15。OftheCommerceoftheRomanswiththeBarbarians。TheRomanshavingerectedavastempireinEurope，Asia，andAfrica，theweaknessofthepeopleandthetyrannyoftheirlawsunitedallthepartsofthisimmensebody。TheRomanpolicywasthentoavoidallcommunicationwiththosenationswhomtheyhadnotsubdued：thefearofcarryingtothemtheartofconqueringmadethemneglecttheartofenrichingthemselves。
Theymadelawstohinderallcommercewithbarbarians。\"Letnobody，\"
saidValensandGratian，[115]\"sendwine，oil，orotherliquorstothebarbarians，thoughitbeonlyforthemtotaste。\"\"Letnoonecarrygoldtothem，\"addGratian，Valentinian，andTheodosius；[116]\"rather，iftheyhaveany，letoursubjectsdeprivethemofitbystratagem。\"Theexportationofironwasprohibitedonpainofdeath。
Domitian，aprinceofgreattimidity，orderedthevinesinGaultobepulledup，[117]fromfear，nodoubt，lesttheirwinesshoulddrawthitherthebarbarians。ProbusandJulian，whohadnosuchfears，gaveordersfortheirbeingplantedagain。
IamsensiblethatuponthedeclensionoftheRomanempirethebarbariansobligedtheRomanstoestablishstapletowns，andtotradewiththem。ButeventhisisaproofthatthemindsoftheRomanswereaversetocommerce。[118]
16。OftheCommerceoftheRomanswithArabiaandtheIndies。ThetradetoArabiaFelix，andthattotheIndies，werethetwobranches，andalmosttheonlyones，oftheirforeigncommerce。TheArabianswerepossessedofimmenseriches，whichtheyfoundintheirseasandforests；
andastheysoldmuchandpurchasedlittle，theydrewtothemselvesthegoldandsilveroftheRomans。[119]Augustus，[120]beingwellapprisedofthatopulence，resolvedtheyshouldbeeitherhisfriendsorhisenemies。Withthisviewhesent？liusGallusfromEgyptintoArabia。
Thiscommanderfoundthepeopleindolent，peaceable，andunskilledinwar。Hefoughtbattles，laidsiegestotowns，andlostbutsevenofhismenbythesword；buttheperfidyofhisguides，longmarches，theclimate，wantofprovisions，distempers，andill—conduct，causedtheruinofhisarmy。
HewasthereforeobligedtobecontentwithtradingtoArabia，inthesamemannerasothernations；thatis，withgivingthemgoldandsilverinexchangefortheircommodities。TheEuropeanstradewiththemstillinthesamemanner；thecaravansofAleppoandtheroyalvesselofSuezcarrythitherimmensesums。[121]
NaturehadformedtheArabsforcommerce，notforwar；butwhenthosequietpeoplecametobenearneighbourstotheParthiansandtheRomans，theyactedasauxiliariestobothnations。？liusGallusfoundthematradingpeople；Mahomethappenedtofindthemtrainedtowar；heinspiredthemwithenthusiasm，whichledthemtogloryandconquest。
ThecommerceoftheRomanstotheIndieswasveryconsiderable。
Strabo[122]hadbeeninformedinEgyptthattheyemployedinthisnavigationonehundredandtwentyvessels；thiscommercewascarriedonentirelywithbullion。Theysentthitherannuallyfiftymillionsofsesterces。Pliny[123]saysthatthemerchandisebroughtthencewassoldatRomeatcent。percentprofit。Hespeaks，Ibelieve，toogenerally；
ifthistradehadbeensovastlyprofitable，everybodywouldhavebeenwillingtoengageinit，andthenitwouldhavebeenatanend。
Itwilladmitofaquestion，whetherthetradetoArabiaandtheIndieswasofanyadvantagetotheRomans。Theywereobligedtoexporttheirbullionthither，thoughtheyhadnot，likeus，theresourceofAmerica，whichsupplieswhatwesendaway。Iampersuadedthatoneofthereasonsoftheirincreasingthevalueoftheirspeciebyestablishingbasecoinwasthescarcityofsilver，owingtothecontinualexportationofittotheIndies：andthoughthecommoditiesofthiscountryweresoldatRomeattherateofcent。percent，thisprofitoftheRomans，beingobtainedfromtheRomansthemselves，couldnotenrichtheempire。
Itmaybealleged，ontheotherhand，thatthiscommerceincreasedtheRomannavigation，andofcoursetheirpower；thatnewmerchandiseaugmentedtheirinlandtrade，gaveencouragementtothearts，andemploymenttotheindustrious；thatthenumberofsubjectsmultipliedinproportiontothenewmeansofsupport；thatthisnewcommercewasproductiveofluxury，whichIhaveprovedtobeasfavourabletoamonarchicalgovernmentasfataltoacommonwealth；thatthisestablishmentwasofthesamedateasthefalloftheirrepublic；thattheluxuryofRomehadbecomenecessary；andthatitwasextremelyproperthatacitywhichhadaccumulatedallthewealthoftheuniverseshouldrefunditbyitsluxury。
Strabosays[124]thattheRomanscarriedonafarmoreextensivecommercewiththeIndiesthanthekingsofEgypt；butitisveryextraordinarythatthosepeoplewhoweresolittleacquaintedwithcommerceshouldhavepaidmoreattentiontothatofIndiathantheEgyptiankings，whosedominionslaysoconvenientlyforit。Thereasonofthismustbeexplained。
AfterthedeathofAlexander，thekingsofEgyptestablishedamaritimecommercewiththeIndies；whilethekingsofSyria，whowerepossessedofthemoreeasternprovinces，andconsequentlyoftheIndies，maintainedthatcommerceofwhichwehavetakennoticeinthesixthchapter，whichwascarriedonpartlybyland，andpartlybyrivers，andhadbeenfurtherfacilitatedbymeansoftheMacedoniancolonies；
insomuchthatEuropehadcommunicationwiththeIndiesbothbyEgyptandbySyria。Thedismemberingofthelatterkingdom，whencewasformedthatofBactriana，didnotproveinanywayprejudicialtothiscommerce。
MarinustheTyrian，quotedbyPtolemy，[125]mentionsthediscoveriesmadeinIndiabymeansofsomeMacedonianmerchants，whofoundoutnewroads，whichhadbeenunknowntokingsintheirmilitaryexpeditions。WefindinPtolemy[126]thattheywentfromPeter’stower[127]asfarasSera；andthediscoverymadebymercantilepeopleofsodistantamart，situatedinthenorth—eastpartofChina，wasakindofprodigy。Hence，underthekingsofSyriaandBactriana，merchandisewasconveyedtothewestfromthesouthernpartsofIndia，bytheriverIndus，theOxus，andtheCaspianSea；whilethoseofthemoreeasternandnorthernpartsweretransportedfromSera，Peter’stower，andotherstaples，asfarastheEuphrates。Thosemerchantsdirectedtheirroutenearlybythefortiethdegreeofnorthlatitude，throughcountriessituatedtothewestofChina，morecivilisedatthattimethanatpresent，becausetheyhadnotasyetbeeninfestedbytheTartars。
NowwhiletheSyrianempirewasextendingitstradetosuchadistancebyland，Egyptdidnotgreatlyenlargeitsmaritimecommerce。
TheParthianssoonafterappeared，andfoundedtheirempire；andwhenEgyptfellunderthepoweroftheRomans，thisempirewasatitsheight，andhadreceiveditswholeextension。
TheRomansandParthiansweretworivalnations，thatfoughtnotfordominionbutfortheirveryexistence。Betweenthetwoempiresdesertswereformedandarmieswerealwaysstationedonthefrontiers；sothatinsteadoftherebeinganycommerce，therewasnotsomuchascommunicationbetweenthem。Ambition，jealousy，religion，nationalantipathy，anddifferenceofmannerscompletedtheseparation。Thusthetradefromeasttowest，whichhadformerlysomanychannels，wasreducedtoone；andAlexandriabecomingtheonlystaple，thetradetothiscitywasimmenselyenlarged。
Weshallsaybutonewordoftheirinlandtrade。ItsprincipalbranchwasthecornbroughttoRomeforthesubsistenceofthepeople；butthiswasratherapoliticalaffairthanapointofcommerce。Onthisaccountthesailorswerefavouredwithsomeprivileges，becausethesafetyoftheempiredependedontheirvigilance。[128]
17。OfCommerceaftertheDestructionoftheWesternEmpire。AftertheinvasionoftheRomanempireoneeffectofthegeneralcalamitywasthedestructionofcommerce。Thebarbarousnationsatfirstregardeditonlyasanopportunityforrobbery；andwhentheyhadsubduedtheRomans，theyhonoureditnomorethanagriculture，andtheotherprofessionsofaconqueredpeople。
SoonwasthecommerceofEuropealmostentirelylost。Thenobility，whohadeverywherethedirectionofaffairs，wereinnopainaboutit。
ThelawsoftheVisigoths[129]permittedprivatepeopletooccupyhalfthebedsofgreatrivers，providedtheotherhalfremainedfreefornetsandboats。Theremusthavebeenverylittletradeincountriesconqueredbythesebarbarians。
Inthosetimeswereestablishedtheridiculousrightsofescheatageandshipwrecks。Thesementhoughtthat，asstrangerswerenotunitedtothembyanycivillaw，theyowedthemontheonehandnokindofjustice，andontheothernosortofpity。
Inthenarrowboundswhichnaturehadoriginallyprescribedtothepeopleofthenorth，allwerestrangerstothem：andintheirpovertytheyregardedallonlyascontributingtotheirriches。Beingestablished，beforetheirconquest，onthecoastsofaseaofverylittlebreadth，andfullofrocks，fromtheseveryrockstheydrewtheirsubsistence。
ButtheRomans，whomadelawsforalltheworld，hadestablishedthemosthumaneoneswithregardtoshipwrecks。[130]Theysuppressedtherapineofthosewhoinhabitedthecoasts，andwhatwasmorestill，therapacityoftheirtreasuries。[131]
18。AparticularRegulation。ThelawoftheVisigothsmade，however，oneregulationinfavourofcommerce。[132]Itordainedthatforeignmerchantsshouldbejudged，inthedifferencesthataroseamongthemselves，bythelawsandbyjudgesoftheirownnation。Thiswasfoundedonanestablishedcustomamongallmixedpeople，thateverymanshouldliveunderhisownlaw——acustomofwhichIshallspeakmoreatlargeinanotherplace。
19。OfCommerceaftertheDecayoftheRomanPowerintheEast。TheMahomedansappeared，conquered，extended，anddispersedthemselves。
Egypthadparticularsovereigns；thesecarriedonthecommerceofIndia，andbeingpossessedofthemerchandiseofthiscountry，drewtothemselvestherichesofallothernations。ThesultansofEgyptwerethemostpowerfulprincesofthosetimes。Historyinformsuswithwhataconstantandwell—regulatedforcetheystoppedtheardour，thefire，andtheimpetuosityofthecrusades。
20。HowCommercebrokethroughtheBarbarismofEurope。Aristotle’sphilosophybeingcarriedtothewest，pleasedthesubtlegeniuseswhowerethevirtuosiofthosetimesofignorance。Theschoolmenwereinfatuatedwithit，andborrowedfromthatphilosopher[133]agreatmanynotionsonlendinguponinterest，whereasitssourcemighthavebeeneasilytracedinthegospel；inshort，theycondemneditabsolutelyandinallcases。Hencecommerce，whichwastheprofessiononlyofmeanpersons，becamethatofknaves；forwheneverathingisforbidden，whichnaturepermitsornecessityrequires，thosewhodoitarelookeduponasdishonest。
Commercewastransferredtoanationcoveredwithinfamy，andsoonrankedwiththemostshamefulusury，withmonopolies，withthelevyingofsubsidies，andwithallthedishonestmeansofacquiringwealth。
TheJews，enrichedbytheirexactions，werepillagedbythetyrannyofprinces；whichpleasedindeed，butdidnotease，thepeople。[134]
WhatpassedinEnglandmayservetogiveusanideaofwhatwasdoneinothercountries。KingJohn[135]havingimprisonedtheJews，inordertoobtaintheirwealth，therewerefewwhohadnotatleastoneoftheireyespluckedout。Thusdidthatkingadministerjustice。AcertainJew，whohadatoothpulledouteverydayforsevendayssuccessively，gavetenthousandmarksofsilverfortheeighth。HenryIIIextortedfromAaron，aJewatYork，fourteenthousandmarksofsilver，andtenthousandforthequeen，inthosetimestheydidbyviolencewhatisnowdoneinPolandwithsomesemblanceofmoderation。Asprincescouldnotdiveintothepursesoftheirsubjectsbecauseoftheirprivileges，theyputtheJewstothetorture，whowerenotconsideredascitizens。
AtlastacustomwasintroducedofconfiscatingtheeffectsofthoseJewswhoembracedChristianity。Thisridiculouscustomisknownonlybythelawwhichsuppressedit。[136]Themostvainandtriflingreasonsweregiveninjustificationofthatproceeding；itwasallegedthatitwaspropertotrythem，inordertobecertainthattheyhadentirelyshakenofftheslaveryofthedevil。Butitisevidentthatthisconfiscationwasaspeciesoftherightofamortisation，torecompensetheprince，orthelords，forthetaxesleviedontheJews，whichceasedontheirembracingChristianity。[137]Inthosetimes，men，likelands，wereregardedasproperty。Icannothelpremarking，bytheway，howthisnationhasbeensportedwithfromoneagetoanother：atonetime，theireffectswereconfiscatedwhentheywerewillingtobecomeChristians；
andatanother，iftheyrefusedtoturnChristians，theywereorderedtobeburned。
Inthemeantime，commercewasseentoarisefromthebosomofvexationanddespair。TheJews，proscribedbyturnsfromeverycountry，foundoutthewayofsavingtheireffects。Thustheyrenderedtheirretreatsforeverfixed；forthoughprincesmighthavebeenwillingtogetridoftheirpersons，yettheydidnotchoosetogetridoftheirmoney。
TheJewsinventedlettersofexchange；[138]commerce，bythismethod，becamecapableofeludingviolence，andofmaintainingeverywhereitsground；therichestmerchanthavingnonebutinvisibleeffects，whichhecouldconveyimperceptiblywhereverhepleased。
TheTheologianswereobligedtolimittheirprinciples；andcommerce，whichtheyhadbeforeconnectedbymainforcewithknavery，reentered，ifImaysoexpressmyself，thebosomofprobity。
Thusweowetothespeculationsoftheschoolmenallthemisfortuneswhichaccompaniedthedestructionofcommerce；[139]andtotheavariceofprinces，theestablishmentofapracticewhichputsitinsomemeasureoutoftheirpower。
Fromthistimeitbecamenecessarythatprincesshouldgovernwithmoreprudencethantheythemselvescouldeverhaveimagined；forgreatexertionsofauthoritywere，intheevent，foundtobeimpolitic；andfromexperienceitismanifestthatnothingbutthegoodnessandlenityofagovernmentcanmakeitflourish。
WebegintobecuredofMachiavelism，andrecoverfromiteveryday。
Moremoderationhasbecomenecessaryinthecouncilsofprinces。Whatwouldformerlyhavebeencalledamaster—strokeinpoliticswouldbenow，independentofthehorroritmightoccasion，thegreatestimprudence。
Happyisitformenthattheyareinasituationinwhich，thoughtheirpassionspromptthemtobewicked，itis，nevertheless，totheirinteresttobehumaneandvirtuous。
21。TheDiscoveryoftwonewWorlds，andinwhatMannerEuropeisaffectedbyit。Thecompassopened，ifImaysoexpressmyself，theuniverse。AsiaandAfricawerefound，ofwhichonlysomeborderswereknown；andAmerica，ofwhichweknewnothing。
ThePortuguese，sailingontheAtlanticOcean，discoveredthemostsouthernpointofAfrica；theysawavastsea，whichcarriedthemtotheEastIndies。Theirdangeruponthissea，thediscoveryofMozambique，Melinda，andCalicut，havebeensungbyCamoens，whosepoemsmakeusfeelsomethingofthecharmsoftheOdysseyandthemagnificenceofthe？neid。
TheVenetianshadhithertocarriedonthetradeoftheIndiesthroughtheTurkishdominions，andpursueditinthemidstofoppressionsanddiscouragements。BythediscoveryoftheCapeofGoodHope，andthosewhichweremadesometimeafter，Italywasnolongerthecentreofthetradingworld；itwas，ifImaybepermittedtheexpression，onlyacorneroftheuniverse，andissostill。ThecommerceevenoftheLevantdependingnowonthatofthegreattradingnationstoboththeIndies，Italyeveninthatbranchcannolongerbeconsideredasaprincipal。
ThePortuguesetradedtotheIndiesinrightofconquest。TheconstraininglawswhichtheDutchatpresentimposeonthecommerceofthelittleIndianprinceshadbeenestablishedbeforebythePortuguese。[140]
ThefortuneofthehouseofAustriawasprodigious。CharlesVsucceededtothepossessionofBurgundy，Castile，andAragon；hearrivedafterwardsattheimperialdignity；andtoprocurehimanewkindofgrandeur，theglobeextendeditself，andtherewasseenanewworldpayinghimobeisance。
ChristopherColumbusdiscoveredAmerica；andthoughSpainsentthitheronlyaforcesosmallthattheleastprinceinEuropecouldhavesentthesame，yetitsubduedtwovastempires，andothergreatstates。
WhiletheSpaniardsdiscoveredandconqueredthewest，thePortuguesepushedtheirconquestsanddiscoveriesintheeast。Thesetwonationsmeteachother；theyhadrecoursetoPopeAlexanderVI，whomadethecelebratedlineofpartition，anddeterminedthegreatsuit。
ButtheothernationsofEuropewouldnotsufferthemquietlytoenjoytheirshares。TheDutchchasedthePortuguesefromalmostalltheirsettlementsintheEastIndies；andseveralothernationsplantedcoloniesinAmerica。
TheSpaniardsconsideredthesenewly—discoveredcountriesasthesubjectofconquest；whileothers，morerefinedintheirviews，foundthemtobethepropersubjectsofcommerce，anduponthisprincipledirectedtheirproceedings。Henceseveralnationshaveconductedthemselveswithsomuchwisdomthattheyhavegivenakindofsovereigntytocompaniesofmerchants，who，governingthesefar—distantcountriesonlywithaviewtotrade，havemadeagreataccessorypowerwithoutembarrassingtheprincipalstate。
Thecoloniestheyhaveformedareunderakindofdependence，ofwhichtherearebutveryfewinstancesinallthecoloniesoftheancients；
whetherweconsiderthemasholdingsofthestateitself，orofsometradingcompanyestablishedinthestate。
Thedesignofthesecoloniesistotradeonmoreadvantageousconditionsthancouldotherwisebedonewiththeneighbouringpeople，withwhomalladvantagesarereciprocal。Ithasbeenestablishedthatthemetropolis，[141]ormothercountry，aloneshalltradeinthecolonies，andthatfromverygoodreason；becausethedesignofthesettlementwastheextensionofcommerce，notthefoundationofacityorofanewempire。
ThusitisstillafundamentallawofEuropethatallcommercewithaforeigncolonyshallberegardedasameremonopoly，punishablebythelawsofthecountry；andinthiscasewearenottobedirectedbythelawsandprecedentsoftheancients，whicharenotatallapplicable。[142]
Itislikewiseacknowledgedthatacommerceestablishedbetweenthemothercountriesdoesnotincludeapermissiontotradeinthecolonies；
forthesealwayscontinueinastateofprohibition。
Thedisadvantageofacolonythatlosesthelibertyofcommerceisvisiblycompensatedbytheprotectionofthemothercountry，whodefendsitbyherarms，orsupportsitbyherlaws。
HencefollowsathirdlawofEurope，thatwhenaforeigncommercewithacolonyisprohibited，itisnotlawfultotradeinthoseseas，exceptinsuchcasesasareexceptedbytreaty。Nationswhoare，withrespecttothewholeglobe，whatindividualsareinastate，aregovernedlikethelatterbythelawsofnature，andbyparticularlawsoftheirownmaking。Onenationmayresigntoanotherthesea，aswellastheland。
TheCarthaginiansforbadetheRomanstosailbeyondcertainlimits，[143]
astheGreekshadobligedtheKingofPersiatokeepasfardistantfromthesea—coastasahorsecouldgallop。[144]
Thegreatdistanceofourcoloniesisnotaninconveniencethataffectstheirsafety；forifthemothercountry，onwhomtheydependfortheirdefence，isremote，nolessremotearethosenationswhorivalthemothercountry，andbywhomtheymaybeafraidofbeingconquered。
Besides，thisdistanceisthecausethatthosewhoareestablishedtherecannotconformtothemanneroflivinginaclimatesodifferentfromtheirown；theyareobligedthereforetodrawfromthemothercountryalltheconveniencesoflife。TheCarthaginians，[145]torendertheSardiniansandCorsicansmoredependent，forbadetheirplanting，sowing，ordoinganythingofthekind，underpainofdeath；sothattheysuppliedthemwithnecessariesfromAfrica。
TheEuropeanshavecompassedthesamething，withouthavingrecoursetosuchseverelaws。OurcoloniesintheCaribbeanislandsareunderanadmirableregulationinthisrespect；thesubjectoftheircommerceiswhatweneitherhavenorcanproduce；andtheywantwhatisthesubjectofours。
AconsequenceofthediscoveryofAmericawastheconnectingAsiaandAfricawithEurope；itfurnishedmaterialsforatradewiththatvastpartofAsiaknownbythenameoftheEastIndies。Silver，thatmetalsousefulasthemediumofcommerce，becamenowasmerchandisethebasisofthegreatestcommerceintheworld。Infine，thenavigationtoAfricabecamenecessaryinordertofurnishuswithmentolabourinthemines，andtocultivatethelandsofAmerica。
Europehasarrivedatsohighadegreeofpowerthatnothinginhistorycanbecomparedwithit，whetherweconsidertheimmensityofitsexpenses，thegrandeurofitsengagements，thenumberofitstroops，andtheregularpaymentsevenofthosethatareleastserviceable，andwhicharekeptonlyforostentation。
FatherDuHaldesays[146]thattheinteriortradeofChinaismuchgreaterthanthatofallEurope。Thatmightbe，ifourforeigntradedidnotaugmentourinlandcommerce。Europecarriesonthetradeandnavigationoftheotherthreepartsoftheworld；asFrance，England，andHollanddonearlythatofEurope。
22。OftheRicheswhichSpaindrewfromAmerica。IfEuropehasderivedsomanyadvantagesfromtheAmericantrade，itseemsnaturaltoimaginethatSpainmusthavederivedmuchgreater。[147]Shedrewfromthenewly—
discoveredworldsoprodigiousaquantityofgoldandsilver，thatallwehadbeforecouldnotbecomparedwithit。
But（whatonecouldneverhaveexpected）thisgreatkingdomwaseverywherebaffledbyitsmisfortunes。PhilipII，whosucceededCharlesV，wasobligedtomakethecelebratedbankruptcyknowntoalltheworld。
Thereneverwasaprincewhosufferedmorefromthemurmurs，theinsolence，andtherevoltoftroopsconstantlyill—paid。
FromthattimethemonarchyofSpainhasbeenincessantlydeclining。
Thishasbeenowingtoaninteriorandphysicaldefectinthenatureofthoseriches，whichrendersthemvain——adefectwhichincreaseseveryday。
Goldandsilverareeitherafictitiousorarepresentativewealth。Therepresentativesignsofwealthareextremelydurable，and，intheirownnature，butlittlesubjecttodecay。Butthemoretheyaremultiplied，themoretheylosetheirvalue，becausethefewerarethethingswhichtheyrepresent。
TheSpaniards，aftertheconquestofMexicoandPeru，abandonedtheirnaturalriches，inpursuitofarepresentativewealthwhichdailydegradeditself。GoldandsilverwereextremelyscarceinEurope，andSpainbecomingallofasuddenmistressofaprodigiousquantityofthesemetals，conceivedhopestowhichshehadneverbeforeaspired。Thewealthshefoundintheconqueredcountries，greatasitwas，didnot，however，equalthatoftheirmines。TheIndiansconcealedpartofit；
andbesides，thesepeople，whomadenootheruseofgoldandsilverthantogivemagnificencetothetemplesoftheirgodsandtothepalacesoftheirkings，soughtnotforitwithanavaricelikeours。Inshort，theyhadnotthesecretofdrawingthesemetalsfromeverymine；butonlyfromthoseinwhichtheseparationmightbemadewithfire：theywerestrangerstothemannerofmakinguseofmercury，andperhapstomercuryitself。
However，itwasnotlongbeforethespecieofEuropewasdoubled；thisappearedfromthepriceofcommodities，whicheverywherewasdoubled。
TheSpaniardsrakedintothemines，scoopedoutmountains，inventedmachinestodrawoutwater，tobreaktheore，andseparateit；andastheysportedwiththelivesoftheIndians，theyforcedthemtolabourwithoutmercy。ThespecieofEuropesoondoubled，andtheprofitofSpaindiminishedinthesameproportion；theyhadeveryyearthesamequantityofmetal，whichhadbecomebyone—halflessprecious。
Indoublethetimethespeciestilldoubled，andtheprofitstilldiminishedanotherhalf。