3。ThattheWantsofthePeopleintheSoutharedifferentfromthoseoftheNorth。InEuropethereisakindofbalancebetweenthesouthernandnorthernnations。Thefirsthaveeveryconvenienceoflife，andfewofitswants：thelasthavemanywants，andfewconveniences。Toonenaturehasgivenmuch，anddemandsbutlittle；totheothershehasgivenbutlittle，anddemandsagreatdeal。Theequilibriumismaintainedbythelazinessofthesouthernnations，andbytheindustryandactivitywhichshehasgiventothoseinthenorth。Thelatterareobligedtoundergoexcessivelabour，withoutwhichtheywouldwanteverything，anddegenerateintobarbarians。Thishasneutralisedslaverytothepeopleofthesouth：astheycaneasilydispensewithriches，theycanmoreeasilydispensewithliberty。Butthepeopleofthenorthhaveneedofliberty，forthiscanbestprocurethemthemeansofsatisfyingallthosewantswhichtheyhavereceivedfromnature。Thepeopleofthenorth，then，areinaforcedstate，iftheyarenoteitherfreeorbarbarians。Almostallthepeopleofthesouthare，insomemeasure，inastateofviolence，iftheyarenotslaves。
4。TheprincipalDifferencebetweentheCommerceoftheAncientsandtheModerns。Theworldhasfounditself，fromtimetotime，indifferentsituations；bywhichthefaceofcommercehasbeenaltered。ThetradeofEuropeis，atpresent，carriedonprincipallyfromthenorthtothesouth；andthedifferenceofclimateisthecausethattheseveralnationshavegreatoccasionforthemerchandiseofeachother。Forexample，theliquorsofthesouth，whicharecarriedtothenorth，formacommercelittleknowntotheancients。Thustheburdenofvessels，whichwasformerlycomputedbymeasuresofcorn，isatpresentdeterminedbytunsofliquor。
Theancientcommerce，sofarasitisknowntous，wascarriedonfromoneportintheMediterraneantoanother；andwasalmostwhollyconfinedtothesouth。Nowthepeopleofthesameclimate，havingnearlythesamethingsoftheirown，havenotthesameneedoftradingamongthemselvesaswiththoseofadifferentclimate。ThecommerceofEuropewasthereforeformerlylessextendedthanatpresent。
ThisdoesnotatallcontradictwhatIhavesaidofourcommercetotheIndies：forheretheprodigiousdifferenceofclimatedestroysallrelationbetweentheirwantsandours。
5。OtherDifferences。Commerceissometimesdestroyedbyconquerors，sometimescrampedbymonarchs；ittraversestheearth，fliesfromtheplaceswhereitisoppressed，andstayswhereithaslibertytobreath：
itreignsatpresentwherenothingwasformerlytobeseenbutdeserts，seas，androcks；andwhereitoncereignednowthereareonlydeserts。
ToseeColchisinitspresentsituation，whichisnomorethanavastforest，wherethepeopleareeverydaydiminishing，andonlydefendtheirlibertytosellthemselvesbypiecemealtotheTurksandPersians，onecouldneverimaginethatthiscountryhadever，inthetimeoftheRomans，beenfullofcities，wherecommerceconvenedallthenationsoftheworld。Wefindnomonumentofthesefactsinthecountryitself；
therearenotracesofthem，exceptinPliny[3]andStrabo。[4]
Thehistoryofcommerceisthatofthecommunicationofpeople。Theirnumerousdefeats，andthefluxandrefluxofpopulationsanddevastations，hereformthemostextraordinaryevents。
6。OftheCommerceoftheAncients。TheimmensetreasuresofSemiramis，[5]whichcouldnotbeacquiredinaday，giveusreasontobelievethattheAssyriansthemselveshadpillagedotherrichnations，asothernationsafterwardspillagedthem。
Theeffectofcommerceisriches；theconsequenceofriches，luxury；andthatofluxurytheperfectionofarts。WefindthattheartswerecarriedtogreatperfectioninthetimeofSemiramis；[6]whichisasufficientindicationthataconsiderablecommercewasthenestablished。
IntheempiresofAsiatherewasagreatcommerceofluxury。Thehistoryofluxurywouldmakeafinepartofthatofcommerce。TheluxuryofthePersianswasthatoftheMedes，astheluxuryoftheMedeswasthatoftheAssyrians。
GreatrevolutionshavehappenedinAsia。ThenortheastpartsofPersia，viz。，Hyrcania，Margiana，Bactria，&c。，wereformerlyfullofflourishingcities，[7]whicharenownomore；andthenorthofthisempire，[8]thatis，theisthmuswhichseparatestheCaspianandtheEuxineSeas，wascoveredwithcitiesandnations，whicharenowdestroyed。
EratosthenesandAristobulus[9]learnedfromPatroclus[10]thatthemerchandiseofIndiapassedbytheOxusintotheseaofPontus。MarcusVarro[11]tellsusthatatthetimewhenPompeycommandedagainstMithridates，theywereinformedthatpeoplewentinsevendaysfromIndiatothecountryoftheBactrians，andtotheriverIcarus，whichfallsintotheOxus；thatbythismethodtheywereabletobringthemerchandiseofIndiaacrosstheCaspianSea，andtoenterthemouthofCyrus；whenceitwasonlyfivedays’passagetothePhasis，ariverthatdischargesitselfintotheEuxineSea。ThereisnodoubtbutitwasbythenationsinhabitingtheseseveralcountriesthatthegreatempiresoftheAssyrians，Medes，andPersianshadcommunicationwiththemostdistantpartsoftheeastandwest。
Anentirestopisnowputtothiscommunication。AllthesecountrieshavebeenlaidwastebytheTartars，[12]andarestillinfestedbythisdestructivenation。TheOxusnolongerrunsintotheCaspianSea；theTartars，forsomeprivatereasons，havechangeditscourse，anditnowlosesitselfinthebarrensands。[13]
TheJaxartes，whichwasformerlyabarrierbetweenthepoliteandbarbarousnations，hashaditscourseturnedinthesamemannerbytheTartars，anditnolongeremptiesitselfintothesea。[14]
SeleucusNicatorformedtheprojectofjoiningtheEuxinetotheCaspianSea。[15]Thisproject，whichwouldhavegreatlyfacilitatedthecommerceofthosedays，vanishedathisdeath。[16]Wearenotcertainitcouldhavebeenexecutedintheisthmuswhichseparatesthetwoseas。Thiscountryisatpresentverylittleknown；itisdepopulated，andfullofforests；however，waterisnotwanting，foraninfinitenumberofriversrollintoitfromMountCaucasus；butasthismountainformsthenorthoftheisthmus，andextendsliketwoarms[17]towardsthesouth，itwouldhavebeenagrandobstacletosuchanenterprise，especiallyinthosetimes，whentheyhadnottheartofmakingsluices。
ItmaybeimaginedthatSeleucuswouldhavejoinedthetwoseasintheveryplacewherePeterIhassincejoinedthem；thatis，inthatneckoflandwheretheTanaisapproachestheVolga；butthenorthoftheCaspianSeawasnotthendiscovered。
WhiletheempiresofAsiaenjoyedthecommerceofluxury，theTyrianshadthecommerceofeconomy，whichtheyextendedthroughouttheworld。
BochardhasemployedthefirstbookofhisCanaaninenumeratingallthecolonieswhichtheysentintoallthecountriesborderinguponthesea；
theypassedthepillarsofHercules，andmadeestablishmentsonthecoastsoftheocean。[18]
Inthosetimestheirpilotswereobligedtofollowthecoasts，whichwere，ifImaysoexpressmyself，theircompass。Voyageswerelongandpainful。ThelaboriousvoyageofUlysseshasbeenthefruitfulsubjectofthefinestpoemintheworld，nexttothatwhichalonehasthepreference。
Thelittleknowledgewhichthegreatestpartoftheworldhadofthosewhowerefardistantfromthemfavouredthenationsengagedintheeconomicalcommerce。Theymanagedtradewithasmuchobscurityastheypleased；theyhadalltheadvantageswhichthemostintelligentnationscouldtakeoverthemostignorant。
TheEgyptians——apeoplewhobytheirreligionandtheirmannerswereaversetoallcommunicationwithstrangers——hadscarcelyatthattimeanyforeigntrade。Theyenjoyedafruitfulsoilandgreatplenty。TheircountrywastheJapanofthosetimes；itpossessedeverythingwithinitself。
Solittlejealouswerethesepeopleofcommerce，thattheyleftthatoftheRedSeatoallthepettynationsthathadanyharboursinit。HeretheysufferedtheIdumeans，theSyriansandtheJewstohavefleets。
SolomonemployedinthisnavigationtheTyrians，whoknewthoseseas。[19]
Josephus[20]saysthatthisnation，beingentirelyemployedinagriculture，knewlittleofnavigation：theJews，therefore，tradedonlyoccasionallyintheRedSea。TheytookfromtheIdumeansElothandEziongeber，fromwhomtheyreceivedthiscommerce；theylostthesetwocities，andwiththemlostthiscommerce。
ItwasnotsowiththePhoenicians：theirswasnotacommerceofluxury；
norwastheirtradeowingtoconquest；theirfrugality，theirabilities，theirindustry，theirperils，andthehardshipstheysuffered，renderedthemnecessarytoallthenationsoftheworld。
BeforeAlexander，thepeopleborderingontheRedSeatradedonlyinthissea，andinthatofAfrica。TheastonishmentwhichfilledtheglobeatthediscoveryoftheIndianSea，underthatconqueror，isasufficientproofofthis。Ihaveobserved[21]thatbullionwasalwayscarriedtotheIndies，andneveranybroughtthence；nowtheJewishfleets，whichbroughtgoldandsilverbythewayoftheRedSea，returnedfromAfrica，andnotfromtheIndies。[22]
Besides，thisnavigationwasmadeontheeasterncoastofAfrica；forthestateofnavigationatthattimeisaconvincingproofthattheydidnotsailtoaverydistantshore。
IamnotignorantthatthefleetsofSolomonandJehoshaphatreturnedonlyeverythreeyears；butIdonotseethatthetimetakenupinthevoyageisanyproofofthegreatnessofthedistance。
PlinyandStraboinformusthatthejunksofIndiaandtheRedSeaweretwentydaysinperformingavoyagewhichaGreekorRomanvesselwouldaccomplishinseven。[23]Inthisproportion，avoyageofoneyear，madebythefleetsofGreeceorRome，wouldtakeverynearlythreewhenperformedbythoseofSolomon。Twoshipsofunequalswiftnessdonotperformtheirvoyageinatimeproportionatetotheirswiftness。
Slownessisfrequentlythecauseofmuchgreaterslowness。Whenitbecomesnecessarytofollowthecoast，andtobeincessantlyinadifferentposition，whentheymustwaitforafairwindtogetoutofagulf，andforanothertoproceed，agoodsailortakestheadvantageofeveryfavourablemoment，whiletheotherstillcontinuesinadifficultsituation，andwaitsmanydaysforanotherchange。
TheslownessoftheIndianvessels，whichinanequaltimecouldmakebutthethirdofthewayofthoseoftheGreeksandRomans，maybeexplainedbywhatweeverydayseeinourmodernnavigation。TheIndianvessels，whichwerebuiltwithakindofsea—rushes，drewlesswaterthanthoseofGreeceandRome，whichwereofwoodandjoinedwithiron。
WemaycomparetheseIndianvesselstothoseatpresentmadeuseofinportsoflittledepthofwater。SucharethoseofVenice，andevenofallItalyingeneral。[24]oftheBaltic，andoftheprovinceofHolland。[25]Theirships，whichoughttobeabletogoinandoutofport，arebuiltroundandbroadatthebottom；whilethoseofothernations，whohavegoodharbours，areformedtosinkdeepintothewater。
Thismechanismrenderstheselast—mentionedvesselsabletosailmuchnearerthewind；whilethefirstcanhardlysail，exceptthewindbenearlyinthepoop。Ashipthatsinksdeepintothewatersailstowardsthesamesidewithalmosteverywind；thisproceedsfromtheresistancewhichthevessel，whiledrivenbythewind，meetswithfromthewater，fromwhichitreceivesastrongsupport；andfromthelengthofthevesselwhichpresentsitssidetothewind，while，fromtheformofthehelm，theprowisturnedtothepointproposed；sothatshecansailverynearthewind，or，inotherwords，verynearthepointwhencethewindblows。Butwhenthehullisroundandbroadatthebottom，andconsequentlydrawslittlewater，itnolongerfindsthissteadysupport；
thewinddrivesthevessel，whichisincapableofresistance，andcanrunthembutwithasmallvariationfromthepointoppositetothewind。
Whenceitfollowsthatbroad—bottomedvesselsarelongerinperformingvoyages。
1。Theylosemuchtimeinwaitingforthewind，especiallyiftheyareobligedfrequentlytochangetheircourse，2。Theysailmuchslower，becausenothavingapropersupportfromadepthofwater，theycannotcarrysomuchsail。Ifthisbethecaseatatimewhentheartsareeverywhereknown，atatimewhenartcorrectsthedefectsofnature，andevenofartitself；ifatthistime，Isay，wefindthisdifference，howgreatmustthathavebeeninthenavigationoftheancients？
Icannotyetleavethissubject。TheIndianvesselsweresmall，andthoseoftheGreeksandRomans，ifweexceptthosemachinesbuiltforostentation，muchlessthanours。Now，thesmallerthevesselthegreaterdangeritencountersfromfoulweather。Atempestthatwouldswallowupasmallvesselwouldonlymakealargeoneroll。Themoreonebodysurpassesanotherinsize，themoreitssurfaceisrelativelysmall。Whenceitfollowsthatinasmallshipthereisalessproportion，thatis，agreaterdifferenceinrespecttothesurfaceofthevessel，comparedwiththeweightorladingshecancarry，thaninalargeone。Weknowthatitisaprettygeneralpracticetomaketheweightoftheladingequaltothatofhalfthewaterthevesselcouldcontain。Supposeavesselwillcontaineighthundredtons，herladingthenmustbefourhundred；andthatofavesselwhichwouldholdbutfourhundredtonsofwaterwouldbetwohundredtons。Thusthelargenessofthefirstshipwillbetotheweightshecarriesas8to4，andthatofthesecondas4to2。Letussuppose，then，thatthesurfaceofthegreateristothesurfaceofthesmalleras8to6；thesurfaceofthelatterwillbetoherweightas6to2，[26]whilethesurfaceoftheformerwillbetoherweightonlyas8to4。Thereforeasthewindsandwavesactonlyuponthesurface，thelargevesselwill，byherweight，resisttheirimpetuositymuchmorethanthesmall。
7。OftheCommerceoftheGreeks。ThefirstGreekswereallpirates。
Minos，whoenjoyedtheempireofthesea，wasonlymoresuccessful，perhaps，thanothersinpiracy；forhismaritimedominionextendednofartherthanroundhisownisle。ButwhentheGreeksbecameagreatpeople，theAtheniansobtainedtherealdominionofthesea；becausethistradingandvictoriousnationgavelawstothemostpotentmonarchofthattime，[27]andhumbledthemaritimepowersofSyria，oftheisleofCyprus，andPhoenicia。
ButthisAthenianlordshipoftheseadeservestobemoreparticularlymentioned。\"Athens，\"saysXenophon，[28]\"rulesthesea；butasthecountryofAtticaisjoinedtothecontinent，itisravagedbyenemieswhiletheAtheniansareengagedindistantexpeditions。Theirleaderssuffertheirlandstobedestroyed，andsecuretheirwealthbysendingittosomeisland。Thepopulace，whoarenotpossessedoflands，havenouneasiness。ButiftheAtheniansinhabitedanisland，and，besidesthis，enjoyedtheempireofthesea，theywould，solongastheywerepossessedoftheseadvantages，beabletoannoyothers，andatthesametimetobeoutofalldangerofbeingannoyed。\"OnewouldimaginethatXenophonwasspeakingofEngland。
TheAthenians，apeoplewhoseheadswerefilledwithambitiousprojects；
theAthenians，whoaugmentedtheirjealousyinsteadofincreasingtheirinfluence；whoweremoreattentivetoextendtheirmaritimeempirethantoenjoyit；whosepoliticalgovernmentwassuchthatthecommonpeopledistributedthepublicrevenuesamongthemselves，whiletherichwereinastateofoppression；theAthenians，Isay，didnotcarryonsoextensiveacommerceasmightbeexpectedfromtheproduceoftheirmines，fromthemultitudeoftheirslaves，fromthenumberoftheirseamen，fromtheirinfluenceoverthecitiesofGreece，and，aboveall，fromtheexcellentinstitutionsofSolon。TheirtradewasalmostwhollyconfinedtoGreeceandtotheEuxineSea，whencetheydrewtheirsubsistence。
Corinthwasadmirablysituated；itseparatedtwoseas，andopenedandshutthePeloponnesus；itwasthekeyofGreece，andacityofthegreatestimportance，atatimewhenthepeopleofGreecewereaworld，andthecitiesofGreecenations。ItstradewasmoreextensivethanthatofAthens，havingaporttoreceivethemerchandiseofAsia，andanotherthoseofItaly；forthegreatdifficultieswhichattendedthedoublingCapeMalea，wherethemeetingofoppositewindscausesshipwrecks，[29]
inducedeveryonetogotoCorinth，andtheycouldevenconveytheirvesselsoverlandfromoneseatotheother。Neverwasthereacityinwhichtheworksofartwerecarriedtosohighadegreeofperfection。
Butherereligionfinishedthecorruptionwhichtheiropulencebegan。
TheyerectedatempletoVenus，inwhichmorethanathousandcourtesanswereconsecratedtothatdeity；fromthisseminarycamethegreatestpartofthosecelebratedbeautieswhosehistoryAthen？ushaspresumedtocommittowriting。
ItseemsthatinHomer’stimetheopulenceofGreececentredinRhodes，Corinth，andOrchomenus；\"Jupiter，\"hesays，\"lovedtheRhodians，andmadethemaverywealthynation。\"[30]OnCorinthhebestowstheepithetofrich。[31]Inlikemanner，whenhespeaksofcitiesthathaveplentyofgold，hementionsOrchomenus，towhichhejoinsThebesinEgypt。
RhodesandCorinthpreservedtheirpower；butOrchomenuslosthers。ThesituationofOrchomenusintheneighbourhoodoftheHellespont，thePropontis，andtheEuxineSeamakesusnaturallyimaginethatshewasindebtedforheropulencetoatradealongthatmaritimecoast，whichhadgivenrisetothefableofthegoldenfleece；and，indeed，thenameofMinyeioshasbeengiventoOrchomenusaswellastotheArgonauts。[32]Buttheseseasbecomingafterwardsmorefrequented，theGreeksplantedalongthecoastsagreaternumberofcolonies，whichtradedwiththebarbarousnations，andatthesametimepreservedanintercoursewiththeirmothercountry。Inconsequenceofthis，Orchomenusbegantodecline，tillatlengthitwaslostinthecrowdoftheothercitiesofGreece。
BeforeHomer’stimetheGreekshadscarcelyanytradebutamongthemselves，andwithafewbarbarousnations；inproportion，however，astheyformednewcolonies，theyextendedtheirdominion。Greecewasalargepeninsula，thecapesofwhichseemedtohavekeptofftheseas，whileitsgulfsopenedonallsidestoreceivethem。ifwecastaneyeonGreece，weshallfind，inaprettycompactcountry，aconsiderableextentofsea—coast。Herinnumerablecoloniesformedanimmensecircleroundher；andthereshebeheld，insomemeasure，thewholecivilisedworld。DidshepenetrateintoSicilyandItaly，sheformednewnations。
DidshenavigatetowardstheseaofPontus，thecoastofAsiaMinor，orthatofAfrica，sheactedinthesamemanner。Hercitiesincreasedinprosperityinproportionastheyhappenedtohavenewpeopleintheirneighbourhood。Andwhatwasextremelybeautiful，shewassurroundedoneverysidewithaprodigiousnumberofislands，drawn，asitwere，inalineofcircumvallation。
WhatasourceofprosperitymustGreecehavefoundinthosegameswithwhichsheentertained，insomemeasure，thewholeglobe；inthosetemples，towhichallthekingsoftheearthsenttheirofferings；inthosefestivals，atwhichsuchaconcourseofpeopleusedtoassemblefromallparts；inthoseoracles，towhichtheattentionofallmankindwasdirected；and，inshort，inthatexquisitetasteforthepolitearts，whichshecarriedtosuchaheightthattoexpectevertosurpassherwouldbeonlybetrayingourignorance！
8。OfAlexander：hisConquests。FourgreateventshappenedinthereignofAlexanderwhichentirelychangedthefaceofcommerce：thetakingofTyre，theconquestofEgypt，thatlikewiseoftheIndies，andthediscoveryoftheseawhichliessouthofthatcountry。
TheempireofPersiaextendedtotheIndus。[33]Darius，longbeforeAlexander，hadsentsomevessels，whichsaileddownthisriver，andpassedevenintotheRedSea。[34]HowthenweretheGreeksthefirstwhotradedwiththeIndiesbythesouth？HadnotthePersiansdonethisbefore？Didtheymakenoadvantageofseaswhichweresonearthem，oftheveryseasthatwashedtheircoasts？Alexander，itistrue，conqueredtheIndies；butwasitnecessaryforhimtoconqueracountryinordertotradewithit？ThisiswhatIshallnowexamine。
Ariana，[35]whichextendedfromthePersianGulfasfarastheIndus，andfromtheSouthSeatothemountainsofParopamisus，dependedindeed，insomemeasure，ontheempireofPersia；butinthesouthernpartitwasbarren，scorched，rude，anduncultivated。Traditionrelates[36]thatthearmiesofSemiramisandCyrusperishedinthesedeserts；andAlexander，whocausedhisfleettofollowhim，couldnotavoidlosinginthisplaceagreatpartofhisarmy。ThePersiansleftthewholecoasttotheIchthyophagi，[37]theOrit？，andotherbarbarousnations。
Besides，thePersianswerenogreatsailors，[38]andtheirveryreligiondebarredthemfromentertaininganysuchnotionasthatofamaritimecommerce。ThevoyageundertakenbyDarius’sdirectionupontheIndusandtheIndianSeaproceededratherfromthecapriciousnessofaprincevainlyambitiousofshowinghispowerthanfromanysettledregularproject。Itwasattendedwithnoconsequenceeithertotheadvantageofcommerceorofnavigation。Theyemergedfromtheirignoranceonlytoplungeintoitagain。
Besides，itwasareceivedopinion[39]beforetheexpeditionofAlexanderthatthesouthernpartsofIndiawereuninhabitable。[40]ThisproceededfromatraditionthatSemiramis[41]hadbroughtbackthenceonlytwentymen，andCyrusbutseven。
Alexanderenteredbythenorth。Hisdesignwastomarchtowardstheeast；buthavingfoundapartofthesouthfullofgreatnations，cities，andrivers，heattemptedtoconquerit，andsucceeded。
HethenformedadesignofunitingtheIndiestothewesternnationsbyamaritimecommerce，ashehadalreadyunitedthembythecolonieshehadestablishedbyland。
HeorderedafleettobebuiltontheHydaspes，thenfelldownthatriver，enteredtheIndus，andsailedeventoitsmouth。HelefthisarmyandhisfleetatPatala，wenthimselfwithafewvesselstoviewthesea，andmarkedtheplaceswherehewouldhaveportstobeopenedandarsenalserected。UponhisreturnfromPatalaheseparatedthefleet，andtooktheroutebyland，forthemutualsupportoffleetandarmy。
ThefleetfollowedthecoastfromtheIndusalongthebanksofthecountryoftheOrit？，oftheIchthyophagi，ofCarmaniaandPersia。Hecausedwellstobedug，builtcities，andwouldnotsuffertheIchthyophagitoliveonfish，[42]beingdesirousofhavingthebordersoftheseainhabitedbycivilisednations。NearchusandOnesecrituswroteajournalofthisvoyage，whichwasperformedintenmonths。TheyarrivedatSusa，wheretheyfoundAlexander，whogaveanentertainmenttohiswholearmy。
ThisprincehadfoundedAlexandria，withaviewofsecuringhisconquestofEgypt；thiswasakeytoopenit，intheveryplacewherethekingshispredecessorshadakeytoshutit；[43]andhehadnottheleastthoughtofacommerceofwhichthediscoveryoftheIndianSeacouldalonegivehimtheidea。
ItevenseemsthatafterhisdiscoveryhehadnonewdesigninregardtoAlexandria。Hehad，indeed，ageneralschemeofopeningatradebetweentheEastIndiesandthewesternpartsofhisempire；butasfortheprojectofconductingthiscommercethroughEgypt，hisknowledgewastooimperfecttobeabletoformanysuchdesign。ItistruehehadseentheIndus，hehadseentheNile，butheknewnothingoftheArabianseasbetweenthetworivers。ScarcelyhadhereturnedfromIndiawhenhefittedoutnewfleets，andnavigatedontheEuleus，[44]theTigris，theEuphrates，andtheocean；heremovedthecataracts，withwhichthePersianshadencumberedthoserivers；andhediscoveredthatthePersianGulfwasabranchofthemainsea。Butashewenttoviewthissea[45]
inthesamemannerashehaddoneinrespecttothatofIndia；ashecausedaporttobeopenedforathousandships，andarsenalstobeerectedatBabylon；ashesentfivehundredtalentsintoPhoeniciaandSyria，todrawmarinersintothisservicewhomheintendedtodistributeinthecoloniesalongthecoast；infine，ashecausedimmenseworkstobeerectedontheEuphrates，andtheotherriversofAssyria，therecouldbenodoubtbuthedesignedtocarryonthecommerceofIndiabythewayofBabylonandthePersianGulf。
TherearesomewhopretendthatAlexanderwantedtosubdueArabia，[46]
andhadformedadesigntomakeittheseatofhisempire：buthowcouldhehavepitcheduponaplacewithwhichhewasentirelyunacquainted？[47]Besides，ofallcountries，thiswouldhavebeenthemostinconvenienttohim；foritwouldhaveseparatedhimfromtherestofhisempire。TheCaliphs，whomadedistantconquests，soonwithdrewfromArabiatoresideelsewhere。
9。OftheCommerceoftheGrecianKingsaftertheDeathofAlexander。AtthetimewhenAlexandermadetheconquestofEgypt，theyhadbutaveryimperfectideaoftheRedSea，andnoneatalloftheocean，which，joiningthissea，ononesidewashesthecoastofAfrica，andontheotherthatofArabia；nay，theythoughtitimpossibletosailroundthepeninsulaofArabia。Theywhoattempteditoneachsidehadrelinquishedtheirdesign。\"Howisitpossible，\"saidthey，[48]\"tonavigatetothesoutherncoastofArabia，whenCambyses’army，whichtraverseditonthenorthside，almostentirelyperished；andtheforceswhichPtolemy，thesonofLagus，senttotheassistanceofSeleucusNicatoratBabylon，underwentincrediblehardships，and，uponaccountoftheheat，couldmarchonlyinthenight？\"
ThePersianswereentirestrangerstonavigation。WhentheyhadsubduedEgypt，theyintroducedthesamespiritintothatcountryasprevailedinPersia：hence，sogreatwasthesupinenessofthePersiansinthisrespect，thattheGreciankingsfoundthemquitestrangers，notonlytothecommerceoftheTyrians，Idumeans，andtheJewsontheocean，buteventothenavigationoftheRedSea。IamapttothinkthatthedestructionofthefirstTyrebyNebuchadnezzar，togetherwiththesubversionofseveralpettynationsandtownsborderingontheRedSea，hadobliteratedalltheirformerknowledgeofcommerce。
Egypt，atthetimeofthePersianmonarchy，didnotfronttheRedSea；
itcontainedonlythatlongnarrowneckoflandwhichtheNilecoverswithitsinundations，andisenclosedonbothsidesbyachainofmountains。[49]Theywere，therefore，underthenecessityofmakingaseconddiscoveryoftheoceanandtheRedSea；andthisdiscoveryengagedthecuriosityoftheGrecianmonarchs。
TheyascendedtheNile，andhuntedafterelephantsinthecountriessituatedbetweenthatriverandthesea；bythisprogressiontheytracedthesea—coast；andasthediscoveriesweremadebytheGreeks，thenamesareallGrecian，andthetemplesarecon—secratedtoGreekdivinities。[50]
TheGreekssettledinEgyptwereabletocommandamostextensivecommerce；theyweremastersofalltheharboursontheRedSea；Tyre，therivalofeverytradingnation，wasnomore；theywerenotconstrainedbytheancientsuperstitions[51]onthecountry；inshort，Egypthadbecomethecentreoftheworld。
ThekingsofSyrialeftthecommerceofthesouthtothoseofEgypt，andattachedthemselvesonlytothenortherntrade，whichwascarriedonbymeansoftheOxusandtheCaspianSea。Theythenimaginedthatthisseawaspartofthenorthernocean；andAlexander，[52]sometimebeforehisdeath，hadfittedoutafleet[53]inordertodiscoverwhetheritcommunicatedwiththeoceanbytheEuxineSea，orsomeothereasternseatowardsIndia。Afterhim，SeleucusandAntiochusappliedthemselvestomakediscoveriesinit，withparticularattention；andwiththisviewtheyscoureditwiththeirfleets。[54]ThatpartwhichSeleucussurveyedwascalledtheSeleucidianSea；thatwhichAntiochusdiscoveredreceivedthenameoftheSeaofAntiochus。Attentivetotheprojectstheymighthaveformedonthatside，theyneglectedtheseasonthesouth；whetheritwasthatthePtolemies，bymeansoftheirfleetsontheRedSea，hadalreadybecomethemastersofit，orthattheydiscoveredaninvincibleaversioninthePersiansagainstengaginginmaritimeaffairs。ThesoutherncoastsofPersiasuppliedthemwithnoseamen；therehadbeennoneinthoseparts，excepttowardsthelatterendofAlexander’sreign。