Ihavefirstofallconsideredmankind；andtheresultofmythoughtshasbeen，thatamidstsuchaninfinitediversityoflawsandmanners，theywerenotsolelyconductedbythecapriceoffancy。
Ihavelaiddownthefirstprinciples，andhavefoundthattheparticularcasesfollownaturallyfromthem；thatthehistoriesofallnationsareonlyconsequencesofthem；andthateveryparticularlawisconnectedwithanotherlaw，ordependsonsomeotherofamoregeneralextent。
WhenIhavebeenobligedtolookbackintoantiquity，Ihaveendeavouredtoassumethespiritoftheancients，lestIshouldconsiderthosethingsasalikewhicharereallydifferent；andlestIshouldmissthedifferenceofthosewhichappeartobealike。
Ihavenotdrawnmyprinciplesfrommyprejudices，butfromthenatureofthings。
Hereagreatmanytruthswillnotappeartillwehaveseenthechainwhichconnectsthemwithothers。Themoreweenterintoparticulars，themoreweshallperceivethecertaintyoftheprinciplesonwhichtheyarefounded。Ihavenotevengivenalltheseparticulars，forwhocouldmentionthemallwithoutamostinsupportablefatigue？
Thereaderwillnotheremeetwithanyofthoseboldflightswhichseemtocharacterisetheworksofthepresentage。Whenthingsareexaminedwithneversosmalladegreeofextent，thesalliesofimaginationmustvanish；thesegenerallyarisefromthemind’scollectingallitspowerstoviewonlyonesideofthesubject，whileitleavestheotherunobserved。
Iwritenottocensureanythingestablishedinanycountrywhatsoever。
Everynationwillherefindthereasonsonwhichitsmaximsarefounded；
andthiswillbethenaturalinference，thattoproposealterationsbelongsonlytothosewhoaresohappyastobebornwithageniuscapableofpenetratingtheentireconstitutionofastate。
Itisnotamatterofindifferencethatthemindsofthepeoplebeenlightened。Theprejudicesofmagistrateshavearisenfromnationalprejudice。Inatimeofignorancetheyhavecommittedeventhegreatestevilswithouttheleastscruple；butinanenlightenedagetheyeventremblewhileconferringthegreatestblessings。Theyperceivetheancientabuses；theyseehowtheymustbereformed；buttheyaresensiblealsooftheabusesofareformation。Theylettheevilcontinue，iftheyfearaworse；theyarecontentwithalessergood，iftheydoubtagreater。Theyexamineintotheparts，tojudgeoftheminconnection；andtheyexamineallthecauses，todiscovertheirdifferenteffects。
CouldIbutsucceedsoastoaffordnewreasonstoeverymantolovehisprince，hiscountry，hislaws；newreasonstorenderhimmoresensibleineverynationandgovernmentoftheblessingsheenjoys，Ishouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmortals。
CouldIbutsucceedsoastopersuadethosewhocommand，toincreasetheirknowledgeinwhattheyoughttoprescribe；andthosewhoobey，tofindanewpleasureresultingfromobedience——Ishouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmortals。
ThemosthappyofmortalsshouldIthinkmyselfcouldIcontributetomakemankindrecoverfromtheirprejudices。ByprejudicesIheremean，notthatwhichrendersmenignorantofsomeparticularthings，butwhateverrendersthemignorantofthemselves。
Itisinendeavouringtoinstructmankindthatwearebestabletopractisethatgeneralvirtuewhichcomprehendstheloveofall。Man，thatflexiblebeing，conforminginsocietytothethoughtsandimpressionsofothers，isequallycapableofknowinghisownnature，wheneveritislaidopentohisview；andoflosingtheverysenseofit，whenthisideaisbanishedfromhismind。
OftenhaveIbegun，andasoftenhaveIlaidaside，thisundertaking。I
haveathousandtimesgiventheleavesIhadwrittentothewinds：I，everyday，feltmypaternalhandsfall。Ihavefollowedmyobjectwithoutanyfixedplan：Ihaveknownneitherrulesnorexceptions；I
havefoundthetruth，onlytoloseitagain。ButwhenIoncediscoveredmyfirstprinciples，everythingIsoughtforappeared；andinthecourseoftwentyyears，Ihaveseenmyworkbegun，growingup，advancingtomaturity，andfinished。
Ifthisworkmeetswithsuccess，Ishalloweitchieflytothegrandeurandmajestyofthesubject。However，IdonotthinkthatIhavebeentotallydeficientinpointofgenius。WhenIhaveseenwhatsomanygreatmenbothinFrance，England，andGermanyhavesaidbeforeme，I
havebeenlostinadmiration；butIhavenotlostmycourage：IhavesaidwithCorreggio，\"AndIalsoamapainter。\"
ADVERTISEMENT
1。Forthebetterunderstandingofthefirstfourbooksofthiswork，itistobeobservedthatwhatIdistinguishbythenameofvirtue，inarepublic，istheloveofone’scountry，thatis，theloveofequality。
Itisnotamoral，noraChristian，butapoliticalvirtue；anditisthespringwhichsetstherepublicangovernmentinmotion，ashonouristhespringwhichgivesmotiontomonarchy。HenceitisthatIhavedistinguishedtheloveofone’scountry，andofequality，bytheappellationofpoliticalvirtue。Myideasarenew，andthereforeIhavebeenobligedtofindnewwords，ortogivenewacceptationstooldterms，inordertoconveymymeaning。They，whoareunacquaintedwiththisparticular，havemademesaymoststrangeabsurdities，suchaswouldbeshockinginanypartoftheworld，becauseinallcountriesandgovernmentsmoralityisrequisite。
2。Thereaderisalsotonoticethatthereisavastdifferencebetweensayingthatacertainquality，modificationofthemind，orvirtue，isnotthespringbywhichgovernmentisactuated，andaffirmingthatitisnottobefoundinthatgovernment。WereItosaysuchawheelorsuchapinionisnotthespringwhichsetsthewatchgoing，canyouinferthencethattheyarenottobefoundinthewatch？SofarisitfrombeingtruethatthemoralandChristianvirtuesareexcludedfrommonarchy，thatevenpoliticalvirtueisnotexcluded。Inaword，honourisfoundinarepublic，thoughitsspringbepoliticalvirtue；andpoliticalvirtueisfoundinamonarchicalgovernment，thoughitbeactuatedbyhonour。
Toconclude，thehonestmanofwhomwetreatinthethirdbook，chapter5，isnottheChristian，butthepoliticalhonestman，whoispossessedofthepoliticalvirtuetherementioned。Heisthemanwholovesthelawsofhiscountry，andwhoisactuatedbytheloveofthoselaws。I
havesetthesemattersinaclearerlightinthepresentedition，bygivingamoreprecisemeaningtomyexpression：andinmostplaceswhereIhavemadeuseofthewordvirtueIhavetakencaretoaddthetermpolitical。
BookI。OfLawsinGeneral1。OftheRelationofLawstodifferentBeings。Laws，intheirmostgeneralsignification，arethenecessaryrelationsarisingfromthenatureofthings。Inthissenseallbeingshavetheirlaws：theDeity[1]
Hislaws，thematerialworlditslaws，theintelligencessuperiortomantheirlaws，thebeaststheirlaws，manhislaws。
Theywhoassertthatablindfatalityproducedthevariouseffectswebeholdinthisworldtalkveryabsurdly；forcananythingbemoreunreasonablethantopretendthatablindfatalitycouldbeproductiveofintelligentbeings？
Thereis，then，aprimereason；andlawsaretherelationssubsistingbetweenitanddifferentbeings，andtherelationsofthesetooneanother。
Godisrelatedtotheuniverse，asCreatorandPreserver；thelawsbywhichHecreatedallthingsarethosebywhichHepreservesthem。Heactsaccordingtotheserules，becauseHeknowsthem；Heknowsthem，becauseHemadethem；andHemadethem，becausetheyareinrelationtoHiswisdomandpower。
Sinceweobservethattheworld，thoughformedbythemotionofmatter，andvoidofunderstanding，subsiststhroughsolongasuccessionofages，itsmotionsmustcertainlybedirectedbyinvariablelaws；andcouldweimagineanotherworld，itmustalsohaveconstantrules，oritwouldinevitablyperish。
Thusthecreation，whichseemsanarbitraryact，supposeslawsasinvariableasthoseofthefatalityoftheAtheists。ItwouldbeabsurdtosaythattheCreatormightgoverntheworldwithoutthoserules，sincewithoutthemitcouldnotsubsist。
Theserulesareafixedandinvariablerelation。Inbodiesmoved，themotionisreceived，increased，diminished，orlost，accordingtotherelationsofthequantityofmatterandvelocity；eachdiversityisuniformity，eachchangeisconstancy。
Particularintelligentbeingsmayhavelawsoftheirownmaking，buttheyhavesomelikewisewhichtheynevermade。Beforetherewereintelligentbeings，theywerepossible；theyhadthereforepossiblerelations，andconsequentlypossiblelaws。Beforelawsweremade，therewererelationsofpossiblejustice。Tosaythatthereisnothingjustorunjustbutwhatiscommandedorforbiddenbypositivelaws，isthesameassayingthatbeforethedescribingofacirclealltheradiiwerenotequal。
Wemustthereforeacknowledgerelationsofjusticeantecedenttothepositivelawbywhichtheyareestablished：as，forinstance，ifhumansocietiesexisted，itwouldberighttoconformtotheirlaws；iftherewereintelligentbeingsthathadreceivedabenefitofanotherbeing，theyoughttoshowtheirgratitude；ifoneintelligentbeinghadcreatedanotherintelligentbeing，thelatteroughttocontinueinitsoriginalstateofdependence；ifoneintelligentbeinginjuresanother，itdeservesaretaliation；andsoon。
Buttheintelligentworldisfarfrombeingsowellgovernedasthephysical。Forthoughtheformerhasalsoitslaws，whichoftheirownnatureareinvariable，itdoesnotconformtothemsoexactlyasthephysicalworld。Thisisbecause，ontheonehand，particularintelligentbeingsareofafinitenature，andconsequentlyliabletoerror；andontheother，theirnaturerequiresthemtobefreeagents。Hencetheydonotsteadilyconformtotheirprimitivelaws；andeventhoseoftheirowninstitutingtheyfrequentlyinfringe。
Whetherbrutesbegovernedbythegenerallawsofmotion，orbyaparticularmovement，wecannotdetermine。Bethatasitmay，theyhavenotamoreintimaterelationtoGodthantherestofthematerialworld；
andsensationisofnootherusetothemthanintherelationtheyhaveeithertootherparticularbeingsortothemselves。
Bytheallurementofpleasuretheypreservetheindividual，andbythesameallurementtheypreservetheirspecies。Theyhavenaturallaws，becausetheyareunitedbysensation；positivelawstheyhavenone，becausetheyarenotconnectedbyknowledge。Andyettheydonotinvariablyconformtotheirnaturallaws；thesearebetterobservedbyvegetables，thathaveneitherunderstandingnorsense。
Brutesaredeprivedofthehighadvantageswhichwehave；buttheyhavesomewhichwehavenot。Theyhavenotourhopes，buttheyarewithoutourfears；theyaresubjectlikeustodeath，butwithoutknowingit；
evenmostofthemaremoreattentivethanwetoself—preservation，anddonotmakesobadauseoftheirpassions。
Man，asaphysicalbeing，islikeotherbodiesgovernedbyinvariablelaws。Asanintelligentbeing，heincessantlytransgressesthelawsestablishedbyGod，andchangesthoseofhisowninstituting。Heislefttohisprivatedirection，thoughalimitedbeing，andsubject，likeallfiniteintelligences，toignoranceanderror：evenhisimperfectknowledgeheloses；andasasensiblecreature，heishurriedawaybyathousandimpetuouspassions。SuchabeingmighteveryinstantforgethisCreator；Godhasthereforeremindedhimofhisdutybythelawsofreligion。Suchabeingisliableeverymomenttoforgethimself；
philosophyhasprovidedagainstthisbythelawsofmorality。Formedtoliveinsociety，hemightforgethisfellow—creatures；legislatorshavethereforebypoliticalandcivillawsconfinedhimtohisduty。
2。OftheLawsofNature。Antecedenttotheabove—mentionedlawsarethoseofnature，socalled，becausetheyderivetheirforceentirelyfromourframeandexistence。Inordertohaveaperfectknowledgeoftheselaws，wemustconsidermanbeforetheestablishmentofsociety：
thelawsreceivedinsuchastatewouldbethoseofnature。
Thelawwhich，impressingonourmindstheideaofaCreator，inclinesustowardsHim，isthefirstinimportance，thoughnotinorder，ofnaturallaws。Maninastateofnaturewouldhavethefacultyofknowing，beforehehadacquiredanyknowledge。Plainitisthathisfirstideaswouldnotbeofaspeculativenature；hewouldthinkofthepreservationofhisbeing，beforehewouldinvestigateitsorigin。Suchamanwouldfeelnothinginhimselfatfirstbutimpotencyandweakness；
hisfearsandapprehensionswouldbeexcessive；asappearsfrominstances（werethereanynecessityofprovingit）ofsavagesfoundinforests，[2]tremblingatthemotionofaleaf，andflyingfromeveryshadow。
Inthisstateeveryman，insteadofbeingsensibleofhisequality，wouldfancyhimselfinferior。Therewouldthereforebenodangeroftheirattackingoneanother；peacewouldbethefirstlawofnature。
ThenaturalimpulseordesirewhichHobbesattributestomankindofsubduingoneanotherisfarfrombeingwellfounded。Theideaofempireanddominionissocomplex，anddependsonsomanyothernotions，thatitcouldneverbethefirstwhichoccurredtothehumanunderstanding。
Hobbes[3]inquires，\"Forwhatreasongomenarmed，andhavelocksandkeystofastentheirdoors，iftheybenotnaturallyinastateofwar？\"
Butisitnotobviousthatheattributestomankindbeforetheestablishmentofsocietywhatcanhappenbutinconsequenceofthisestablishment，whichfurnishesthemwithmotivesforhostileattacksandself—defence？
Nexttoasenseofhisweaknessmanwouldsoonfindthatofhiswants。
Henceanotherlawofnaturewouldprompthimtoseekfornourishment。
Fear，Ihaveobserved，wouldinducementoshunoneanother；butthemarksofthisfearbeingreciprocal，wouldsoonengagethemtoassociate。Besides，thisassociationwouldquicklyfollowfrom。theverypleasureoneanimalfeelsattheapproachofanotherofthesamespecies。Again，theattractionarisingfromthedifferenceofsexeswouldenhancethispleasure，andthenaturalinclinationtheyhaveforeachotherwouldformathirdlaw。
Besidethesenseorinstinctwhichmanpossessesincommonwithbrutes，hehastheadvantageofacquiredknowledge；andthencearisesasecondtie，whichbruteshavenot。Mankindhavethereforeanewmotiveofuniting；andafourthlawofnatureresultsfromthedesireoflivinginsociety。
3。OfPositiveLaws。Assoonasmanentersintoastateofsocietyhelosesthesenseofhisweakness；equalityceases，andthencommencesthestateofwar。
Eachparticularsocietybeginstofeelitsstrength，whencearisesastateofwarbetweendifferentnations。Theindividualslikewiseofeachsocietybecomesensibleoftheirforce；hencetheprincipaladvantagesofthissocietytheyendeavourtoconverttotheirownemolument，whichconstitutesastateofwarbetweenindividuals。
Thesetwodifferentkindsofstatesgiverisetohumanlaws。Consideredasinhabitantsofsogreataplanet，whichnecessarilycontainsavarietyofnations，theyhavelawsrelatingtotheirmutualintercourse，whichiswhatwecallthelawofnations。Asmembersofasocietythatmustbeproperlysupported，theyhavelawsrelatingtothegovernorsandthegoverned，andthiswedistinguishbythenameofpoliticlaw。Theyhavealsoanothersortoflaw，astheystandinrelationtoeachother；
bywhichisunderstoodthecivillaw。
Thelawofnationsisnaturallyfoundedonthisprinciple，thatdifferentnationsoughtintimeofpeacetodooneanotherallthegoodtheycan，andintimeofwaraslittleinjuryaspossible，withoutprejudicingtheirrealinterests。
Theobjectofwarisvictory；thatofvictoryisconquest；andthatofconquestpreservation。Fromthisandtheprecedingprincipleallthoserulesarederivedwhichconstitutethelawofnations。
Allcountrieshavealawofnations，notexceptingtheIroquoisthemselves，thoughtheydevourtheirprisoners：fortheysendandreceiveambassadors，andunderstandtherightsofwarandpeace。Themischiefisthattheirlawofnationsisnotfoundedontrueprinciples。
Besidesthelawofnationsrelatingtoallsocieties，thereisapolityorcivilconstitutionforeachparticularlyconsidered。Nosocietycansubsistwithoutaformofgovernment。\"Theunitedstrengthofindividuals，\"asGravina[4]wellobserves，\"constituteswhatwecallthebodypolitic。\"
Thegeneralstrengthmaybeinthehandsofasingleperson，orofmany。
Somethinkthatnaturehavingestablishedpaternalauthority，themostnaturalgovernmentwasthatofasingleperson。Buttheexampleofpaternalauthorityprovesnothing。Forifthepowerofafatherrelatestoasinglegovernment，thatofbrothersafterthedeathofafather，andthatofcousins—germanafterthedeceaseofbrothers，refertoagovernmentofmany。Thepoliticalpowernecessarilycomprehendstheunionofseveralfamilies。
Betterisittosay，thatthegovernmentmostconformabletonatureisthatwhichbestagreeswiththehumouranddispositionofthepeopleinwhosefavouritisestablished。
Thestrengthofindividualscannotbeunitedwithoutaconjunctionofalltheirwills。\"Theconjunctionofthosewills，\"asGravinaagainveryjustlyobserves，\"iswhatwecallthecivilstate。\"
Lawingeneralishumanreason，inasmuchasitgovernsalltheinhabitantsoftheearth：thepoliticalandcivillawsofeachnationoughttobeonlytheparticularcasesinwhichhumanreasonisapplied。
Theyshouldbeadaptedinsuchamannertothepeopleforwhomtheyareframedthatitshouldbeagreatchanceifthoseofonenationsuitanother。
Theyshouldbeinrelationtothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment；whethertheyformit，asmaybesaidofpoliticlaws；orwhethertheysupportit，asinthecaseofcivilinstitutions。
Theyshouldbeinrelationtotheclimateofeachcountry，tothequalityofitssoil，toitssituationandextent，totheprincipaloccupationofthenatives，whetherhusbandmen，huntsmen，orshepherds：
theyshouldhaverelationtothedegreeoflibertywhichtheconstitutionwillbear；tothereligionoftheinhabitants，totheirinclinations，riches，numbers，commerce，manners，andcustoms。Infine，theyhaverelationstoeachother，asalsototheirorigin，totheintentofthelegislator，andtotheorderofthingsonwhichtheyareestablished；inallofwhichdifferentlightstheyoughttobeconsidered。
ThisiswhatIhaveundertakentoperforminthefollowingwork。TheserelationsIshallexamine，sinceallthesetogetherconstitutewhatI
calltheSpiritofLaws。
Ihavenotseparatedthepoliticalfromthecivilinstitutions，asIdonotpretendtotreatoflaws，butoftheirspirit；andasthisspiritconsistsinthevariousrelationswhichthelawsmaybeartodifferentobjects，itisnotsomuchmybusinesstofollowthenaturalorderoflawsasthatoftheserelationsandobjects。
Ishallfirstexaminetherelationswhichlawsbeartothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment；andasthisprinciplehasastronginfluenceonlaws，Ishallmakeitmystudytounderstanditthoroughly：
andifIcanbutonceestablishit，thelawswillsoonappeartoflowthenceasfromtheirsource。Ishallproceedafterwardstootherandmoreparticularrelations。
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1。\"Law，\"saysPlutarch，\"isthekingofmortalandimmortalbeings。\"
Seehistreatise，ADiscoursetoanUnlearnedPrince。
2。WitnessthesavagefoundintheforestsofHanover，whowascarriedovertoEnglandduringthereignofGeorgeI。
3。Inpref。，Decive。
4。Italianpoetandjurist，1664—1718。
BookII。OfLawsDirectlyDerivedfromtheNatureofGovernment1。OftheNatureofthethreedifferentGovernments。Therearethreespeciesofgovernment：republican，monarchical，anddespotic。Inordertodiscovertheirnature，itissufficienttorecollectthecommonnotion，whichsupposesthreedefinitions，orratherthreefacts：thatarepublicangovernmentisthatinwhichthebody，oronlyapartofthepeople，ispossessedofthesupremepower；monarchy，thatinwhichasinglepersongovernsbyfixedandestablishedlaws；adespoticgovernment，thatinwhichasinglepersondirectseverythingbyhisownwillandcaprice。
ThisiswhatIcallthenatureofeachgovernment；wemustnowinquireintothoselawswhichdirectlyconformtothisnature，andconsequentlyarethefundamentalinstitutions。
2。OftheRepublicanGovernment，andtheLawsinrelationtoDemocracy。[1]Whenthebodyofthepeopleispossessedofthesupremepower，itiscalledademocracy。Whenthesupremepowerislodgedinthehandsofapartofthepeople，itisthenanaristocracy。
Inademocracythepeopleareinsomerespectsthesovereign，andinothersthesubject。
Therecanbenoexerciseofsovereigntybutbytheirsuffrages，whicharetheirownwill；nowthesovereign’swillisthesovereignhimself。
Thelawsthereforewhichestablishtherightofsuffragearefundamentaltothisgovernment。Andindeeditisasimportanttoregulateinarepublic，inwhatmanner，bywhom，towhom，andconcerningwhat，suffragesaretobegiven，asitisinamonarchytoknowwhoistheprince，andafterwhatmannerheoughttogovern。
Libanius[2]saysthatatAthensastrangerwhointermeddledintheassembliesofthepeoplewaspunishedwithdeath。Thisisbecausesuchamanusurpedtherightsofsovereignty。