Undertheinfluenceofthisdevelopingcriticalspiritthingswhichwerenolongerverygreatlyrespectedcametoberespectedlessandless。Whentraditionandprestigehaddisappearedthesocialedificesuddenlyfell。
Thisprogressivedisaggregationfinallydescendedtothepeople，butwasnotcommencedbythepeople。Thepeoplefollowsexamples，butneversetsthem。
Thephilosophers，whocouldnothaveexertedanyinfluenceoverthepeople，didexertagreatinfluenceovertheenlightenedportionofthenation。Theunemployednobility，whohadlongbeenoustedfromtheiroldfunctions，andwhowereconsequentlyinclinedtobecensorious，followedtheirleadership。Incapableofforesight，thenobleswerethefirsttobreakwiththetraditionsthatweretheironlyraisond’etre。Assteepedinhumanitarianismandrationalismasthebourgeoisieofto—
day，theycontinuallysappedtheirownprivilegesbytheircriticisms。Asto—day，themostardentreformerswerefoundamongthefavouritesoffortune。Thearistocracyencourageddissertationsonthesocialcontract，therightsofman，andtheequalityofcitizens。Atthetheatreitapplaudedplayswhichcriticisedprivileges，thearbitrarinessandtheincapacityofmeninhighplaces，andabusesofallkinds。
Assoonasmenloseconfidenceinthefoundationsofthementalframeworkwhichguidestheirconducttheyfeelatfirstuneasyandthendiscontented。Allclassesfelttheiroldmotivesofactiongraduallydisappearing。Thingsthathadseemedsacredforcenturieswerenowsacrednolonger。
Thecensoriousspiritofthenobilityandofthewritersofthedaywouldnothavesufficedtomovetheheavyloadoftradition，butthatitsactionwasaddedtothatofotherpowerfulinfluences。Wehavealreadystated，incitingBossuet，thatundertheancienregimethereligiousandcivilgovernments，widelyseparatedinourdays，wereintimatelyconnected。Toinjureonewasinevitablytoinjuretheother。Now，evenbeforethemonarchicalideawasshakentheforceofreligioustraditionwasgreatlydiminishedamongcultivatedmen。Theconstantprogressofknowledgehadsentanincreasingnumberofmindsfromtheologytosciencebyopposingthetruthobservedtothetruthrevealed。
Thismentalevolution，althoughasyetveryvague，wassufficienttoshowthatthetraditionswhichforsomanycenturieshadguidedmenhadnotthevaluewhichhadbeenattributedtothem，andthatitwouldsoonbenecessarytoreplacethem。
Butwherediscoverthenewelementswhichmight；taketheplaceoftradition？Whereseekthemagicringwhichwouldraiseanewsocialedificeontheremainsofthatwhichnolongercontentedmen？
Menwereagreedinattributingtoreasonthepowerthattraditionandthegodsseemedtohavelost。Howcoulditsforcebedoubted？Itsdiscoverieshavingbeeninnumerable，wasitnotlegitimatetosupposethatbyapplyingittotheconstructionofsocietiesitwouldentirelytransformthem？Itspossiblefunctionincreasedveryrapidlyinthethoughtsofthemoreenlightened，inproportionastraditionseemedmoreandmoretobedistrusted。
ThesovereignpowerattributedtoreasonmustberegardedastheculminatingideawhichnotonlyengenderedtheRevolutionbutgoverneditthroughout。DuringthewholeRevolutionmengavethemselvesuptothemostperseveringeffortstobreakwiththepast，andtoerectsocietyuponanewplandictatedbylogic。
Slowlyfilteringdownward，therationalistictheoriesofthephilosophersmeanttothepeoplesimplythatallthethingswhichhadbeenregardedasworthyofrespectwerenownolongerworthy。
Menbeingdeclaredequal，theoldmastersneednolongerbeobeyed。
Themultitudeeasilysucceededinceasingtorespectwhattheupperclassesthemselvesnolongerrespected。WhenthebarrierofrespectwasdowntheRevolutionwasaccomplished。
Thefirstresultofthisnewmentalitywasageneralinsubordination。Mme。VigeeLebrunrelatesthatonthepromenadeatLongchampsmenofthepeopleleapedonthefootboardsofthecarriages，saying，``Nextyearyouwillbebehindandweshallbeinside。’’
Thepopulacewasnotaloneinmanifestinginsubordinationanddiscontent。ThesesentimentsweregeneralontheeveoftheRevolution。``Thelesserclergy，’’saysTaine，``arehostiletotheprelates；theprovincialgentrytothenobilityofthecourt；
thevassalstotheseigneurs；thepeasantstothetownsmen，’’&c。
Thisstateofmind，whichhadbeencommunicatedfromthenoblesandclergytothepeople，alsoinvadedthearmy。AtthemomenttheStatesGeneralwereopenedNeckersaid：``Wearenotsureofthetroops。’’Theofficerswerebecominghumanitarianandphilosophical。Thesoldiers，recruitedfromthelowestclassofthepopulation，didnotphilosophise，buttheynolongerobeyed。
Intheirfeeblemindstheideasofequalitymeantsimplythesuppressionofallleadersandmasters，andthereforeofallobedience。In1790morethantwentyregimentsthreatenedtheirofficers，andsometimes，asatNancy，threwthemintoprison。
Thementalanarchywhich，afterspreadingthroughalltheclassesofsociety，finallyinvadedthearmywastheprincipalcauseofthedisappearanceoftheancienregime。``ItwasthedefectionofthearmyaffectedbytheideasoftheThirdEstate，’’wroteRivarol，``thatdestroyedroyalty。’’
2。ThesupposedInfluenceofthePhilosophersoftheEighteenthCenturyupontheGenesisoftheRevolution——TheirdislikeofDemocracy。
AlthoughthephilosopherswhohavebeensupposedtheinspirersoftheFrenchRevolutiondidattackcertainprivilegesandabuses，wemustnotforthatreasonregardthemaspartisansofpopulargovernment。Democracy，whoseroleinGreekhistorywasfamiliartothem，wasgenerallyhighlyantipathetictothem。
Theywerenotignorantofthedestructionandviolencewhichareitsinvariableaccompaniments，andknewthatinthetimeofAristotleitwasalreadydefinedas``aStateinwhicheverything，eventhelaw，dependsonthemultitudesetupasatyrantandgovernedbyafewdeclamatoryspeakers。’’
PierreBayle，thetrueforerunnerofVoltaire，recalledinthefollowingtermstheconsequencesofpopulargovernmentinAthens：——
``Ifoneconsidersthishistory，whichdisplaysatgreatlengththetumultoftheassemblies，thefactionsdividingthecity，theseditiousdisturbingit，themostillustrioussubjectspersecuted，exiled，andpunishedbydeathatthewillofaviolentwindbag，onewouldconcludethatthispeople，whichsoprideditselfonitsliberty，wasreallytheslaveofasmallnumberofcaballers，whomtheycalleddemagogues，andwhomadeitturnnowinthisdirection，nowinthat，astheirpassionschanged，almostastheseaheapsthewavesnowoneway，nowanother，accordingtothewindswhichtroubleit。YouwillseekinvaininMacedonia，whichwasamonarchy，forasmanyexamplesoftyrannyasAthenianhistorywillafford。’’
Montesquieuhadnogreateradmirationforthedemocracy。Havingdescribedthethreeformsofgovernment——republican，monarchical，anddespotic——heshowsveryclearlywhatpopulargovernmentmayleadto：——
``Menwerefreewithlaws；menwouldfainbefreewithoutthem；whatwasamaximiscalledseverity；whatwasorderiscalledhindrance。Formerlythewelfareofindividualsconstitutedthepublicwealth，butnowthepublicwealthbecomesthepatrimonyofindividuals。Therepublicisspoil，anditsstrengthismerelythepowerofafewcitizensandthelicenceofall。’’
``……Littlepettytyrantsspringupwhohaveallthevicesofasingletyrant。Verysoonwhatisleftoflibertybecomesuntenable；asingletyrantarises，andthepeoplelosesall，eventheadvantagesofcorruption。
``Democracyhasthereforetwoextremestoavoid；theextremeofthespiritofequalityleadstothedespotismofasingleperson，asthedespotismofasinglepersonleadstoconquest。’’
TheidealofMontesquieuwastheEnglishconstitutionalgovernment，whichpreventedthemonarchyfromdegeneratingintodespotism。OtherwisetheinfluenceofthisphilosopheratthemomentoftheRevolutionwasveryslight。
AsfortheEncyclopaedists，towhomsuchaconsiderableroleisattributed，theyhardlydealtwithpolitics，exceptingd’Holbach，aliberalmonarchistlikeVoltaireandDiderot。Theywrotechieflyindefenceofindividualliberty，opposingtheencroachmentsoftheChurch，atthattimeextremelyintolerantandinimicaltophilosophers。BeingneitherSocialistsnordemocrats，theRevolutioncouldnotutiliseanyoftheirprinciples。
Voltairehimselfwasbynomeansapartisanofdemocracy。
``Democracy，’’hesaid，``seemsonlytosuitaverysmallcountry，andeventhenitmustbefortunatelysituated。
Littleasitmaybe，itwillmakemanymistakes，becauseitwillbecomposedofmen。Discordwillprevailthereasinaconventfullofmonks；buttherewillbenoSt。Bartholomew’sday，noIrishmassacres，noSicilianVespers，noInquisition，nocondemnationtothegalleysforhavingtakenwaterfromtheseawithoutpayingforit；unlesswesupposethisrepublictobecomposedofdevilsinacornerofhell。’’
AllthesemenwhoaresupposedtohaveinspiredtheRevolutionhadopinionswhichwerefarfromsubversive，anditisreallydifficulttoseethattheyhadanyrealinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftherevolutionarymovement。Rousseauwasoneoftheveryfewdemocraticphilosophersofhisage，whichiswhyhisContratSocialbecametheBibleofthemenoftheTerror。Itseemedtofurnishtherationaljustificationnecessarytoexcusetheactsderivingfromunconsciousmysticandaffectiveimpulseswhichnophilosophyhadinspired。
Tobequitetruthful，thedemocraticinstinctsofRousseauwerebynomeansabovesuspicion。Hehimselfconsideredthathisprojectsforsocialreorganisation，baseduponpopularsovereignty，couldbeappliedonlytoaverysmallState；andwhenthePolesaskedhimforadraftdemocraticConstitutionheadvisedthemtochooseahereditarymonarch。
AmongthetheoriesofRousseauthatrelatingtotheperfectionoftheprimitivesocialstatehadagreatsuccess。Heasserted，togetherwithvariouswritersofhistime，thatprimitivemankindwasperfect；itwascorruptedonlybysociety。Bymodifyingsocietybymeansofgoodlawsonemightbringbackthehappinessoftheearlyworld。Ignorantofallpsychology，hebelievedthatmenwerethesamethroughouttimeandspaceandthattheycouldallberuledbythesamelawsandinstitutions。
Thiswasthenthegeneralbelief。``Thevicesandvirtuesofthepeople，’’wroteHelvetius，``arealwaysanecessaryeffectofitslegislation……Howcanwedoubtthatvirtueisinthecaseofallpeoplestheresultofthewisdom，moreorlessperfect，oftheadministration？’’
Therecouldbenogreatermistake。
3。ThePhilosophicalIdeasoftheBourgeoisieattheTimeoftheRevolution。
ItisbynomeanseasytosayjustwhatwerethesocialandpoliticalconceptionsofaFrenchmanofthemiddleclassesatthemomentoftheRevolution。Theymightbereducedtoafewformulaeconcerningfraternity，equality，andpopulargovernment，summedupinthecelebratedDeclarationoftheRightsofMan，ofwhichweshallhaveoccasiontoquoteafewpassages。
ThephilosophersoftheeighteenthcenturydonotseemtohavebeenveryhighlyratedbythemenoftheRevolution。Rarelyaretheyquotedinthespeechesofthetime。HypnotisedbytheirclassicalmemoriesofGreeceandRome，thenewlegislatorsre—
readtheirPlatoandtheirPlutarch。TheywishedtorevivetheconstitutionofSparta，withitsmanners，itsfrugalhabits，anditslaws。
Lycurgus，Solon，Miltiades，ManliusTorquatus，Brutus，MuciusScaevola，eventhefabulousMinoshimself，becameasfamiliarinthetribuneasinthetheatre，andthepublicwentcrazyoverthem。Theshadesoftheheroesofantiquityhoveredovertherevolutionaryassemblies。Posterityalonehasreplacedthembytheshadesofthephilosophersoftheeighteenthcentury。
Weshallseethatinrealitythemenofthisperiod，generallyrepresentedasboldinnovatorsguidedbysubtlephilosophers，professedtoeffectnoinnovationswhatever，buttoreturntoapastlongburiedinthemistsofhistory，andwhich，moreover，theyscarcelyeverintheleastunderstood。
Themorereasonable，whodidnotgosofarbackfortheirmodels，aimedmerelyatadoptingtheEnglishconstitutionalsystem，ofwhichMontesquieuandVoltairehadsungthepraises，andwhichallnationswerefinallytoimitatewithoutviolentcrises。
Theirambitionswereconfinedtoadesiretoperfecttheexistingmonarchy，nottooverthrowit。Butintimeofrevolutionmenoftentakeaverydifferentpathfromthattheyproposetotake。
AtthetimeoftheconvocationoftheStatesGeneralnoonewouldeverhavesupposedthatarevolutionofpeacefulbourgeoisieandmenofletterswouldrapidlybetransformedintooneofthemostsanguinarydictatorshipsofhistory。
CHAPTERIV
PSYCHOLOGICALILLUSIONSRESPECTINGTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION
1。IllusionsrespectingPrimitiveMan，theReturntoaStateofNature，andthePsychologyofthePeople。
Wehavealreadyrepeated，andshallagainrepeat，thattheerrorsofadoctrinedonothinderitspropagation，sothatallwehavetoconsiderhereisitsinfluenceuponmen’sminds。
Butalthoughthecriticismoferroneousdoctrinesisseldomofpracticalutility，itisextremelyinterestingfromapsychologicalpointofview。Thephilosopherwhowishestounderstandtheworkingofmen’smindsshouldalwayscarefullyconsidertheillusionswhichtheylivewith。Never，perhaps，inthecourseofhistoryhavetheseillusionsappearedsoprofoundandsonumerousasduringtheRevolution。
Oneofthemostprominentwasthesingularconceptionofthenatureofourfirstancestorsandprimitivesocieties。
Anthropologynothavingasyetrevealedtheconditionsofourremoterforbears，mensupposed，beinginfluencedbythelegendsoftheBible，thatmanhadissuedperfectfromthehandsoftheCreator。Thefirstsocietiesweremodelswhichwereafterwardsruinedbycivilisation，buttowhichmankindmustreturn。
Thereturntothestateofnaturewasverysoonthegeneralcry。
``Thefundamentalprincipleofallmorality，ofwhichIhavetreatedinmywritings，’’saidRousseau，``isthatmanisabeingnaturallygood，lovingjusticeandorder。’’
Modernscience，bydetermining，fromthesurvivingremnants，theconditionsoflifeofourfirstancestors，haslongagoshowntheerrorofthisdoctrine。Primitivemanhasbecomeanignorantandferociousbrute，asignorantasthemodernsavageofgoodness，morality，andpity。Governedonlybyhisinstinctiveimpulses，hethrowshimselfonhispreywhenhungerdriveshimfromhiscave，andfallsuponhisenemythemomentheisarousedbyhatred。Reason，notbeingborn，couldhavenoholdoverhisinstincts。
Theaimofcivilisation，contrarytoallrevolutionarybeliefs，hasbeennottoreturntothestateofnaturebuttoescapefromit。ItwaspreciselybecausetheJacobinsledmankindbacktotheprimitiveconditionbydestroyingallthesocialrestraintswithoutwhichnocivilisationcanexistthattheytransformedapoliticalsocietyintoabarbarianhorde。
TheideasofthesetheoristsconcerningthenatureofmanwereaboutasvaluableasthoseofaRomangeneralconcerningthepowerofomens。Yettheirinfluenceasmotivesofactionwasconsiderable。TheConventionwasalwaysinspiredbysuchideas。
Theerrorsconcerningourprimitiveancestorswereexcusableenough，sincebeforemoderndiscoverieshadshownustherealconditionsoftheirexistencethesewereabsolutelyunknown。ButtheabsoluteignoranceofhumanpsychologydisplayedbythemenoftheRevolutionisfarlesseasytounderstand。
Itwouldreallyseemasthoughthephilosophersandwritersoftheeighteenthcenturymusthavebeentotallydeficientinthesmallestfacultyofobservation。Theylivedamidsttheircontemporarieswithoutseeingthemandwithoutunderstandingthem。Aboveall，theyhadnotasuspicionofthetruenatureofthepopularmind。Themanofthepeoplealwaysappearedtotheminthelikenessofthechimericalmodelcreatedbytheirdreams。
Asignorantofpsychologyasoftheteachingsofhistory，theyconsideredtheplebeianmanasnaturallygood，affectionate，grateful，andalwaysreadytolistentoreason。
ThespeechesdeliveredbymembersoftheAssemblyshowhowprofoundweretheseillusions。Whenthepeasantsbegantoburnthechateauxtheyweregreatlyastonished，andaddressedtheminsentimentalharangues，prayingthemtocease，inordernotto``givepaintotheirgoodking，’’andadjuredthem``tosurprisehimbytheirvirtues。’’
2。IllusionsrespectingthePossibilityofseparatingManfromhisPastandthePowerofTransformationattributedtotheLaw。
Oneoftheprincipleswhichservedasafoundationfortherevolutionaryinstitutionswasthatmanmayreadilybecutofffromhispast，andthatasocietymaybere—madeinallitspartsbymeansofinstitutions。Persuadedinthelightofreasonthat，exceptfortheprimitiveageswhichweretoserveasmodels，thepastrepresentedaninheritanceoferrorsandsuperstitions，thelegislatorsofthedayresolvedtobreakentirelywiththatpast。
Thebettertoemphasisetheirintention，theyfoundedanewera，transformedthecalendar，andchangedthenamesofthemonthsandseasons。
Supposingallmentobealike，theythoughttheycouldlegislateforthehumanrace。Condorcetimaginedthathewasexpressinganevidenttruthwhenhesaid：``Agoodlawmustbegoodforallmen，justasageometricalpropositionistrueforall。’’
ThetheoristsoftheRevolutionneverperceived，behindtheworldofvisiblethings，thesecretspringswhichmovedthem。A
centuryofbiologicalprogresswasneededtoshowhowgrievousweretheirmistakes，andhowwhollyabeingofwhateverspeciesdependsonitspast。
Withtheinfluenceofthepast，thereformersoftheRevolutionwerealwaysclashing，withouteverunderstandingit。Theywantedtoannihilateit，butwereannihilatedbyitinstead。
Thefaithoflaw—makersintheabsolutepoweroflawsandinstitutions，rudelyshakenbytheendoftheRevolution，wasabsoluteatitsoutbreak。GregoiresaidfromthetribuneoftheConstituentAssembly，withoutprovokingtheleastastonishment：``Wecouldifwewouldchangereligion，butwedonotwantto。’’Weknowthattheydidwanttolater，andweknowhowmiserablytheirattemptfailed。
YettheJacobinshadintheirhandsalltheelementsofsuccess。
Thankstothecompletestoftyrannies，allobstacleswereremoved，andthelawswhichitpleasedthemtoimposewerealwaysaccepted。Aftertenyearsofviolence，ofdestructionandburningandpillageandmassacreandgeneralupheaval，theirimpotencewasrevealedsostartlinglythattheyfellintouniversalreprobation。ThedictatortheninvokedbythewholeofFrancewasobligedtore—establishthegreaterpartofthatwhichhadbeendestroyed。
TheattemptoftheJacobinstore—fashionsocietyinthenameofpurereasonconstitutesanexperimentofthehighestinterest。
Probablymankindwillneverhaveoccasiontorepeatitonsovastascale。
Althoughthelessonwasaterribleone，itdoesnotseemtohavebeensufficientforaconsiderableclassofminds，sinceeveninourdayswehearSocialistsproposetorebuildsocietyfromtoptobottomaccordingtotheirchimericalplans。
3。IllusionsrespectingtheTheoreticalValueofthegreatRevolutionaryPrinciples。
ThefundamentalprinciplesonwhichtheRevolutionwasbasedinordertocreateanewdispensationarecontainedintheDeclarationsofRightswhichwereformulatedsuccessivelyin1789，1793，and1795。AllthreeDeclarationsagreeinproclaimingthat``theprincipleofsovereigntyresidesinthenation。’’
Fortherest，thethreeDeclarationsdifferonseveralpoints，notablyinthematterofequality。Thatof1789simplystates（Article1）：``Menarebornandremainfreeandhavingequalrights。’’Thatof1793goesfarther，andassuresus（Article3）：
``Allmenareequalbynature。’’Thatof1795ismoremodestandsays（Article3）：``Equalityconsistsinthelawbeingthesameforall。’’Besidesthis，havingmentionedrights，thethirdDeclarationconsidersitusefultospeakofduties。ItsmoralityissimplythatoftheGospel。Article2says：``Allthedutiesofamanandacitizenderivefromthesetwoprinciplesengravedonallheartsbynature：donotdountoothersthatwhichyouwouldnottheyshoulddountoyou；doconstantlyuntoothersthegoodyouwouldwishtoreceivefromthem。’’
Theessentialportionsoftheseproclamations，theonlyportionswhichhavereallysurvived，werethoserelatingtoequalityandpopularsovereignty。
Despitetheweaknessofitsrationalmeaning，thepartplayedbytheRepublicandevice，Liberty，Equality，Fraternity，wasconsiderable。
Thismagicformula，whichisstillleftengravenonmanyofourwallsuntilitshallbeengravenonourhearts，hasreallypossessedthesupernaturalpowerattributedtocertainwordsbytheoldsorcerers。
Thankstothenewhopesexcitedbyitspromises，itspowerofexpansionwasconsiderable。Thousandsofmenlosttheirlivesforit。Eveninourdays，whenarevolutionbreaksoutinanypartoftheworld，thesameformulaisalwaysinvoked。
Itschoicewashappyintheextreme。Itbelongstothecategoryofindefinitedream—evokingsentences，whicheveryoneisfreetointerpretaccordingtohisowndesires，hatreds，andhopes。Inmattersoffaiththerealsenseofwordsmattersverylittle；itisthemeaningattachedtothemthatmakestheirimportance。
Ofthethreeprinciplesoftherevolutionarydevice，equalitywasmostfruitfulofconsequences。Weshallseeinanotherpartofthisbookthatitisalmosttheonlyonewhichstillsurvives，andisstillproductiveofeffects。
ItwascertainlynottheRevolutionthatintroducedtheideaofequalityintotheworld。WithoutgoingbackeventotheGreekrepublics，wemayremarkthatthetheoryofequalitywastaughtintheclearestfashionbyChristianityandIslamism。Allmen，subjectsoftheoneGod，wereequalbeforeHim，andjudgedsolelyaccordingtotheirmerits。ThedogmaoftheequalityofsoulsbeforeGodwasanessentialdogmawithMohammedansaswellaswithChristians。
Buttoproclaimaprincipleisnotenoughtosecureitsobservation。TheChristianChurchsoonrenounceditstheoreticalequality，andthemenoftheRevolutiononlyremembereditintheirspeeches。
Thesenseoftheterm``equality’’variesaccordingtothepersonsusingit。Itoftenconcealssentimentsverycontrarytoitsrealsense，andthenrepresentstheimperiousneedofhavingnooneaboveone，joinedtothenolesslivelydesiretofeelaboveothers。WiththeJacobinsoftheRevolution，aswiththoseofourdays，theword``equality’’simplyinvolvesajealoushatredofallsuperiority。Toeffacesuperiority，suchmenpretendtounifymanners，customs，andsituations。Alldespotismsbutthatexercisedbythemselvesseemodious。
Notbeingabletoavoidthenaturalinequalities，theydenythem。
ThesecondDeclarationofRights，thatof1793，affirms，contrarytotheevidence，that``allmenareequalbynature。’’
ItwouldseemthatinmanyofthemenoftheRevolutiontheardentdesireforequalitymerelyconcealedanintenseneedofinequalities。Napoleonwasobligedtore—establishtitlesofnobilityanddecorationsfortheirbenefit。Havingshownthatitwasamongthemostrabidrevolutioniststhathefoundthemostdocileinstrumentsofdomination，Tainecontinues：——
``Suddenly，throughalltheirpreachingoflibertyandequality，appearedtheirauthoritativeinstincts，theirneedofcommanding，evenassubordinates，andalso，inmostcases，anappetiteformoneyorforpleasure。BetweenthedelegateoftheCommitteeofPublicSafetyandtheminister，prefect，orsubprefectoftheEmpirethedifferenceissmall：itisthesamemanunderthetwocostumes，firstencarmagnole，theninthebraidedcoat。’’
Thedogmaofequalityhadasitsfirstconsequencetheproclamationofpopularsovereigntybythebourgeoisie。ThissovereigntyremainedotherwisehighlytheoreticalduringthewholeRevolution。
TheprincipleofauthoritywasthelastinglegacyoftheRevolution。Thetwoterms``liberty’’and``fraternity’’whichaccompanyitintherepublicandevicehadnevermuchinfluence。
WemayevensaythattheyhadnoneduringtheRevolutionandtheEmpire，butmerelyservedtodecoratemen’sspeeches。
Theirinfluencewashardlymoreconsiderablelater。Fraternitywasneverpractisedandthepeopleshavenevercaredmuchforliberty。To—dayourworking—menhavecompletelysurrenderedittotheirunions。
Tosumup：althoughtheRepublicanmottohasbeenlittleappliedithasexertedaverygreatinfluence。OftheFrenchRevolutionpracticallynothinghasremainedinthepopularmindbutthethreecelebratedwordswhichsumupitsgospel，andwhichitsarmiesspreadoverEurope。
BOOKII
THERATIONAL，AFFECTIVE，MYSTIC，ANDCOLLECTIVEINFLUENCESACTIVE
DURINGTHEREVOLUTION
CHAPTERI
THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHECONSTITUENTASSEMBLY
1。PsychologicalInfluencesactiveduringtheFrenchRevolution。
ThegenesisoftheFrenchRevolution，aswellasitsduration，wasconditionedbyelementsofarational，affective，mystic，andcollectivenature，eachcategoryofwhichwasruledbyadifferentlogic。Itis，asIhavesaid，becausetheyhavenotbeenabletodissociatetherespectiveinfluencesofthesefactorsthatsomanyhistorianshaveinterpretedthisperiodsoindifferentlyTherationalelementusuallyinvokedasanexplanationexertedinrealitybutaveryslightinfluence。ItpreparedthewayfortheRevolution，butmaintaineditonlyattheoutset，whileitwasstillexclusivelymiddle—class。Itsactionwasmanifestedbymanymeasuresofthetime，suchastheproposalstoreformthetaxes，thesuppressionoftheprivilegesofauselessnobility，&c。
AssoonastheRevolutionreachedthepeople，theinfluenceoftherationalelementsspeedilyvanishedbeforethatoftheaffectiveandcollectiveelements。Asforthemysticelements，thefoundationoftherevolutionaryfaith，theymadethearmyfanaticalandpropagatedthenewbeliefthroughouttheworld。
Weshallseethesevariouselementsastheyappearedineventsandinthepsychologyofindividuals。Perhapsthemostimportantwasthemysticelement。TheRevolutioncannotbeclearlycomprehended——wecannotrepeatittoooften——unlessitisconsideredastheformationofareligiousbelief。WhatIhavesaidelsewhereofallbeliefsappliesequallytotheRevolution。
Referring，forinstance，tothechapterontheReformation，thereaderwillseethatitpresentsmorethanoneanalogywiththeRevolution。
Havingwastedsomuchtimeindemonstratingtheslightrationalvalueofbeliefs，thephilosophersareto—daybeginningtounderstandtheirfunctionbetter。Theyhavebeenforcedtoadmitthatthesearetheonlyfactorswhichpossessaninfluencesufficienttotransformalltheelementsofacivilisation。
Theyimposethemselvesonmenapartfromreasonandhavethepowertopolarisemen’sthoughtsandfeelingsinonedirection。
Purereasonhadneversuchapower，formenwereneverimpassionedbyreason。
ThereligiousformrapidlyassumedbytheRevolutionexplainsitspowerofexpansionandtheprestigewhichitpossessedandhasretained。
Fewhistorianshaveunderstoodthatthisgreatmonumentoughttoberegardedasthefoundationofanewreligion。ThepenetratingmindofTocqueville，Ibelieve，wasthefirsttoperceiveasmuch。
``TheFrenchRevolution，’’hewrote，``wasapoliticalrevolutionwhichoperatedinthemannerofandassumedsomethingoftheaspectofareligiousrevolution。Seebywhatregularandcharacteristictraitsitfinallyresembledthelatter：notonlydiditspreaditselffarandwidelikeareligiousrevolution，but，likethelatter，itspreaditselfbymeansofpreachingandpropaganda。Apoliticalrevolutionwhichinspiresproselytes，whichispreachedaspassionatelytoforeignersasitisaccomplishedathome：considerwhatanovelspectaclewasthis。’’
ThereligioussideoftheRevolutionbeinggranted，theaccompanyingfuryanddevastationareeasilyexplained。Historyshowsusthatsucharealwaystheaccompanimentsofthebirthofreligions。TheRevolutionwasthereforecertaintoprovoketheviolenceandintolerancethetriumphantdeitiesdemandfromtheiradepts。ItoverturnedallEuropefortwentyyears，ruinedFrance，causedthedeathofmillionsofmen，andcostthecountryseveralinvasions：butitisasaruleonlyatthecostofsuchcatastrophesthatapeoplecanchangeitsbeliefs。
Althoughthemysticelementisalwaysthefoundationofbeliefs，certainaffectiveandrationalelementsarequicklyaddedthereto。Abeliefthusservestogroupsentimentsandpassionsandinterestswhichbelongtotheaffectivedomain。Reasonthenenvelopsthewhole，seekingtojustifyeventsinwhich，however，itplayednopartwhatever。
AtthemomentoftheRevolutioneveryone，accordingtohisaspirations，dressedthenewbeliefinadifferentrationalvesture。Thepeoplessawinitonlythesuppressionofthereligiousandpoliticaldespotismsandhierarchiesunderwhichtheyhadsooftensuffered。WriterslikeGoetheandthinkerslikeKantimaginedthattheysawinitthetriumphofreason。ForeignerslikeHumboldtcametoFrance``tobreathetheairoflibertyandtoassistattheobsequiesofdespotism。’’
Theseintellectualillusionsdidnotlastlong。Theevolutionofthedramasoonrevealedthetruefoundationsofthedream。
2。DissolutionoftheAncienRegime。TheassemblingoftheStatesGeneral。
Beforetheyarerealisedinaction，revolutionsaresketchedoutinmen’sthoughts。Preparedbythecausesalreadystudied，theFrenchRevolutioncommencedinrealitywiththereignofLouisXVI。Morediscontentedandcensoriouseveryday，themiddleclassesaddedclaimtoclaim。Everybodywascallingforreform。
LouisXVI。thoroughlyunderstoodtheutilityofreform，buthewastooweaktoimposeitontheclergyandthenobility。Hecouldnotevenretainhisreformingministers，MalesherbesandTurgot。Whatwithfaminesandincreasedtaxation，thepovertyofallclassesincreased，andthehugepensionsdrawnbytheCourtformedashockingcontrasttothegeneraldistress。
Thenotablesconvokedtoattempttoremedythefinancialsituationrefusedasystemofequaltaxation，andgrantedonlyinsignificantreformswhichtheParliamentdidnotevenconsenttoregister。Ithadtobedissolved。TheprovincialParliamentsmadecommoncausewiththatofParis，andwerealsodissolved。
Buttheyledopinion，andinallpartsofFrancepromotedthedemandforameetingoftheStatesGeneral，whichhadnotbeenconvokedfornearlytwohundredyears。
Thedecisionwastaken：5，000，000Frenchmen，ofwhom100，000
wereecclesiasticsand150，000nobles，senttheirrepresentatives。Therewereinall1，200deputies，ofwhom578
wereoftheThirdEstate，consistingchieflyofmagistrates，advocates，andphysicians。Ofthe300deputiesoftheclergy，200，ofplebeianorigin，threwintheirlotwiththeThirdEstateagainstthenobilityandclergy。
Fromthefirstsessionsapsychologicalconflictbrokeoutbetweenthedeputiesofdifferentsocialconditionsand（therefore）differentmentalities。ThemagnificentcostumesoftheprivilegeddeputiescontrastedinahumiliatingfashionwiththesombrefashionsoftheThirdEstate。