conquerorwhoenterstriumphantintoacountrywherethemoneyedmenhave，byavarietyofartifices，insensiblyarrivedatinnumerablewaysofencroachingonthepublic，wherethemiserablepeople，whoseeabusesgrownintolaws，arereadytosinkundertheweightofimpression，yetthinktheyhavenorighttoapplyforredress——aconqueror，Isay，maymakeatotalchange，andthenthetyrannyofthosewretcheswillbethefirstthingexposedtohisresentment。
Wehavebeheld，forinstance，countriesoppressedbythefarmersoftherevenues，andeasedafterwardsbytheconqueror，whohadneithertheengagementsnorwantsofthelegitimateprince。Eventheabuseshavebeenoftenredressedwithoutanyinterpositionoftheconqueror。
Sometimesthefrugalityofaconqueringnationhasenabledthemtoallowtheconqueredthosenecessariesofwhichtheyhadbeendeprivedunderalawfulprince。
Aconquestmaydestroyperniciousprejudices，andlay，ifImaypresumetousetheexpression，thenationunderabettergenius。
WhatgoodmightnottheSpaniardshavedonetotheMexicans？Theyhadamildreligiontoimparttothem；buttheyfilledtheirheadswithafranticsuperstition。Theymighthavesetslavesatliberty；theymadefreemenslaves。Theymighthaveundeceivedthemwithregardtotheabuseofhumansacrifices；insteadofthattheydestroyedthem。NevershouldI
havefinished，wereItorecountallthegoodtheymighthavedone，andallthemischieftheycommitted。
Itisaconqueror’sbusinesstorepairapartofthemischiefhehasoccasioned。Theright，therefore，ofconquestIdefinethus：anecessary，lawful，butunhappypower，whichleavestheconquerorunderaheavyobligationofrepairingtheinjuriesdonetohumanity。
5。Gelon，KingofSyracuse。Thenoblesttreatyofpeaceevermentionedinhistoryis，inmyopinion，thatwhichGelonmadewiththeCarthaginians。Heinsistedupontheirabolishingthecustomofsacrificingtheirchildren。[3]Gloriousindeed！AfterhavingdefeatedthreehundredthousandCarthaginians，herequiredaconditionthatwasadvantageousonlytothemselves，orratherhestipulatedinfavourofhumannature。
TheBactriansexposedtheiragedfatherstobedevouredbylargemastiffs——acustomsuppressedbyAlexander，wherebyheobtainedasignaltriumphoversuperstition。
6。OfConquestmadebyaRepublic。Itiscontrarytothenatureofthingsthatinaconfederategovernmentonestateshouldmakeanyconquestoveranother，asinourdayswehaveseeninSwitzerland。[4]Inmixedconfederaterepublics，wheretheassociationisbetweenpettyrepublicsandmonarchies，ofasmallextent，thisisnotsoabsurd。
Contraryisitalsotothenatureofthingsthatademocraticrepublicshouldconquertownswhichcannotenterintothesphereofitsdemocracy。Itisnecessarythattheconqueredpeopleshouldbecapableofenjoyingtheprivilegesofsovereignty，aswassettledintheverybeginningamongtheRomans。Theconquestoughttobelimitedtothenumberofcitizensfixedforthedemocracy。
Ifademocraticrepublicsubduesanationinordertogovernthemassubjects，itexposesitsownliberty；becauseitentruststoogreatapowertothosewhoareappointedtothecommandoftheconqueredprovinces。
HowdangerouswouldhavebeenthesituationoftherepublicofCarthagehadHannibalmadehimselfmasterofRome？Whatwouldhenothavedoneinhisowncountry，hadhebeenvictorious，hewhocausedsomanyrevolutionsinitafterhisdefeat？[5]
HannocouldneverhavedissuadedthesenatefromsendingsuccourtoHannibal，hadheusednootherargumentthanhisownjealousy。TheCarthaginiansenate，whosewisdomissohighlyextolledbyAristotle（andwhichhasbeenevidentlyprovedbytheprosperityofthatrepublic），couldneverhavebeendeterminedbyotherthansolidreasons。
Theymusthavebeenstupidnottoseethatanarmyatthedistanceofthreehundredleagueswouldnecessarilybeexposedtolosseswhichrequiredreparation。
Hanno’spartyinsistedthatHannibalshouldbedelivereduptotheRomans。[6]TheycouldnotatthattimebeafraidoftheRomans；theywerethereforeapprehensiveofHannibal。
Itwasimpossible，somewillsay，forthemtoimaginethatHannibalhadbeensosuccessful。Buthowwasitpossibleforthemtodoubtit？CouldtheCarthaginians，apeoplespreadoveralltheearth，beignorantofwhatwastransactinginItaly？No：theyweresufficientlyacquaintedwithit，andforthatreasontheydidnotcaretosendsuppliestoHannibal。
HannobecamemoreresoluteafterthebattleofTrebia，afterthebattleofThrasimenus，afterthatofCann？；itwasnothisincredulitythatincreased，buthisfear。
7。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Thereisstillanotherinconvenienceinconquestsmadebydemocracies：theirgovernmentiseverodioustotheconqueredstates。Itisapparentlymonarchical：butinrealityitismuchmoreoppressivethanmonarchy，astheexperienceofallagesandcountriesevinces。
Theconqueredpeopleareinamelancholysituation；theyneitherenjoytheadvantagesofarepublic，northoseofamonarchy。
Whathasbeenheresaidofapopularstateisapplicabletoaristocracy。
8。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Whenarepublic，therefore，keepsanothernationinsubjection，itshouldendeavourtorepairtheinconveniencesarisingfromthenatureofitssituationbygivingitgoodlawsbothforthepoliticalandcivilgovernmentofthepeople。
WehaveaninstanceofanislandintheMediterranean，subjecttoanItalianrepublic，whosepoliticalandcivillawswithregardtotheinhabitantsofthatislandwereextremelydefective。Theactofindemnity，[7]bywhichitordainedthatnooneshouldbecondemnedtobodilypunishmentinconsequenceoftheprivateknowledgeofthegovernor，exinformataconscientia，isstillrecentineverybody’smemory。Therehavebeenfrequentinstancesofthepeople’spetitioningforprivileges；herethesovereigngrantsonlythecommonrightofallnations。
9。OfConquestsmadebyaMonarchy。Ifamonarchycanlongsubsistbeforeitisweakenedbyitsincrease，itwillbecomeformidable；anditsstrengthwillremainentire，whilepentupbytheneighbouringmonarchies。
Itoughtnot，therefore，toaimatconquestsbeyondthenaturallimitsofitsgovernment。Sosoonasithaspassedtheselimits，itisprudencetostop。
Inthiskindofconquestthingsmustbeleftastheywerefound——thesamecourtsofjudicature，thesamelaws，thesamecustoms，thesameprivileges：thereoughttobenootheralterationthanthatofthearmyandofthenameofthesovereign。
Whenamonarchyhasextendeditslimitsbytheconquestofneighbouringprovinces，itshouldtreatthoseprovinceswithgreatlenity。
Ifamonarchyhasbeenlongendeavouringatconquest，theprovincesofitsancientdemesnearegenerallyill—used。Theyareobligedtosubmitbothtothenewandtotheancientabuses；andtobedepopulatedbyavastmetropolis，thatswallowsupthewhole。Nowif，afterhavingmadeconquestsroundthisdemesne，theconqueredpeopleweretreatedliketheancientsubjects，thestatewouldbeundone；thetaxessentbytheconqueredprovincestothecapitalwouldneverreturn；theinhabitantsofthefrontierswouldberuined，andconsequentlythefrontierswouldbeweaker；thepeoplewouldbedisaffected；andthesubsistenceofthearmiesdesignedtoactandremaintherewouldbecomemoreprecarious。
Suchisthenecessarystateofaconqueringmonarchy：ashockingluxuryinthecapital；miseryintheprovincessomewhatdistant；andplentyinthemostremote。Itisthesamewithsuchamonarchyaswithourplanet；
fireatthecentre，verdureonthesurface，andbetweenbothadry，cold，andbarrenearth。
10。OfoneMonarchythatsubduesanother。Sometimesonemonarchysubduesanother。Thesmallerthelatter，thebetteritisoverawedbyfortresses；andthelargeritis，thebetterwillitbepreservedbycolonies。
11。OftheMannersofaconqueredPeople。Itisnotsufficientinthoseconqueststolettheconquerednationenjoytheirownlaws；itis，perhaps，morenecessarytoleavethemalsotheirmanners，becausepeopleingeneralhaveastrongerattachmenttothesethantotheirlaws。
TheFrenchhavebeendrivenninetimesoutofItaly，because，ashistorianssay，[8]oftheirinsolentfamiliaritieswiththefairsex。Itistoomuchforanationtobeobligedtobearnotonlywiththeprideofconquerors，butwiththeirincontinenceandindiscretion；theseare，withoutdoubt，mostgrievousandintolerable，astheyarethesourceofinfiniteoutrages。
12。OfaLawofCyrus。FaramIfromthinkingthatagoodlawwhichCyrusmadetoobligetheLydianstopractisenonebutmeanorinfamousprofessions。Itistruehedirectedhisattentiontoanobjectofthegreatestimportance：hethoughtofguardingagainstrevolts，andnotinvasions；butinvasionswillsooncome，whenthePersiansandLydiansuniteandcorrupteachother。Iwouldthereforemuchrathersupportbylawsthesimplicityandrudenessoftheconqueringnationthantheeffeminacyoftheconquered。
Aristodemus，tyrantofCum？，[9]usedallhisendeavourstobanishcourage，andtoenervatethemindsofyouth。Heorderedthatboysshouldlettheirhairgrowinthesamemannerasgirls，thattheyshoulddeckitwithflowers，andwearlongrobesofdifferentcoloursdowntotheirheels；thatwhentheywenttotheirmastersofmusicanddancing，theyshouldhavewomenwiththemtocarrytheirumbrellas，perfumes，andfans，andtopresentthemwithcombsandlooking—glasseswhenevertheybathed。Thiseducationlastedtilltheageoftwenty——aneducationthatcouldbeagreeabletononebuttoapettytyrant，whoexposeshissovereigntytodefendhislife。
13。CharlesXII。Thisprince，whodependedentirelyonhisownstrength，hastenedhisruinbyformingdesignsthatcouldneverbeexecutedbutbyalongwar——athingwhichhiskingdomwasunabletosupport。
Itwasnotadecliningstateheundertooktosubvert，butarisingempire。TheRussiansmadeuseofthewarhewagedagainstthemasofamilitaryschool。Everydefeatbroughtthemnearertovictory；and，losingabroad，theylearnedtodefendthemselvesathome。
Charles，inthedesertsofPoland，imaginedhimselfsovereignofthewholeworld：herehewandered，andwithhiminsomemeasurewanderedSweden；whilehiscapitalenemyacquirednewstrengthagainsthim，lockedhimup，madesettlementsalongtheBaltic，destroyedorsubduedLivonia。
Swedenwaslikeariverwhosewatersarecutoffatthefountainheadinordertochangeitscourse。
ItwasnottheaffairofPultowathatruinedCharles。Hadhenotbeendestroyedatthatplace，hewouldhavebeeninanother。Thecasualtiesoffortuneareeasilyrepaired；butwhocanbeguardedagainsteventsthatincessantlyarisefromthenatureofthings？
Butneithernaturenorfortunewereeversomuchagainsthimashehimself。
Hewasnotdirectedbythepresentsituationofthings，butbyakindofplanofhisforming；andeventhishefollowedveryill。HewasnotanAlexander；buthewouldhavemadeanexcellentsoldierunderthatmonarch。
Alexander’sprojectsucceededbecauseitwasprudentlyconcerted。ThebadsuccessofthePersiansintheirseveralinvasionsofGreece，theconquestsofAgesilaus，andtheretreatofthetenthousandhadshowntodemonstrationthesuperiorityoftheGreeksintheirmanneroffightingandintheirarms；anditwaswellknownthatthePersiansweretooproudtobecorrected。
ItwasnolongerpossibleforthemtoweakenGreecebydivisions：Greecewasthenunitedunderonehead，whichcouldnotpitchuponabettermethodofrenderingherinsensibletoherservitudethanbyflatteringhervanitywiththedestructionofherhereditaryenemy，andwiththehopesoftheconquestofAsia。
Anempirecultivatedbythemostindustriousnationintheworld，thatfollowedagriculturefromaprincipleofreligion——anempireaboundingwitheveryconvenienceoflife，furnishedtheenemywithallnecessarymeansofsubsisting。
Itwaseasytojudgebytheprideofthosekings，whoinvainweremortifiedbytheirnumerousdefeats，thattheywouldprecipitatetheirruinbytheirforwardnessinventuringbattles；andthattheflatteryoftheircourtierswouldneverpermitthemtodoubtoftheirgrandeur。
Theprojectwasnotonlywise，butwiselyexecuted。Alexander，intherapidityofhisconquests，evenintheimpetuosityofhispassion，had，ifImaysoexpressmyself，aflashofreasonbywhichhewasdirected，andwhichthosewhowouldfainhavemadearomanceofhishistory，andwhosemindsweremorecorruptthanhis，couldnotconcealfromourview。
Letusdescendmoreminutelyintohishistory。
14。Alexander。HedidnotsetoutuponhisexpeditiontillhehadsecuredMacedoniaagainsttheneighbouringbarbarians，andcompletedthereductionofGreece；heavailedhimselfofthisconquestfornootherendthanfortheexecutionofhisgrandenterprise；herenderedthejealousyoftheLaced？moniansofnoeffect；heattackedthemaritimeprovinces；hecausedhislandforcestokeepclosetothesea—coast，thattheymightnotbeseparatedfromhisfleet；hemadeanadmirableuseofdisciplineagainstnumbers；heneverwantedprovisions；andifitbetruethatvictorygavehimeverything，he，inhisturn，dideverythingtoobtainit。
Inthebeginningofhisenterprise——atimewhentheleastcheckmighthaveprovedhisdestruction——hetrustedverylittletofortune；butwhenhisreputationwasestablishedbyaseriesofprosperousevents，hesometimeshadrecoursetotemerity。WhenbeforehisdepartureforAsiahemarchedagainsttheTriballiansandIllyrians，youfindhewagedwar[10]againstthosepeopleintheverysamemannerasC？sarafterwardsconductedthatagainsttheGauls。UponhisreturntoGreece，[11]itwasinsomemeasureagainsthiswillthathetookanddestroyedThebes。Whenheinvestedthatcity，hewantedtheinhabitantstocomeintotermsofpeace；buttheyhastenedtheirownruin。WhenitwasdebatedwhetherheshouldattackthePersianfleet，[12]itisParmeniowhoshowshispresumption，Alexanderhiswisdom。HisaimwastodrawthePersiansfromthesea—coast，andtolaythemunderanecessityofabandoningtheirmarine，inwhichtheyhadamanifestsuperiority。TyrebeingfromprincipleattachedtothePersians，whocouldnotsubsistwithoutthecommerceandnavigationofthatcity，Alexanderdestroyedit。HesubduedEgypt，whichDariushadleftbareoftroopswhilehewasassemblingimmensearmiesinanotherworld。
TothepassageoftheGranicus，AlexanderowedtheconquestoftheGreekcolonies；tothebattleofIssus，thereductionofTyreandEgypt；tothebattleofArbela，theempireoftheworld。
AfterthebattleofIssus，hesufferedDariustoescape，andemployedhistimeinsecuringandregulatinghisconquests：afterthebattleofArbela，hepursuedhimsoclose[13]astoleavehimnoplaceofrefugeinhisempire。Dariusentershistowns，hisprovinces，toquitthemthenextmoment；andAlexandermarcheswithsuchrapiditythattheempireoftheworldseemstoberathertheprizeofanOlympianracethanthefruitofagreatvictory。Inthismannerhecarriedonhisconquests：
letusnowseehowhepreservedthem。
HeopposedthosewhowouldhavehadhimtreattheGreeksasmasters[14]
andthePersiansasslaves。Hethoughtonlyofunitingthetwonations，andofabolishingthedistinctionsofaconqueringandaconqueredpeople。Afterhehadcompletedhisvictories，herelinquishedallthoseprejudicesthathadhelpedhimtoobtainthem。HeassumedthemannersofthePersians，thathemightnotchagrinthemtoomuchbyobligingthemtoconformtothoseoftheGreeks。ItwasthishumanitywhichmadehimshowsogreatarespectforthewifeandmotherofDarius；andthisthatmadehimsocontinent。Whataconqueror！Heislamentedbyallthenationshehassubdued！Whatausurper！Athisdeaththeveryfamilyhehascastfromthethroneisallintears。Thesewerethemostgloriouspassagesinhislife，andsuchashistorycannotproduceaninstanceofinanyotherconqueror。
Nothingconsolidatesaconquestmorethantheunionformedbetweenthetwonationsbymarriages。[15]Alexanderchosehiswivesfromthenationhehadsubdued；heinsistedonhiscourtiersdoingthesame；andtherestoftheMacedoniansfollowedtheexample。TheFranksandBurgundianspermittedthosemarriages；[16]theVisigothsforbadetheminSpain，andafterwardsallowedthem。[17]BytheLombardstheywerenotonlyallowedbutencouraged。[18]WhentheRomanswantedtoweakenMacedonia，theyorderedthatthereshouldbenointermarriagesbetweenthepeopleofdifferentprovinces。
Alexander，whoseaimwastounitethetwonations，thoughtfittoestablishinPersiaagreatnumberofGreekcolonies。Hebuilt，therefore，amultitudeoftowns；andsostronglywereallthepartsofthisnewempirecemented，thatafterhisdecease，amidstthedisturbancesandconfusionofthemostfrightfulcivilwars，whentheGreekshadreducedthemselves，asitwere，toastateofannihilation，notasingleprovinceofPersiarevolted。
TopreventGreeceandMacedonfrombeingtoomuchexhausted，hesentacolonyofJews[19]toAlexandria；themannersofthosepeoplesignifiednothingtohim，providedhecouldbesureoftheirfidelity。
Henotonlysufferedtheconquerednationstoretaintheirowncustomsandmanners，butlikewisetheircivillaws；andfrequentlytheverykingsandgovernorstowhomtheyhadbeensubject：theMacedonians[20]
heplacedattheheadofthetroops，andthenativesofthecountryattheheadofthegovernment，ratherchoosingtorunthehazardofaparticulardisloyalty（whichsometimeshappened）thanofageneralrevolt。
Hepaidgreatrespecttotheancienttraditions，andtoallthepublicmonumentsofthegloryorvanityofnations。ThePersianmonarchshavingdestroyedthetemplesoftheGreeks，Babylonians，andEgyptians，Alexanderrebuiltthem：[21]fewnationssubmittedtohisyoketowhosereligionhedidnotconform；andhisconquestsseemtohavebeenintendedonlytomakehimtheparticularmonarchofeachnation，andthefirstinhabitantofeachcity。TheaimoftheRomansinconquestwastodestroy，histopreserve；andwhereverhedirectedhisvictoriousarms，hischiefviewwastoachievesomethingwhencethatcountrymightderiveanincreaseofprosperityandpower。Toattainthisend，hewasenabledfirstofallbythegreatnessofhisgenius；secondly，byhisfrugalityandprivateeconomy；[22]thirdly，byhisprofusioninmattersofimportance。Hewascloseandreservedinhisprivateexpenses，butgeneroustothehighestdegreeinthoseofapublicnature。Inregulatinghishousehold，hewastheprivateMacedonian；butinpayingthetroops，insharinghisconquestswiththeGreeks，andinhislargessestoeverysoldierinhisarmy，hewasAlexander。
HecommittedtwoverybadactionsinsettingPersepolisonfireandslayingClitus；butherenderedthemfamousbyhisrepentance。Henceitisthathiscrimesareforgotten，whilehisregardforvirtuewasrecorded：theywereconsideredratherasunluckyaccidentsthanashisowndeliberateacts。Posterity，struckwiththebeautyofhismind，eveninthemidstofhisirregularpassion，canviewhimonlywithpity，butneverwithaneyeofhatred。
LetusdrawacomparisonbetweenhimandC？sar。TheRomangeneral，byattemptingtoimitatetheAsiaticmonarch，flunghisfellow—citizensintoastateofdespairforamatterofmereostentation；theMacedonianprince，bythesameimitation，didathingwhichwasquiteagreeabletohisoriginalschemeofconquest。
15。NewMethodsofpreservingaConquest。Whenamonarchhassubduedalargecountry，hemaymakeuseofanadmirablemethod，equallyproperformoderatingdespoticpower，andforpreservingtheconquest；itisamethodpractisedbytheconquerorsofChina。
Inordertopreventthevanquishednationfromfallingintodespair，thevictorsfromgrowinginsolentandproud，thegovernmentfrombecomingmilitary，andtocontainthetwonationswithintheirduty，theTartarfamilynowonthethroneofChinahasordainedthateverymilitarycorpsintheprovincesshouldbecomposedhalfofChineseandhalfTartars，totheendthatthejealousybetweenthetwonationsmaykeepthemwithinbounds。ThecourtsofjudicaturearelikewisehalfChineseandhalfTartars。Thisisproductiveofseveralgoodeffects，1。Thetwonationsareachecktooneanother。2。Theybothpreservethecivilandmilitarypower，andoneisnotdestroyedbytheother，3。Theconqueringnationmayspreaditselfwithoutbeingweakenedandlost。Itislikewiseenabledtowithstandcivilandforeignwars。Thewantofsowiseaninstitutionasthishasbeentheruinofalmostalltheconquerorsthateverexisted。
16。OfConquestsmadebyadespoticPrince。Whenaconquesthappenstobevastlylarge，itsupposesadespoticpower；andthenthearmydispersedintheprovincesisnotsufficient。Thereshouldbealwaysabodyoffaithfultroopsneartheprince，readytofallinstantlyuponanypartoftheempirethatmaychancetowaver。Thismilitarycorpsoughttoawetherest，andtostriketerrorintothosewhothroughnecessityhavebeenentrustedwithanyauthorityintheempire。TheemperorofChinahasalwaysalargebodyofTartarsnearhisperson，readyuponalloccasions。InIndia，inTurkey，inJapan，theprincehasalwaysabody—guardindependentoftheotherregularforces。Thisparticularcorpskeepsthedispersedtroopsinawe。
17。ThesameSubjectcontinued。Wehaveobservedthatthecountriessubduedbyadespoticmonarchoughttobeheldbyavassal。Historiansareverylavishoftheirpraisesofthegenerosityofthoseconquerorswhorestoredtheprincestothethronewhomtheyhadvanquished。
ExtremelygenerousthenweretheRomans，whomadesuchanumberofkings，inordertohaveinstrumentsofslavery。[23]Aproceedingofthatkindisabsolutelynecessary。Iftheconquerorintendstopreservethecountrywhichhehassubdued，neitherthegovernorshesendswillbeabletocontainthesubjectswithinduty，norhehimselfthegovernors。
Hewillbeobligedtostriphisancientpatrimonyoftroops，inordertosecurehisnewdominions。Themiseriesofeachnationwillbecommontoboth；civilbroilswillspreadthemselvesfromonetotheother。Onthecontrary，iftheconquerorrestoresthelegitimateprincetothethrone，hewillofcoursehaveanally；bythejunctionofwhoseforceshisownpowerwillbeaugmented。WehavearecentinstanceofthisinShahNadir，whoconqueredtheMogul，seizedhistreasures，andlefthiminpossessionofHindostan。
______
1。SeetheCodeofBarbarianLaws，andBookxxviiibelow。
2。SeetheanonymousauthoroftheLifeofLouisleDebonnaire，inDuchesne’scollection，ii，p。296。
3。SeeM。Barbeyrac’scollection，art。112。
4。WithregardtoTockenburg。
5。Hewasattheheadofafaction。
6。HannowantedtodeliverHannibaluptotheRomans，asCatowouldfainhavedeliveredupC？sartotheGauls。
7。Ofthe18thofOctober，1738，printedatGenoabyFranchelli。SeealsotheAmsterdamGazette，Dec。23，1738。
8。SeePufendorff’sUniversalHistory。
9。DionysiusHalicarnassus，vii。
10。SeeArrian，DeExpedit。Alex。，i。
11。Ibid。
12。Ibid。
13。Ibid。，iii。
14。ThiswasAristotle’sadvice。Plutarch，OftheFortuneandVirtueofAlexander。
15。Arrian，DeExpedit。Alex。，vii。
16。SeetheLawoftheBurgundians，tit。12，art。5。
17。SeetheLawoftheVisigoths，iii，tit。1，§1，whichabrogatestheancientlawthathadmoreregard，itsays，tothedifferenceofnationsthantothatofpeople’sconditions。
18。SeetheLawoftheLombards，ii，tit。7，§§1，2。
19。ThekingsofSyria，abandoningtheplanlaiddownbythefounderoftheempire，resolvedtoobligetheJewstoconformtothemannersoftheGreeks——aresolutionthatgavethemostterribleshocktotheirgovernment。
20。SeeArrian，DeExpedit。Alex。，iii，andothers。
21。Ibid。
22。Ibid。，vii。
23。Tacitus，LifeofAgricola，14。