Inthosestatesagoodlegislatorislessbentuponpunishingthanpreventingcrimes；heismoreattentivetoinspiregoodmoralsthantoinflictpenalties。
ItisaconstantremarkoftheChineseauthors[24]thatthemorethepenallawswereincreasedintheirempire，thenearertheydrewtowardsarevolution。Thisisbecausepunishmentswereaugmentedinproportionasthepublicmoralswerecorrupted。
Itwouldbeaneasymattertoprovethatinall，oralmostall，thegovernmentsofEurope，penaltieshaveincreasedordiminishedinproportionasthosegovernmentsfavouredordiscouragedliberty。
Indespoticgovernments，peoplearesounhappyastohaveagreaterdreadofdeaththanregretforthelossoflife；consequentlytheirpunishmentsoughttobemoresevere。Inmoderatestatestheyaremoreafraidoflosingtheirlivesthanapprehensiveofthepainofdying；
thosepunishments，therefore，whichdeprivethemsimplyoflifearesufficient。
Meninexcessofhappinessormiseryareequallyinclinabletoseverity；
witnessconquerorsandmonks。Itismediocrityalone，andamixtureofprosperousandadversefortune，thatinspiresuswithlenityandpity。
Whatweseepractisedbyindividualsisequallyobservableinregardtonations。Incountriesinhabitedbysavageswholeadaveryhardlife，andindespoticgovernments，wherethereisonlyonepersononwhomfortunelavishesherfavours，whilethemiserablesubjectslieexposedtoherinsults，peopleareequallycruel。Lenityreignsinmoderategovernments。
Wheninreadinghistoryweobservethecrueltyofthesultansinadministrationofjustice，weshudderattheverythoughtofthemiseriesofhumannature。
Inmoderategovernments，agoodlegislatormaymakeuseofeverythingbywayofpunishment。IsitnotveryextraordinarythatoneofthechiefpenaltiesatSpartawastodepriveapersonofthepoweroflendingouthiswife，orofreceivingthewifeofanotherman，andtoobligehimtohavenocompanyathomebutvirgins？Inshort，whateverthelawcallsapunishmentissucheffectively。
10。OftheancientFrenchLaws。IntheancientFrenchlawswefindthetruespiritofmonarchy。Incasesrelatingtopecuniarymulcts，thecommonpeoplearelessseverelypunishedthanthenobility。[25]Butincriminal[26]casesitisquitethereverse；thenoblemanloseshishonourandhisvoiceincourt，whilethepeasant，whohasnohonourtolose，undergoesacorporalpunishment。
11。ThatwhenPeoplearevirtuousfewPunishmentsarenecessary。ThepeopleofRomehadsomeshareofprobity。Suchwastheforceofthisprobitythatthelegislatorhadfrequentlynofurtheroccasionthantopointouttherightroad，andtheyweresuretofollowit；onewouldimaginethatinsteadofpreceptsitwassufficienttogivethemcounsels。
Thepunishmentsoftheregallaws，andthoseoftheTwelveTables，werealmostallabolishedinthetimeoftherepublic，inconsequenceeitheroftheValerian[27]orofthePorcianlaw。[28]Itwasneverobservedthatthisstepdidanymannerofprejudicetotheciviladministration。
ThisValerianlaw，whichrestrainedthemagistratesfromusingviolentmethodsagainstacitizenthathadappealedtothepeople，inflictednootherpunishmentonthepersonwhoinfringeditthanthatofbeingreputedadishonestman。[29]
12。OfthePowerofPunishments。Experienceshowsthatincountriesremarkableforthelenityoftheirlawsthespiritoftheinhabitantsisasmuchaffectedbyslightpenaltiesasinothercountriesbysevererpunishments。
Ifaninconvenienceorabusearisesinthestate，aviolentgovernmentendeavourssuddenlytoredressit；andinsteadofputtingtheoldlawsinexecution，itestablishessomecruelpunishment，whichinstantlyputsastoptotheevil。Butthespringofgovernmentherebylosesitselasticity；theimaginationgrowsaccustomedtothesevereaswellasthemilderpunishment；andasthefearofthelatterdiminishes，theyaresoonobligedineverycasetohaverecoursetotheformer。Robberiesonthehighwaybecamecommoninsomecountries；inordertoremedythisevil，theyinventedthepunishmentofbreakinguponthewheel，theterrorofwhichputastopforawhiletothismischievouspractice。Butsoonafterrobberiesonthehighwaysbecameascommonasever。
Desertioninourdayshasgrowntoaverygreatheight；inconsequenceofwhichitwasjudgedpropertopunishthosedelinquentswithdeath；
andyettheirnumberdidnotdiminish。Thereasonisverynatural；asoldier，accustomedtoventurehislife，despises，oraffectstodespise，thedangeroflosingit。Heishabituatedtothefearofshame；
itwouldhavebeenthereforemuchbettertohavecontinuedapunishment[30]whichbrandedhimwithinfamyforlife；thepenaltywaspretendedtobeincreased，whileitreallydiminished。
Mankindmustnotbegovernedwithtoomuchseverity；weoughttomakeaprudentuseofthemeanswhichnaturehasgivenustoconductthem。Ifweinquireintothecauseofallhumancorruptions，weshallfindthattheyproceedfromtheimpunityofcriminals，andnotfromthemoderationofpunishments。
Letusfollownature，whohasgivenshametomanforhisscourge；andlettheheaviestpartofthepunishmentbetheinfamyattendingit。
Butiftherebesomecountrieswhereshameisnotaconsequenceofpunishment，thismustbeowingtotyranny，whichhasinflictedthesamepenaltiesonvillainsandhonestmen。
Andifthereareotherswheremenaredeterredonlybycruelpunishments，wemaybesurethatthismust，inagreatmeasure，arisefromtheviolenceofthegovernmentwhichhasusedsuchpenaltiesforslighttransgressions。
Itoftenhappensthatalegislator，desirousofremedyinganabuse，thinksofnothingelse；hiseyesareopenonlytothisobject，andshuttoitsinconveniences。Whentheabuseisredressed，youseeonlytheseverityofthelegislator；yetthereremainsanevilinthestatethathassprungfromthisseverity；themindsofthepeoplearecorrupted，andbecomehabituatedtodespotism。
Lysander[31]havingobtainedavictoryovertheAthenians，theprisonerswereorderedtobetried，inconsequenceofanaccusationbroughtagainstthatnationofhavingthrownallthecaptivesoftwogalleysdownaprecipice，andofhavingresolvedinfullassemblytocutoffthehandsofthosewhomtheyshouldchancetomakeprisoners。TheAthenianswerethereforeallmassacred，exceptAdymantes，whohadopposedthisdecree。LysanderreproachedPhylocles，beforehewasputtodeath，withhavingdepravedthepeople’sminds，andgivenlessonsofcrueltytoallGreece。
\"TheArgives，\"saysPlutarch，[32]\"havingputfifteenhundredoftheircitizenstodeath，theAtheniansorderedsacrificesofexpiation，thatitmightpleasethegodstoturntheheartsoftheAtheniansfromsocruelathought。\"
Therearetwosortsofcorruptions——onewhenthepeopledonotobservethelaws；theotherwhentheyarecorruptedbythelaws：anincurableevil，becauseitisintheveryremedyitself。
13。InsufficiencyoftheLawsofJapan。Excessivepunishmentsmayevencorruptadespoticgovernment；ofthiswehaveaninstanceinJapan。
Herealmostallcrimesarepunishedwithdeath，[33]becausedisobediencetosogreatanemperorasthatofJapanisreckonedanenormouscrime。
Thequestionisnotsomuchtocorrectthedelinquentastovindicatetheauthorityoftheprince。Thesenotionsarederivedfromservitude，andareowingespeciallytothis，thatastheemperorisuniversalproprietor，almostallcrimesaredirectlyagainsthisinterests。
Theypunishwithdeathliesspokenbeforethemagistrate；[34]aproceedingcontrarytonaturaldefence。
Eventhingswhichhavenottheappearanceofacrimeareseverelypunished；forinstance，amanthatventureshismoneyatplayisputtodeath。
Trueitisthatthecharacterofthispeople，soamazinglyobstinate，capricious，andresoluteastodefyalldangersandcalamities，seemstoabsolvetheirlegislatorsfromtheimputationofcruelty，notwithstandingtheseverityoftheirlaws。Butaremenwhohaveanaturalcontemptfordeath，andwhoripopentheirbelliesfortheleastfancy——aresuchmen，Isay，mendedordeterred，orratheraretheynothardened，bythecontinualprospectofpunishments？
Therelationsoftravellersinformus，withrespecttotheeducationoftheJapanese，thatchildrenmustbetreatedtherewithmildness，becausetheybecomehardenedtopunishment；thattheirslavesmustnotbetooroughlyused，becausetheyimmediatelystandupontheirdefence。Wouldnotoneimaginethattheymighteasilyhavejudgedofthespiritwhichoughttoreignintheirpoliticalandcivilgovernmentfromthatwhichshouldprevailintheirdomesticconcerns？
Awiselegislatorwouldhaveendeavouredtoreclaimpeoplebyajusttemperatureofpunishmentsandrewards；bymaximsofphilosophy，morality，andreligion，adaptedtothosecharacters；byaproperapplicationoftherulesofhonour，andbytheenjoymentofeaseandtranquillityoflife。Andshouldhehaveentertainedanyapprehensionthattheirminds，beinginuredtothecrueltyofpunishments，wouldnolongerberestrainedbythoseofamildernature，hewouldhaveconductedhimself[35]inanothermanner，andgainedhispointbydegrees，inparticularcasesthatadmittedofanyindulgence，hewouldhavemitigatedthepunishment，tillheshouldhavebeenabletoextendthismitigationtoallcases。
Butthesearespringstowhichdespoticpowerisastranger；itmayabuseitself，andthatisallitcando：inJapanithasmadeitsutmosteffort，andhassurpassedevenitselfincruelty。
Asthemindsofthepeoplegrewwildandintractable，theywereobligedtohaverecoursetothemosthorridseverity。
Thisistheorigin，thisthespirit，ofthelawsofJapan。Theyhadmorefury，however，thanforce。TheysucceededtheextirpationofChristianity；butsuchunaccountableeffortsareaproofoftheirinsufficiency。Theywantedtoestablishagoodpolicy，andtheyhaveshowngreatermarksoftheirweakness。
WehaveonlytoreadtherelationoftheinterviewbetweentheEmperorandtheDeyroatMeaco。[36]Thenumberofthosewhoweresuffocatedormurderedinthatcitybyruffiansisincredible；youngmaidsandboyswerecarriedoffbyforce，andfoundafterwardsexposedinpublicplaces，atunseasonablehours，quitenaked，andsewninlinenbags，topreventtheirknowingwhichwaytheyhadpassed；robberieswerecommittedinallparts；thebelliesofhorseswererippedopen，tobringtheirriderstotheground；andcoacheswereoverturned，inordertostriptheladies。TheDutch，whoweretoldtheycouldnotpassthenightonthescaffoldswithoutexposingthemselvestothedangerofbeingassassinated，camedown，&c。
Ishallheregiveoneinstancemorefromthesamenation。TheEmperorhavingabandonedhimselftoinfamouspleasures，livedunmarried，andwasconsequentlyindangerofdyingwithoutissue。TheDeyrosenthimtwobeautifuldamsels；onehemarriedoutofrespect，butwouldnotmeddlewithher。Hisnursecausedthefinestwomenoftheempiretobesentfor，butalltonopurpose。Atlength，anarmourer’sdaughterhavingpleasedhisfancy，[37]hedeterminedtoespouseher，andhadason。Theladiesbelongingtothecourt，enragedtoseeapersonofsuchmeanextractionpreferredtothemselves，stifledthechild。ThecrimewasconcealedfromtheEmperor；forhewouldhavedelugedthelandwithblood。Theexcessiveseverityofthelawshinders，therefore，theirexecution：whenthepunishmentsurpassesallmeasure，theyarefrequentlyobligedtopreferimpunitytoit。
14。OftheSpiritoftheRomanSenate。UndertheconsulateofAciliusGlabrioandPiso，theAsilianlaw[38]wasmadetopreventtheintriguingforplaces。Diosays[39]thatthesenateengagedtheconsulstoproposeit，byreasonthatC。Cornelius，thetribune，hadresolvedtocausemoreseverepunishmentstobeestablishedagainstthiscrime；towhichthepeopleseemedgreatlyinclined。Thesenaterightlyjudgedthatimmoderatepunishmentswouldstrike，indeed，aterrorintopeople’sminds，butmusthavealsothiseffect，thattherewouldbenobodyafterwardstoaccuseorcondemn；whereas，byproposingmoderatepenalties，therewouldbealwaysjudgesandaccusers。
15。OftheRomanLawsinrespecttoPunishments。IamstronglyconfirmedinmysentimentsuponfindingtheRomansonmyside；andIthinkthatpunishmentsareconnectedwiththenatureofgovernmentswhenIbeholdthisgreatpeoplechanginginthisrespecttheircivillaws，inproportionastheyalteredtheirformofgovernment。
Theregallaws，madeforfugitives，slaves，andvagabonds，wereverysevere。ThespiritofarepublicwouldhaverequiredthatthedecemvirsshouldnothaveinsertedthoselawsintheirTwelveTables；butmenwhoaimedattyrannywerefarfromconformingtoarepublicanspirit。
Livysays，[40]inrelationtothepunishmentofMetiusSuffetius，dictatorofAlba，whowascondemnedbyTulliusHostiliustobefastenedtotwochariotsdrawnbyhorses，andtornasunder，thatthiswasthefirstandlastpunishmentinwhichtheremembranceofhumanityseemedtohavebeenlost。Heismistaken；theTwelveTablesarefullofverycruellaws。[41]
Thedesignofthedecemvirsappearsmoreconspicuousinthecapitalpunishmentpronouncedagainstlibellersandpoets。Thisisnotagreeabletothegeniusofarepublic，wherethepeopleliketoseethegreatmenhumbled。Butpersonswhoaimedatthesubversionoflibertywereafraidofwritingsthatmightreviveitsspirit。[42]
Aftertheexpulsionofthedecemvirs，almostallthepenallawswereabolished。Itistruetheywerenotexpresslyrepealed；butasthePorcianlawhadordainedthatnocitizenofRomeshouldbeputtodeath，theywereofnofurtheruse。
ThisisexactlythetimetowhichwemayreferwhatLivysays[43]oftheRomans，thatnopeoplewereeverfonderofmoderationinpunishments。
Butiftothelenityofpenallawsweaddtherightwhichthepartyaccusedhadofwithdrawingbeforejudgmentwaspronounced，weshallfindthattheRomansfollowedthespiritwhichIhaveobservedtobenaturaltoarepublic。
Sulla，whoconfoundedtyranny，anarchy，andliberty，madetheCornelianlaws。Heseemedtohavecontrivedregulationsmerelywithaviewtocreatenewcrimes。Thusdistinguishinganinfinitenumberofactionsbythenameofmurder，hefoundmurderersinallparts；andbyapracticetoomuchfollowed，helaidsnares，sowedthorns，andopenedprecipices，wheresoeverthecitizenssettheirfeet。
AlmostallSulla’slawscontainedonlytheinterdictionoffireandwater。TothisC？saraddedtheconfiscationofgoods[44]becausetherich，bypreservingtheirestatesinexile，becamebolderintheperpetrationofcrimes。
Theemperors，havingestablishedamilitarygovernment，soonfoundthatitwasasterribletotheprinceastothesubject；theyendeavouredthereforetotemperit，andwiththisviewhadrecoursetodignities，andtotherespectwithwhichthosedignitieswereattended。
Thegovernmentthusdrewneareralittletomonarchy，andpunishmentsweredividedintothreeclasses：[45]thosewhichrelatedtotheprincipalpersonsinthestate，[46]whichwereverymild：thosewhichwereinflictedonpersonsofaninferiorrank，[47]andweremoresevere；
and，infine，suchasconcernedonlypersonsofthelowestcondition，[48]whichwerethemostrigorous。
Maximinus，thatfierceandstupidprince，increasedtherigourofthemilitarygovernmentwhichheoughttohavesoftened。Thesenatewereinformed，saysCapitolinus，[49]thatsomehadbeencrucified，othersexposedtowildbeasts，orsewnupintheskinsofbeastslatelykilled，withoutanymannerofregardtotheirdignity。Itseemedasifhewantedtoexercisethemilitarydiscipline，onthemodelofwhichhepretendedtoregulatetheciviladministration。
InTheConsiderationontheRiseandDeclensionoftheRomanGrandeur[50]wefindinwhatmannerConstantinechangedthemilitarydespotismintoamilitaryandcivilgovernment，anddrewnearertomonarchy。Therewemaytracethedifferentrevolutionsofthisstate，andseehowtheyfellfromrigourtoindolence，andfromindolencetoimpunity。
16。OfthejustProportionbetweenPunishmentsandCrimes。Itisanessentialpoint，thatthereshouldbeacertainproportioninpunishments，becauseitisessentialthatagreatcrimeshouldbeavoidedratherthanasmaller，andthatwhichismorepernicioustosocietyratherthanthatwhichisless。
\"Animpostor，[51]whocalledhimselfConstantineDucas，raisedagreatinsurrectionatConstantinople。Hewastakenandcondemnedtobewhipped；butuponinformingagainstseveralpersonsofdistinction，hewassentencedtobeburnedasacalumniator。\"Itisveryextraordinarythattheyshouldthusproportionthepunishmentsbetweenthecrimeofhightreasonandthatofcalumny。
ThisputsmeinmindofasayingofCharlesII，KingofGreatBritain。
Hesawamanonedaystandinginthepillory；uponwhichheaskedwhatcrimethemanhadcommitted。Hewasanswered，\"PleaseyourMajesty，hehaswrittenalibelagainstyourministers。\"\"Thefool！\"saidtheKing，\"whydidhenotwriteagainstme？Theywouldhavedonenothingtohim。\"
\"SeventypersonshavingconspiredagainsttheEmperorBasil，heorderedthemtobewhipped，andthehairoftheirheadsandbeardstobeburned。
Astag，oneday，havingtakenholdofhimbythegirdlewithhishorn，oneofhisretinuedrewhissword，cutthegirdle，andsavedhim；uponwhichheorderedthatperson’sheadtobecutoff，forhaving，\"saidhe，\"drawnhisswordagainsthissovereign。\"[52]Whocouldimaginethatthesameprincecouldeverhavepassedtwosuchdifferentjudgments？
Itisagreatabuseamongstustocondemntothesamepunishmentapersonthatonlyrobsonthehighwayandanotherwhorobsandmurders。
Surely，forthepublicsecurity，somedifferenceshouldbemadeinthepunishment。
InChina，thosewhoaddmurdertorobberyarecutinpieces：[53]butnotsotheothers；tothisdifferenceitisowingthatthoughtheyrobinthatcountrytheynevermurder。
InRussia，wherethepunishmentofrobberyandmurderisthesame，theyalwaysmurder。[54]Thedead，saythey，tellnotales。
Wherethereisnodifferenceinthepenalty，thereshouldbesomeintheexpectationofpardon。InEnglandtheynevermurderonthehighway，becauserobbershavesomehopesoftransportation，whichisnotthecaseinrespecttothosethatcommitmurder。
Lettersofgraceareofexcellentuseinmoderategovernments。Thispowerwhichtheprincehasofpardoning，exercisedwithprudence，iscapableofproducingadmirableeffects。Theprincipleofdespoticgovernment，whichneithergrantsnorreceivesanypardon，deprivesitoftheseadvantages。
17。OftheRack。Thewickednessofmankindmakesitnecessaryforthelawtosupposethembetterthantheyreallyare。Hencethedepositionoftwowitnessesissufficientinthepunishmentofallcrimes。Thelawbelievesthem，asiftheyspokebythemouthoftruth。Thuswejudgethateverychildconceivedinwedlockislegitimate；thelawhavingaconfidenceinthemother，asifshewerechastityitself。Buttheuseoftherackagainstcriminalscannotbedefendedonalikepleaofnecessity。
Wehavebeforeustheexampleofanationblessedwithanexcellentcivilgovernment，[55]wherewithoutanyinconveniencethepracticeofrackingcriminalsisrejected。Itisnot，therefore，initsownnaturenecessary。[56]
Somanymenoflearningandgeniushavewrittenagainstthecustomoftorturingcriminals，thatafterthemIdarenotpresumetomeddlewiththesubject。Iwasgoingtosaythatitmightsuitdespoticstates，wherewhateverinspiresfearisthefittestspringofgovernment。IwasgoingtosaythattheslavesamongtheGreeksandRomans——butnaturecriesoutaloud，andassertsherrights。
18。OfpecuniaryandcorporalPunishments。Ourancestors，theGermans，admittedofnonebutpecuniarypunishments。Thosefreeandwarlikepeoplewereofopinionthattheirbloodoughtnottobespilledbutwithswordinhand。Onthecontrary，thesepunishmentsarerejectedbytheJapanese，[57]underpretencethattherichmighteludethem。Butarenottherichafraidofbeingstrippedoftheirproperty？Andmightnotpecuniarypenaltiesbeproportionedtopeople’sfortunes？And，infine，mightnotinfamybeaddedtothosepunishments？
Agoodlegislatortakesajustmedium；heordainsneitheralwayspecuniary，noralwayscorporalpunishments。
19。OftheLawofRetaliation。Theuseofthelawofretaliation[58]isveryfrequentindespoticcountries，wheretheyarefondofsimplelaws。
Moderategovernmentsadmitofitsometimes；butwiththisdifference，thattheformerexerciseitinfullrigour，whereasamongthelatteriteverreceivessomekindoflimitation。
ThelawoftheTwelveTablesadmittedtwo：first，itnevercondemnedtoretaliation，butwhentheplaintiffcouldnotbesatisfiedinanyothermanner。[59]Secondly，aftercondemnationtheymightpaydamagesandinterest，[60]andthenthecorporalwaschangedintoapecuniarypunishment。[61]
20。OfthePunishmentofFathersfortheCrimesoftheirChildren。InChina，fathersarepunishedforthecrimesoftheirchildren。ThiswaslikewisethecustomofPeru[62]——acustomderivedfromthenotionofdespoticpower。LittledoesitsignifytosaythatinChinathefatherispunishedfornothavingexertedthatpaternalauthoritywhichnaturehasestablished，andthelawsthemselveshaveimproved。ThisstillsupposesthatthereisnohonouramongtheChinese。Amongstus，parentswhosechildrenarecondemnedbythelawsoftheircountry，andchildren[63]whoseparentshaveundergonethelikefate，areasseverelypunishedbyshame，astheywouldbeinChinabythelossoftheirlives。
21。OftheClemencyofthePrince。Clemencyisthecharacteristicofmonarchs。Inrepublics，whoseprincipleisvirtue，itisnotsonecessary。Indespoticgovernments，wherefearpredominates，itislesscustomary，becausethegreatmenaretoberestrainedbyexamplesofseverity。Itismorenecessaryinmonarchies，wheretheyaregovernedbyhonour，whichfrequentlyrequireswhattheverylawforbids。Disgraceishereequivalenttochastisement；andeventheformsofjusticearepunishments。Thisisbecauseparticularkindsofpenaltyareformedbyshame，whichoneverysideinvadesthedelinquent。
Thegreatmeninmonarchiesaresoheavilypunishedbydisgrace，bytheloss（thoughoftenimaginary）oftheirfortune，credit，acquaintances，andpleasures，thatrigourinrespecttothemisneedless。Itcantendonlytodivestthesubjectoftheaffectionhehasforthepersonofhisprince，andoftherespectheoughttohaveforpublicpostsandemployments。
Astheinstabilityofthegreatisnaturaltoadespoticgovernment，sotheirsecurityisinterwovenwiththenatureofmonarchy。
Somanyaretheadvantageswhichmonarchsgainbyclemency，sogreatlydoesitraisetheirfame，andendearthemtotheirsubjects，thatitisgenerallyhappyforthemtohaveanopportunityofdisplayingit；whichinthispartoftheworldisseldomwanting。
Somebranch，perhaps，oftheirauthority，butneverhardlythewhole，willbedisputed；andiftheysometimesfightfortheircrown，theydonotfightfortheirlife。