertyofthesubjects，themorenumeroustheirfamilies：thatthemoretheyareloadedwithtaxes，themoreindustriouslytheyendeavourtoputthemselvesinastationinwhichtheywillbeabletopaythem：twosophisms，whichhavealwaysdestroyedandwillforeverbethedestructionofmonarchies。
Theseverityofgovernmentmaybecarriedtosuchanextremeastomakethenaturalsentimentsdestructiveofthenaturalsentimentsthemselves。
WouldthewomenofAmericahaverefusedtobearchildrenhadtheirmastersbeenlesscruel？[11]
12。OftheNumberofMalesandFemalesindifferentCountries。IhavealreadyobservedthatthereareborninEuroperathermoreboysthangirls。[12]IthasbeenremarkedthatinJapantherearebornrathermoregirlsthanboys：[13]allthingscompared，theremustbemorefruitfulwomeninJapanthaninEurope，andconsequentlyitmustbemorepopulous。
WeareinformedthatatBantamtherearetengirlstooneboy。[14]A
disproportionlikethismustcausethenumberoffamiliestheretobetothenumberofthoseofotherclimatesas1to51/2whichisaprodigiousdifference。Theirfamiliesmaybemuchlargerindeed；buttheremustbefewmenincircumstancessufficienttoprovideforsolargeafamily。
13。OfSeaportTowns。Inseaporttowns，wheremenexposethemselvestoathousanddangers，andgoabroadtoliveordieindistantclimates，therearefewermenthanwomen：andyetweseemorechildrentherethaninotherplaces。Thisproceedsfromthegreatereasewithwhichtheyprocurethemeansofsubsistence。Perhapseventheoilypartsoffisharemorepropertofurnishthatmatterwhichcontributestogeneration。
ThismaybeoneofthecausesoftheinfinitenumberofpeopleinJapan[15]andChina，[16]wheretheylivealmostwhollyonfish。[17]Ifthisbethecase，certainmonasticrules，whichobligethemonkstoliveonfish，mustbecontrarytothespiritofthelegislatorhimself。
14。OftheProductionsoftheEarthwhichrequireagreaterorlessNumberofMen。Pasture—landsarebutlittlepeopled，becausetheyfindemploymentonlyforafew。Corn—landsemployagreatmanymen，andvineyardsinfinitelymore。
IthasbeenafrequentcomplaintinEngland[18]thattheincreaseofpasture—landdiminishedtheinhabitants；andithasbeenobservedinFrancethattheprodigiousnumberofvineyardsisoneofthegreatcausesofthemultitudeofpeople。
Thosecountrieswherecoal—pitsfurnishapropersubstanceforfuelhavethisadvantageoverothers，thatnothavingthesameoccasionforforests，thelandsmaybecultivated。
Incountriesproductiveofrice，theyareatvastpainsinwateringtheland：agreatnumberofmenmustthereforebeemployed。Besides，thereislesslandrequiredtofurnishsubsistenceforafamilythaninthosewhichproduceotherkindsofgrain。Infine，thelandwhichiselsewhereemployedinraisingcattleservesimmediatelyforthesubsistenceofman；andthelabourwhichinotherplacesisperformedbycattleisthereperformedbymen；sothatthecultureofthesoilbecomestomananimmensemanufacture。
15。OftheNumberofInhabitantswithrelationtotheArts。Whenthereisanagrarianlaw，andthelandsareequallydivided，thecountrymaybeextremelywellpeopled，thoughtherearebutfewarts；becauseeverycitizenreceivesfromthecultivationofhislandwhateverisnecessaryforhissubsistence，andallthecitizenstogetherconsumeallthefruitsoftheearth。Thusitwasinsomerepublics。
Inourpresentsituation，inwhichlandsareunequallydistributed，theyproducemuchmorethanthosewhocultivatethemareabletoconsume；ifthearts，therefore，shouldbeneglected，andnothingmindedbutagriculture，thecountrycouldnotbepeopled。Thosewhocultivate，oremployotherstocultivate，havingcorntospare，nothingwouldengagethemtoworkthefollowingyear；thefruitsoftheearthwouldnotbeconsumedbytheindolent；forthesewouldhavenothingwithwhichtheycouldpurchasethem。Itisnecessary，then，thattheartsshouldbeestablished，inorderthattheproduceofthelandmaybeconsumedbythelabourerandtheartificer。Inaword，itisnowproperthatmanyshouldcultivatemuchmorethanisnecessaryfortheirownuse。Forthispurposetheymusthaveadesireofenjoyingsuperfluities；andthesetheycanreceiveonlyfromtheartificer。
Themachinesdesignedtoabridgeartarenotalwaysuseful。Ifapieceofworkmanshipisofamoderateprice，suchasisequallyagreeabletothemakerandthebuyer，thosemachineswhichwouldrenderthemanufacturemoresimple，or，inotherwords，diminishthenumberofworkmen，wouldbepernicious。Andifwater—millswerenoteverywhereestablished，Ishouldnothavebelievedthemsousefulasispretended，becausetheyhavedeprivedaninfinitemultitudeoftheiremployment，avastnumberofpersonsoftheuseofwater，andgreatpartofthelandofitsfertility。