CHAPTERXIII
CONCERNINGAUXILIARIES，MIXEDSOLDIERY，ANDONE’SOWN
Auxiliaries，whicharetheotheruselessarm，areemployedwhenaprinceiscalledinwithhisforcestoaidanddefend，aswasdonebyPopeJuliusinthemostrecenttimes;forhe，having，intheenterpriseagainstFerrara，hadpoorproofofhismercenaries，turnedtoauxiliaries，andstipulatedwithFerdinand，KingofSpain，[*]forhisassistancewithmenandarms。Thesearmsmaybeusefulandgoodinthemselves，butforhimwhocallsthemintheyarealwaysdisadvantageous;forlosing，oneisundone，andwinning，oneistheircaptive。
[*]FerdinandV（F。IIofAragonandSicily，F。IIIofNaples），surnamed\"TheCatholic，\"born1542，died1516。
Andalthoughancienthistoriesmaybefullofexamples，IdonotwishtoleavethisrecentoneofPopeJuliustheSecond，theperilofwhichcannotfailtobeperceived;forhe，wishingtogetFerrara，threwhimselfentirelyintothehandsoftheforeigner。Buthisgoodfortunebroughtaboutathirdevent，sothathedidnotreapthefruitofhisrashchoice;because，havinghisauxiliariesroutedatRavenna，andtheSwitzershavingrisenanddrivenouttheconquerors（againstallexpectation，bothhisandothers），itsocametopassthathedidnotbecomeprisonertohisenemies，theyhavingfled，nortohisauxiliaries，hehavingconqueredbyotherarmsthantheirs。
TheFlorentines，beingentirelywithoutarms，senttenthousandFrenchmentotakePisa，wherebytheyranmoredangerthanatanyothertimeoftheirtroubles。
TheEmperorofConstantinople，[*]toopposehisneighbours，senttenthousandTurksintoGreece，who，onthewarbeingfinished，werenotwillingtoquit;thiswasthebeginningoftheservitudeofGreecetotheinfidels。
[*]JoannesCantacuzenus，born1300，died1383。
Therefore，lethimwhohasnodesiretoconquermakeuseofthesearms，fortheyaremuchmorehazardousthanmercenaries，becausewiththemtheruinisreadymade;theyareallunited，allyieldobediencetoothers;butwithmercenaries，whentheyhaveconquered，moretimeandbetteropportunitiesareneededtoinjureyou;theyarenotallofonecommunity，theyarefoundandpaidbyyou，andathirdparty，whichyouhavemadetheirhead，isnotableallatoncetoassumeenoughauthoritytoinjureyou。Inconclusion，inmercenariesdastardyismostdangerous;inauxiliaries，valour。Thewiseprince，therefore，hasalwaysavoidedthesearmsandturnedtohisown;andhasbeenwillingrathertolosewiththemthantoconquerwiththeothers，notdeemingthatarealvictorywhichisgainedwiththearmsofothers。
IshallneverhesitatetociteCesareBorgiaandhisactions。ThisdukeenteredtheRomagnawithauxiliaries，takingthereonlyFrenchsoldiers，andwiththemhecapturedImolaandForli;butafterwards，suchforcesnotappearingtohimreliable，heturnedtomercenaries，discerninglessdangerinthem，andenlistedtheOrsiniandVitelli;
whompresently，onhandlingandfindingthemdoubtful，unfaithful，anddangerous，hedestroyedandturnedtohisownmen。Andthedifferencebetweenoneandtheotheroftheseforcescaneasilybeseenwhenoneconsidersthedifferencetherewasinthereputationoftheduke，whenhehadtheFrench，whenhehadtheOrsiniandVitelli，andwhenhereliedonhisownsoldiers，onwhosefidelityhecouldalwayscountandfounditeverincreasing;hewasneveresteemedmorehighlythanwheneveryonesawthathewascompletemasterofhisownforces。
IwasnotintendingtogobeyondItalianandrecentexamples，butIamunwillingtoleaveoutHiero，theSyracusan，hebeingoneofthoseI
havenamedabove。Thisman，asIhavesaid，madeheadofthearmybytheSyracusans，soonfoundoutthatamercenarysoldiery，constitutedlikeourItaliancondottieri，wasofnouse;anditappearingtohimthathecouldneitherkeepthemnotletthemgo，hehadthemallcuttopieces，andafterwardsmadewarwithhisownforcesandnotwithaliens。
IwishalsotorecalltomemoryaninstancefromtheOldTestamentapplicabletothissubject。DavidofferedhimselftoSaultofightwithGoliath，thePhilistinechampion，and，togivehimcourage，Saularmedhimwithhisownweapons;whichDavidrejectedassoonashehadthemonhisback，sayinghecouldmakenouseofthem，andthathewishedtomeettheenemywithhisslingandhisknife。Inconclusion，thearmsofotherseitherfallfromyourback，ortheyweighyoudown，ortheybindyoufast。
CharlestheSeventh，[*]thefatherofKingLouistheEleventh，[]
havingbygoodfortuneandvalourliberatedFrancefromtheEnglish，recognizedthenecessityofbeingarmedwithforcesofhisown，andheestablishedinhiskingdomordinancesconcerningmen—at—armsandinfantry。Afterwardshisson，KingLouis，abolishedtheinfantryandbegantoenlisttheSwitzers，whichmistake，followedbyothers，is，asisnowseen，asourceofperiltothatkingdom;because，havingraisedthereputationoftheSwitzers，hehasentirelydiminishedthevalueofhisownarms，forhehasdestroyedtheinfantryaltogether;
andhismen—at—armshehassubordinatedtoothers，for，beingastheyaresoaccustomedtofightalongwithSwitzers，itdoesnotappearthattheycannowconquerwithoutthem。HenceitarisesthattheFrenchcannotstandagainsttheSwitzers，andwithouttheSwitzerstheydonotcomeoffwellagainstothers。ThearmiesoftheFrenchhavethusbecomemixed，partlymercenaryandpartlynational，bothofwhicharmstogetheraremuchbetterthanmercenariesaloneorauxiliariesalone，butmuchinferiortoone’sownforces。Andthisexampleprovesit，forthekingdomofFrancewouldbeunconquerableiftheordinanceofCharleshadbeenenlargedormaintained。
[*]CharlesVIIofFrance，surnamed\"TheVictorious，\"born1403，died1461。
[]LouisXI，sonoftheabove，born1423，died1483。
Butthescantywisdomofman，onenteringintoanaffairwhichlookswellatfirst，cannotdiscernthepoisonthatishiddeninit，asI
havesaidaboveofhecticfevers。Therefore，ifhewhorulesaprincipalitycannotrecognizeevilsuntiltheyareuponhim，heisnottrulywise;andthisinsightisgiventofew。AndifthefirstdisastertotheRomanEmpire[*]shouldbeexamined，itwillbefoundtohavecommencedonlywiththeenlistingoftheGoths;becausefromthattimethevigouroftheRomanEmpirebegantodecline，andallthatvalourwhichhadraiseditpassedawaytoothers。
[*]\"ManyspeakerstotheHousetheothernightinthedebateonthereductionofarmamentsseemedtoshowamostlamentableignoranceoftheconditionsunderwhichtheBritishEmpiremaintainsitsexistence。WhenMrBalfourrepliedtotheallegationsthattheRomanEmpiresankundertheweightofitsmilitaryobligations，hesaidthatthiswas’whollyunhistorical。’HemightwellhaveaddedthattheRomanpowerwasatitszenithwheneverycitizenacknowledgedhisliabilitytofightfortheState，butthatitbegantodeclineassoonasthisobligationwasnolongerrecognized。\"——PallMallGazette，15thMay1906。
Iconclude，therefore，thatnoprincipalityissecurewithouthavingitsownforces;onthecontrary，itisentirelydependentongoodfortune，nothavingthevalourwhichinadversitywoulddefendit。Andithasalwaysbeentheopinionandjudgmentofwisementhatnothingcanbesouncertainorunstableasfameorpowernotfoundedonitsownstrength。Andone’sownforcesarethosewhicharecomposedeitherofsubjects，citizens，ordependents;allothersaremercenariesorauxiliaries。Andthewaytomakereadyone’sownforceswillbeeasilyfoundiftherulessuggestedbymeshallbereflectedupon，andifonewillconsiderhowPhilip，thefatherofAlexandertheGreat，andmanyrepublicsandprinceshavearmedandorganizedthemselves，towhichrulesIentirelycommitmyself。
CHAPTERXIV
THATWHICHCONCERNSAPRINCEONTHESUBJECTOFTHEARTOFWAR
Aprinceoughttohavenootheraimorthought，norselectanythingelseforhisstudy，thanwaranditsrulesanddiscipline;forthisisthesoleartthatbelongstohimwhorules，anditisofsuchforcethatitnotonlyupholdsthosewhoarebornprinces，butitoftenenablesmentorisefromaprivatestationtothatrank。And，onthecontrary，itisseenthatwhenprinceshavethoughtmoreofeasethanofarmstheyhavelosttheirstates。Andthefirstcauseofyourlosingitistoneglectthisart;andwhatenablesyoutoacquireastateistobemasteroftheart。FrancescoSforza，throughbeingmartial，fromaprivatepersonbecameDukeofMilan;andthesons，throughavoidingthehardshipsandtroublesofarms，fromdukesbecameprivatepersons。Foramongotherevilswhichbeingunarmedbringsyou，itcausesyoutobedespised，andthisisoneofthoseignominiesagainstwhichaprinceoughttoguardhimself，asisshownlateron。
Becausethereisnothingproportionatebetweenthearmedandtheunarmed;anditisnotreasonablethathewhoisarmedshouldyieldobediencewillinglytohimwhoisunarmed，orthattheunarmedmanshouldbesecureamongarmedservants。Because，therebeingintheonedisdainandintheothersuspicion，itisnotpossibleforthemtoworkwelltogether。Andthereforeaprincewhodoesnotunderstandtheartofwar，overandabovetheothermisfortunesalreadymentioned，cannotberespectedbyhissoldiers，norcanherelyonthem。Heoughtnever，therefore，tohaveoutofhisthoughtsthissubjectofwar，andinpeaceheshouldaddicthimselfmoretoitsexercisethaninwar;
thishecandointwoways，theonebyaction，theotherbystudy。
Asregardsaction，heoughtaboveallthingstokeephismenwellorganizedanddrilled，tofollowincessantlythechase，bywhichheaccustomshisbodytohardships，andlearnssomethingofthenatureoflocalities，andgetstofindouthowthemountainsrise，howthevalleysopenout，howtheplainslie，andtounderstandthenatureofriversandmarshes，andinallthistotakethegreatestcare。Whichknowledgeisusefulintwoways。Firstly，helearnstoknowhiscountry，andisbetterabletoundertakeitsdefence;afterwards，bymeansoftheknowledgeandobservationofthatlocality，heunderstandswitheaseanyotherwhichitmaybenecessaryforhimtostudyhereafter;becausethehills，valleys，andplains，andriversandmarshesthatare，forinstance，inTuscany，haveacertainresemblancetothoseofothercountries，sothatwithaknowledgeoftheaspectofonecountryonecaneasilyarriveataknowledgeofothers。Andtheprincethatlacksthisskilllackstheessentialwhichitisdesirablethatacaptainshouldpossess，foritteacheshimtosurprisehisenemy，toselectquarters，toleadarmies，toarraythebattle，tobesiegetownstoadvantage。
Philopoemen，[*]PrinceoftheAchaeans，amongotherpraiseswhichwritershavebestowedonhim，iscommendedbecauseintimeofpeaceheneverhadanythinginhismindbuttherulesofwar;andwhenhewasinthecountrywithfriends，heoftenstoppedandreasonedwiththem：
\"Iftheenemyshouldbeuponthathill，andweshouldfindourselvesherewithourarmy，withwhomwouldbetheadvantage？Howshouldonebestadvancetomeethim，keepingtheranks？Ifweshouldwishtoretreat，howoughtwetopursue？\"Andhewouldsetforthtothem，ashewent，allthechancesthatcouldbefallanarmy;hewouldlistentotheiropinionandstatehis，confirmingitwithreasons，sothatbythesecontinualdiscussionstherecouldneverarise，intimeofwar，anyunexpectedcircumstancesthathecouldnotdealwith。
[*]Philopoemen，\"thelastoftheGreeks，\"born252B。C。，died183
B。C。
Buttoexercisetheintellecttheprinceshouldreadhistories，andstudytheretheactionsofillustriousmen，toseehowtheyhavebornethemselvesinwar，toexaminethecausesoftheirvictoriesanddefeat，soastoavoidthelatterandimitatetheformer;andabovealldoasanillustriousmandid，whotookasanexemplaronewhohadbeenpraisedandfamousbeforehim，andwhoseachievementsanddeedshealwayskeptinhismind，asitissaidAlexandertheGreatimitatedAchilles，CaesarAlexander，ScipioCyrus。AndwhoeverreadsthelifeofCyrus，writtenbyXenophon，willrecognizeafterwardsinthelifeofScipiohowthatimitationwashisglory，andhowinchastity，affability，humanity，andliberalityScipioconformedtothosethingswhichhavebeenwrittenofCyrusbyXenophon。Awiseprinceoughttoobservesomesuchrules，andneverinpeacefultimesstandidle，butincreasehisresourceswithindustryinsuchawaythattheymaybeavailabletohiminadversity，sothatiffortunechancesitmayfindhimpreparedtoresistherblows。
CHAPTERXV
CONCERNINGTHINGSFORWHICHMEN，ANDESPECIALLYPRINCES，AREPRAISEDORBLAMED
Itremainsnowtoseewhatoughttobetherulesofconductforaprincetowardssubjectandfriends。AndasIknowthatmanyhavewrittenonthispoint，IexpectIshallbeconsideredpresumptuousinmentioningitagain，especiallyasindiscussingitIshalldepartfromthemethodsofotherpeople。But，itbeingmyintentiontowriteathingwhichshallbeusefultohimwhoapprehendsit，itappearstomemoreappropriatetofollowuptherealtruthofthematterthantheimaginationofit;formanyhavepicturedrepublicsandprincipalitieswhichinfacthaveneverbeenknownorseen，becausehowonelivesissofardistantfromhowoneoughttolive，thathewhoneglectswhatisdoneforwhatoughttobedone，soonereffectshisruinthanhispreservation;foramanwhowishestoactentirelyuptohisprofessionsofvirtuesoonmeetswithwhatdestroyshimamongsomuchthatisevil。
Henceitisnecessaryforaprincewishingtoholdhisowntoknowhowtodowrong，andtomakeuseofitornotaccordingtonecessity。
Therefore，puttingononesideimaginarythingsconcerningaprince，anddiscussingthosewhicharereal，Isaythatallmenwhentheyarespokenof，andchieflyprincesforbeingmorehighlyplaced，areremarkableforsomeofthosequalitieswhichbringthemeitherblameorpraise;andthusitisthatoneisreputedliberal，anothermiserly，usingaTuscanterm（becauseanavariciouspersoninourlanguageisstillhewhodesirestopossessbyrobbery，whilstwecallonemiserlywhodepriveshimselftoomuchoftheuseofhisown）;oneisreputedgenerous，onerapacious;onecruel，onecompassionate;onefaithless，anotherfaithful;oneeffeminateandcowardly，anotherboldandbrave;oneaffable，anotherhaughty;onelascivious，anotherchaste;onesincere，anothercunning;onehard，anothereasy;onegrave，anotherfrivolous;onereligious，anotherunbelieving，andthelike。AndIknowthateveryonewillconfessthatitwouldbemostpraiseworthyinaprincetoexhibitalltheabovequalitiesthatareconsideredgood;butbecausetheycanneitherbeentirelypossessednorobserved，forhumanconditionsdonotpermitit，itisnecessaryforhimtobesufficientlyprudentthathemayknowhowtoavoidthereproachofthoseviceswhichwouldlosehimhisstate;andalsotokeephimself，ifitbepossible，fromthosewhichwouldnotlosehimit;butthisnotbeingpossible，hemaywithlesshesitationabandonhimselftothem。Andagain，heneednotmakehimselfuneasyatincurringareproachforthoseviceswithoutwhichthestatecanonlybesavedwithdifficulty，forifeverythingisconsideredcarefully，itwillbefoundthatsomethingwhichlookslikevirtue，iffollowed，wouldbehisruin;whilstsomethingelse，whichlookslikevice，yetfollowedbringshimsecurityandprosperity。
CHAPTERXVI
CONCERNINGLIBERALITYANDMEANNESS
Commencingthenwiththefirstoftheabove—namedcharacteristics，I
saythatitwouldbewelltobereputedliberal。Nevertheless，liberalityexercisedinawaythatdoesnotbringyouthereputationforit，injuresyou;forifoneexercisesithonestlyandasitshouldbeexercised，itmaynotbecomeknown，andyouwillnotavoidthereproachofitsopposite。Therefore，anyonewishingtomaintainamongmenthenameofliberalisobligedtoavoidnoattributeofmagnificence;sothataprincethusinclinedwillconsumeinsuchactsallhisproperty，andwillbecompelledintheend，ifhewishtomaintainthenameofliberal，toundulyweighdownhispeople，andtaxthem，anddoeverythinghecantogetmoney。Thiswillsoonmakehimodioustohissubjects，andbecomingpoorhewillbelittlevaluedbyanyone;thus，withhisliberality，havingoffendedmanyandrewardedfew，heisaffectedbytheveryfirsttroubleandimperilledbywhatevermaybethefirstdanger;recognizingthishimself，andwishingtodrawbackfromit，herunsatonceintothereproachofbeingmiserly。
Therefore，aprince，notbeingabletoexercisethisvirtueofliberalityinsuchawaythatitisrecognized，excepttohiscost，ifheiswiseheoughtnottofearthereputationofbeingmean，forintimehewillcometobemoreconsideredthanifliberal，seeingthatwithhiseconomyhisrevenuesareenough，thathecandefendhimselfagainstallattacks，andisabletoengageinenterpriseswithoutburdeninghispeople;thusitcomestopassthatheexercisesliberalitytowardsallfromwhomhedoesnottake，whoarenumberless，andmeannesstowardsthosetowhomhedoesnotgive，whoarefew。
Wehavenotseengreatthingsdoneinourtimeexceptbythosewhohavebeenconsideredmean;theresthavefailed。PopeJuliustheSecondwasassistedinreachingthepapacybyareputationforliberality，yethedidnotstriveafterwardstokeepitup，whenhemadewarontheKingofFrance;andhemademanywarswithoutimposinganyextraordinarytaxonhissubjects，forhesuppliedhisadditionalexpensesoutofhislongthriftiness。ThepresentKingofSpainwouldnothaveundertakenorconqueredinsomanyenterprisesifhehadbeenreputedliberal。Aprince，therefore，providedthathehasnottorobhissubjects，thathecandefendhimself，thathedoesnotbecomepoorandabject，thatheisnotforcedtobecomerapacious，oughttoholdoflittleaccountareputationforbeingmean，foritisoneofthoseviceswhichwillenablehimtogovern。
Andifanyoneshouldsay：Caesarobtainedempirebyliberality，andmanyothershavereachedthehighestpositionsbyhavingbeenliberal，andbybeingconsideredso，Ianswer：Eitheryouareaprinceinfact，orinawaytobecomeone。Inthefirstcasethisliberalityisdangerous，intheseconditisverynecessarytobeconsideredliberal;andCaesarwasoneofthosewhowishedtobecomepre—eminentinRome;butifhehadsurvivedafterbecomingso，andhadnotmoderatedhisexpenses，hewouldhavedestroyedhisgovernment。Andifanyoneshouldreply：Manyhavebeenprinces，andhavedonegreatthingswitharmies，whohavebeenconsideredveryliberal，Ireply：
Eitheraprincespendsthatwhichishisownorhissubjects’orelsethatofothers。Inthefirstcaseheoughttobesparing，inthesecondheoughtnottoneglectanyopportunityforliberality。Andtotheprincewhogoesforthwithhisarmy，supportingitbypillage，sack，andextortion，handlingthatwhichbelongstoothers，thisliberalityisnecessary，otherwisehewouldnotbefollowedbysoldiers。Andofthatwhichisneitheryoursnoryoursubjects’youcanbeareadygiver，aswereCyrus，Caesar，andAlexander;becauseitdoesnottakeawayyourreputationifyousquanderthatofothers，butaddstoit;itisonlysquanderingyourownthatinjuresyou。
Andthereisnothingwastessorapidlyasliberality，forevenwhilstyouexerciseityoulosethepowertodoso，andsobecomeeitherpoorordespised，orelse，inavoidingpoverty，rapaciousandhated。Andaprinceshouldguardhimself，aboveallthings，againstbeingdespisedandhated;andliberalityleadsyoutoboth。Thereforeitiswisertohaveareputationformeannesswhichbringsreproachwithouthatred，thantobecompelledthroughseekingareputationforliberalitytoincuranameforrapacitywhichbegetsreproachwithhatred。
CHAPTERXVII
CONCERNINGCRUELTYANDCLEMENCY，ANDWHETHERITISBETTER
TOBELOVEDTHANFEARED
Comingnowtotheotherqualitiesmentionedabove，Isaythateveryprinceoughttodesiretobeconsideredclementandnotcruel。
Neverthelessheoughttotakecarenottomisusethisclemency。CesareBorgiawasconsideredcruel;notwithstanding，hiscrueltyreconciledtheRomagna，unifiedit，andrestoredittopeaceandloyalty。Andifthisberightlyconsidered，hewillbeseentohavebeenmuchmoremercifulthantheFlorentinepeople，who，toavoidareputationforcruelty，permittedPistoiatobedestroyed。[*]Thereforeaprince，solongashekeepshissubjectsunitedandloyal，oughtnottomindthereproachofcruelty;becausewithafewexampleshewillbemoremercifulthanthosewho，throughtoomuchmercy，allowdisorderstoarise，fromwhichfollowmurdersorrobberies;forthesearewonttoinjurethewholepeople，whilstthoseexecutionswhichoriginatewithaprinceoffendtheindividualonly。
[*]DuringtheriotingbetweentheCancellieriandPanciatichifactionsin1502and1503。
Andofallprinces，itisimpossibleforthenewprincetoavoidtheimputationofcruelty，owingtonewstatesbeingfullofdangers。
HenceVirgil，throughthemouthofDido，excusestheinhumanityofherreignowingtoitsbeingnew，saying：
\"Resdura，etregninovitasmetaliacoguntMoliri，etlatefinescustodetueri。\"[*]
Neverthelessheoughttobeslowtobelieveandtoact，norshouldhehimselfshowfear，butproceedinatemperatemannerwithprudenceandhumanity，sothattoomuchconfidencemaynotmakehimincautiousandtoomuchdistrustrenderhimintolerable。
[*]……againstmywill，myfateAthroneunsettled，andaninfantstate，Bidmedefendmyrealmswithallmypow’rs，Andguardwiththeseseveritiesmyshores。
ChristopherPitt。
Uponthisaquestionarises：whetheritbebettertobelovedthanfearedorfearedthanloved？Itmaybeansweredthatoneshouldwishtobeboth，but，becauseitisdifficulttounitetheminoneperson，itismuchsafertobefearedthanloved，when，ofthetwo，eithermustbedispensedwith。Becausethisistobeassertedingeneralofmen，thattheyareungrateful，fickle，false，cowardly，covetous，andaslongasyousucceedtheyareyoursentirely;theywillofferyoutheirblood，property，life，andchildren，asissaidabove，whentheneedisfardistant;butwhenitapproachestheyturnagainstyou。Andthatprincewho，relyingentirelyontheirpromises，hasneglectedotherprecautions，isruined;becausefriendshipsthatareobtainedbypayments，andnotbygreatnessornobilityofmind，mayindeedbeearned，buttheyarenotsecured，andintimeofneedcannotbereliedupon;andmenhavelessscrupleinoffendingonewhoisbelovedthanonewhoisfeared，forloveispreservedbythelinkofobligationwhich，owingtothebasenessofmen，isbrokenateveryopportunityfortheiradvantage;butfearpreservesyoubyadreadofpunishmentwhichneverfails。
Neverthelessaprinceoughttoinspirefearinsuchawaythat，ifhedoesnotwinlove，heavoidshatred;becausehecanendureverywellbeingfearedwhilstheisnothated，whichwillalwaysbeaslongasheabstainsfromthepropertyofhiscitizensandsubjectsandfromtheirwomen。Butwhenitisnecessaryforhimtoproceedagainstthelifeofsomeone，hemustdoitonproperjustificationandformanifestcause，butaboveallthingshemustkeephishandsoffthepropertyofothers，becausemenmorequicklyforgetthedeathoftheirfatherthanthelossoftheirpatrimony。Besides，pretextsfortakingawaythepropertyareneverwanting;forhewhohasoncebeguntolivebyrobberywillalwaysfindpretextsforseizingwhatbelongstoothers;butreasonsfortakinglife，onthecontrary，aremoredifficulttofindandsoonerlapse。Butwhenaprinceiswithhisarmy，andhasundercontrolamultitudeofsoldiers，thenitisquitenecessaryforhimtodisregardthereputationofcruelty，forwithoutithewouldneverholdhisarmyunitedordisposedtoitsduties。
AmongthewonderfuldeedsofHannibalthisoneisenumerated：thathavingledanenormousarmy，composedofmanyvariousracesofmen，tofightinforeignlands，nodissensionsaroseeitheramongthemoragainsttheprince，whetherinhisbadorinhisgoodfortune。Thisarosefromnothingelsethanhisinhumancruelty，which，withhisboundlessvalour，madehimreveredandterribleinthesightofhissoldiers，butwithoutthatcruelty，hisothervirtueswerenotsufficienttoproducethiseffect。Andshort—sightedwritersadmirehisdeedsfromonepointofviewandfromanothercondemntheprincipalcauseofthem。ThatitistruehisothervirtueswouldnothavebeensufficientforhimmaybeprovedbythecaseofScipio，thatmostexcellentman，notonlyofhisowntimesbutwithinthememoryofman，againstwhom，nevertheless，hisarmyrebelledinSpain;thisarosefromnothingbuthistoogreatforbearance，whichgavehissoldiersmorelicensethanisconsistentwithmilitarydiscipline。ForthishewasupbraidedintheSenatebyFabiusMaximus，andcalledthecorrupteroftheRomansoldiery。TheLocrianswerelaidwastebyalegateofScipio，yettheywerenotavengedbyhim，norwastheinsolenceofthelegatepunished，owingentirelytohiseasynature。
InsomuchthatsomeoneintheSenate，wishingtoexcusehim，saidthereweremanymenwhoknewmuchbetterhownottoerrthantocorrecttheerrorsofothers。Thisdisposition，ifhehadbeencontinuedinthecommand，wouldhavedestroyedintimethefameandgloryofScipio;
but，hebeingunderthecontroloftheSenate，thisinjuriouscharacteristicnotonlyconcealeditself，butcontributedtohisglory。
Returningtothequestionofbeingfearedorloved，Icometotheconclusionthat，menlovingaccordingtotheirownwillandfearingaccordingtothatoftheprince，awiseprinceshouldestablishhimselfonthatwhichisinhisowncontrolandnotinthatofothers;
hemustendeavouronlytoavoidhatred，asisnoted。
CHAPTERXVIII[*]
CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHPRINCESSHOULDKEEPFAITH
[*]\"ThepresentchapterhasgivengreateroffencethananyotherportionofMachiavelli’swritings。\"Burd，\"IlPrincipe，\"p。297。
Everyoneadmitshowpraiseworthyitisinaprincetokeepfaith，andtolivewithintegrityandnotwithcraft。Neverthelessourexperiencehasbeenthatthoseprinceswhohavedonegreatthingshaveheldgoodfaithoflittleaccount，andhaveknownhowtocircumventtheintellectofmenbycraft，andintheendhaveovercomethosewhohavereliedontheirword。Youmustknowtherearetwowaysofcontesting，[*]theonebythelaw，theotherbyforce;thefirstmethodispropertomen，thesecondtobeasts;butbecausethefirstisfrequentlynotsufficient，itisnecessarytohaverecoursetothesecond。Thereforeitisnecessaryforaprincetounderstandhowtoavailhimselfofthebeastandtheman。Thishasbeenfigurativelytaughttoprincesbyancientwriters，whodescribehowAchillesandmanyotherprincesofoldweregiventotheCentaurChirontonurse，whobroughtthemupinhisdiscipline;whichmeanssolelythat，astheyhadforateacheronewhowashalfbeastandhalfman，soitisnecessaryforaprincetoknowhowtomakeuseofbothnatures，andthatonewithouttheotherisnotdurable。Aprince，therefore，beingcompelledknowinglytoadoptthebeast，oughttochoosethefoxandthelion;becausethelioncannotdefendhimselfagainstsnaresandthefoxcannotdefendhimselfagainstwolves。Therefore，itisnecessarytobeafoxtodiscoverthesnaresandaliontoterrifythewolves。Thosewhorelysimplyontheliondonotunderstandwhattheyareabout。Thereforeawiselordcannot，noroughtheto，keepfaithwhensuchobservancemaybeturnedagainsthim，andwhenthereasonsthatcausedhimtopledgeitexistnolonger。Ifmenwereentirelygoodthispreceptwouldnothold，butbecausetheyarebad，andwillnotkeepfaithwithyou，youtooarenotboundtoobserveitwiththem。Norwillthereeverbewantingtoaprincelegitimatereasonstoexcusethisnon—observance。Ofthisendlessmodernexamplescouldbegiven，showinghowmanytreatiesandengagementshavebeenmadevoidandofnoeffectthroughthefaithlessnessofprinces;andhewhohasknownbesthowtoemploythefoxhassucceededbest。
[*]\"Contesting，\"i。e。\"strivingformastery。\"MrBurdpointsoutthatthispassageisimitateddirectlyfromCicero’s\"DeOfficiis\"：
\"Namcumsintduogeneradecertandi，unumperdisceptationem，alterumpervim;cumqueilludpropriumsithominis，hocbeluarum;
confugiendumestadposterius，siutinonlicetsuperiore。\"
Butitisnecessarytoknowwellhowtodisguisethischaracteristic，andtobeagreatpretenderanddissembler;andmenaresosimple，andsosubjecttopresentnecessities，thathewhoseekstodeceivewillalwaysfindsomeonewhowillallowhimselftobedeceived。OnerecentexampleIcannotpassoverinsilence。AlexandertheSixthdidnothingelsebutdeceivemen，noreverthoughtofdoingotherwise，andhealwaysfoundvictims;forthereneverwasamanwhohadgreaterpowerinasserting，orwhowithgreateroathswouldaffirmathing，yetwouldobserveitless;neverthelesshisdeceitsalwayssucceededaccordingtohiswishes，[*]becausehewellunderstoodthissideofmankind。
[*]\"Nondimancosempreglisuccederonogliinganni（advotum）。\"Thewords\"advotum\"areomittedintheTestinaaddition，1550。
Alexanderneverdidwhathesaid，Cesareneversaidwhathedid。
ItalianProverb。
ThereforeitisunnecessaryforaprincetohaveallthegoodqualitiesIhaveenumerated，butitisverynecessarytoappeartohavethem。AndIshalldaretosaythisalso，thattohavethemandalwaystoobservethemisinjurious，andthattoappeartohavethemisuseful;toappearmerciful，faithful，humane，religious，upright，andtobeso，butwithamindsoframedthatshouldyourequirenottobeso，youmaybeableandknowhowtochangetotheopposite。
Andyouhavetounderstandthis，thataprince，especiallyanewone，cannotobserveallthosethingsforwhichmenareesteemed，beingoftenforced，inordertomaintainthestate，toactcontrarytofidelity，[*]friendship，humanity，andreligion。Thereforeitisnecessaryforhimtohaveamindreadytoturnitselfaccordinglyasthewindsandvariationsoffortuneforceit，yet，asIhavesaidabove，nottodivergefromthegoodifhecanavoiddoingso，but，ifcompelled，thentoknowhowtosetaboutit。
[*]\"Contrarytofidelity\"or\"faith，\"\"controallafede，\"and\"tuttofede，\"\"altogetherfaithful，\"inthenextparagraph。Itisnoteworthythatthesetwophrases，\"controallafede\"and\"tuttofede，\"wereomittedintheTestinaedition，whichwaspublishedwiththesanctionofthepapalauthorities。Itmaybethatthemeaningattachedtotheword\"fede\"was\"thefaith，\"i。e。theCatholiccreed，andnotasrenderedhere\"fidelity\"and\"faithful。\"Observethattheword\"religione\"wassufferedtostandinthetextoftheTestina，beingusedtosignifyindifferentlyeveryshadeofbelief，aswitness\"thereligion，\"aphraseinevitablyemployedtodesignatetheHuguenotheresy。SouthinhisSermonIX，p。69，ed。1843，commentsonthispassageasfollows：\"ThatgreatpatronandCoryphaeusofthistribe，NicoloMachiavel，laiddownthisforamasterruleinhispoliticalscheme：’Thattheshowofreligionwashelpfultothepolitician，buttherealityofithurtfulandpernicious。’\"
Forthisreasonaprinceoughttotakecarethatheneverletsanythingslipfromhislipsthatisnotrepletewiththeabove—namedfivequalities，thathemayappeartohimwhoseesandhearshimaltogethermerciful，faithful，humane，upright，andreligious。Thereisnothingmorenecessarytoappeartohavethanthislastquality，inasmuchasmenjudgegenerallymorebytheeyethanbythehand，becauseitbelongstoeverybodytoseeyou，tofewtocomeintouchwithyou。Everyoneseeswhatyouappeartobe，fewreallyknowwhatyouare，andthosefewdarenotopposethemselvestotheopinionofthemany，whohavethemajestyofthestatetodefendthem;andintheactionsofallmen，andespeciallyofprinces，whichitisnotprudenttochallenge，onejudgesbytheresult。
Forthatreason，letaprincehavethecreditofconqueringandholdinghisstate，themeanswillalwaysbeconsideredhonest，andhewillbepraisedbyeverybody;becausethevulgararealwaystakenbywhatathingseemstobeandbywhatcomesofit;andintheworldthereareonlythevulgar，forthefewfindaplacethereonlywhenthemanyhavenogroundtoreston。
Oneprince[*]ofthepresenttime，whomitisnotwelltoname，neverpreachesanythingelsebutpeaceandgoodfaith，andtobothheismosthostile，andeither，ifhehadkeptit，wouldhavedeprivedhimofreputationandkingdommanyatime。
[*]FerdinandofAragon。\"WhenMachiavelliwaswriting’ThePrince’itwouldhavebeenclearlyimpossibletomentionFerdinand’snameherewithoutgivingoffence。\"Burd’s\"IlPrincipe，\"p。308。
CHAPTERXIX
THATONESHOULDAVOIDBEINGDESPISEDANDHATED
Now，concerningthecharacteristicsofwhichmentionismadeabove，I
havespokenofthemoreimportantones，theothersIwishtodiscussbrieflyunderthisgenerality，thattheprincemustconsider，ashasbeeninpartsaidbefore，howtoavoidthosethingswhichwillmakehimhatedorcontemptible;andasoftenasheshallhavesucceededhewillhavefulfilledhispart，andheneednotfearanydangerinotherreproaches。
Itmakeshimhatedaboveallthings，asIhavesaid，toberapacious，andtobeaviolatorofthepropertyandwomenofhissubjects，frombothofwhichhemustabstain。Andwhenneithertheirpropertynortheirhonoristouched，themajorityofmenlivecontent，andhehasonlytocontendwiththeambitionofafew，whomhecancurbwitheaseinmanyways。
Itmakeshimcontemptibletobeconsideredfickle，frivolous，effeminate，mean—spirited，irresolute，fromallofwhichaprinceshouldguardhimselfasfromarock;andheshouldendeavourtoshowinhisactionsgreatness，courage，gravity，andfortitude;andinhisprivatedealingswithhissubjectslethimshowthathisjudgmentsareirrevocable，andmaintainhimselfinsuchreputationthatnoonecanhopeeithertodeceivehimortogetroundhim。
Thatprinceishighlyesteemedwhoconveysthisimpressionofhimself，andhewhoishighlyesteemedisnoteasilyconspiredagainst;for，provideditiswellknownthatheisanexcellentmanandreveredbyhispeople，hecanonlybeattackedwithdifficulty。Forthisreasonaprinceoughttohavetwofears，onefromwithin，onaccountofhissubjects，theotherfromwithout，onaccountofexternalpowers。Fromthelatterheisdefendedbybeingwellarmedandhavinggoodallies，andifheiswellarmedhewillhavegoodfriends，andaffairswillalwaysremainquietwithinwhentheyarequietwithout，unlesstheyshouldhavebeenalreadydisturbedbyconspiracy;andevenshouldaffairsoutsidebedisturbed，ifhehascarriedouthispreparationsandhaslivedasIhavesaid，aslongashedoesnotdespair，hewillresisteveryattack，asIsaidNabistheSpartandid。
Butconcerninghissubjects，whenaffairsoutsidearedisturbedhehasonlytofearthattheywillconspiresecretly，fromwhichaprincecaneasilysecurehimselfbyavoidingbeinghatedanddespised，andbykeepingthepeoplesatisfiedwithhim，whichitismostnecessaryforhimtoaccomplish，asIsaidaboveatlength。Andoneofthemostefficaciousremediesthataprincecanhaveagainstconspiraciesisnottobehatedanddespisedbythepeople，forhewhoconspiresagainstaprincealwaysexpectstopleasethembyhisremoval;butwhentheconspiratorcanonlylookforwardtooffendingthem，hewillnothavethecouragetotakesuchacourse，forthedifficultiesthatconfrontaconspiratorareinfinite。Andasexperienceshows，manyhavebeentheconspiracies，butfewhavebeensuccessful;becausehewhoconspirescannotactalone，norcanhetakeacompanionexceptfromthosewhomhebelievestobemalcontents，andassoonasyouhaveopenedyourmindtoamalcontentyouhavegivenhimthematerialwithwhichtocontenthimself，forbydenouncingyouhecanlookforeveryadvantage;sothat，seeingthegainfromthiscoursetobeassured，andseeingtheothertobedoubtfulandfullofdangers，hemustbeaveryrarefriend，orathoroughlyobstinateenemyoftheprince，tokeepfaithwithyou。
And，toreducethematterintoasmallcompass，Isaythat，onthesideoftheconspirator，thereisnothingbutfear，jealousy，prospectofpunishmenttoterrifyhim;butonthesideoftheprincethereisthemajestyoftheprincipality，thelaws，theprotectionoffriendsandthestatetodefendhim;sothat，addingtoallthesethingsthepopulargoodwill，itisimpossiblethatanyoneshouldbesorashastoconspire。Forwhereasingeneraltheconspiratorhastofearbeforetheexecutionofhisplot，inthiscasehehasalsotofearthesequeltothecrime;becauseonaccountofithehasthepeopleforanenemy，andthuscannothopeforanyescape。
Endlessexamplescouldbegivenonthissubject，butIwillbecontentwithone，broughttopasswithinthememoryofourfathers。MesserAnnibaleBentivogli，whowasprinceinBologna（grandfatherofthepresentAnnibale），havingbeenmurderedbytheCanneschi，whohadconspiredagainsthim，notoneofhisfamilysurvivedbutMesserGiovanni，[*]whowasinchildhood：immediatelyafterhisassassinationthepeopleroseandmurderedalltheCanneschi。ThissprungfromthepopulargoodwillwhichthehouseofBentivoglienjoyedinthosedaysinBologna;whichwassogreatthat，althoughnoneremainedthereafterthedeathofAnnibalewhowasabletorulethestate，theBolognese，havinginformationthattherewasoneoftheBentivoglifamilyinFlorence，whouptothattimehadbeenconsideredthesonofablacksmith，senttoFlorenceforhimandgavehimthegovernmentoftheircity，anditwasruledbyhimuntilMesserGiovannicameinduecoursetothegovernment。
[*]GiovanniBentivogli，borninBologna1438，diedatMilan1508。HeruledBolognafrom1462to1506。Machiavelli’sstrongcondemnationofconspiraciesmaygetitsedgefromhisownveryrecentexperience（February1513），whenhehadbeenarrestedandtorturedforhisallegedcomplicityintheBoscoliconspiracy。
ForthisreasonIconsiderthataprinceoughttoreckonconspiraciesoflittleaccountwhenhispeopleholdhiminesteem;butwhenitishostiletohim，andbearshatredtowardshim，heoughttofeareverythingandeverybody。Andwell—orderedstatesandwiseprinceshavetakeneverycarenottodrivethenoblestodesperation，andtokeepthepeoplesatisfiedandcontented，forthisisoneofthemostimportantobjectsaprincecanhave。
AmongthebestorderedandgovernedkingdomsofourtimesisFrance，andinitarefoundmanygoodinstitutionsonwhichdependthelibertyandsecurityoftheking;ofthesethefirstistheparliamentanditsauthority，becausehewhofoundedthekingdom，knowingtheambitionofthenobilityandtheirboldness，consideredthatabittotheirmouthswouldbenecessarytoholdthemin;and，ontheotherside，knowingthehatredofthepeople，foundedinfear，againstthenobles，hewishedtoprotectthem，yethewasnotanxiousforthistobetheparticularcareoftheking;therefore，totakeawaythereproachwhichhewouldbeliabletofromthenoblesforfavouringthepeople，andfromthepeopleforfavouringthenobles，hesetupanarbiter，whoshouldbeonewhocouldbeatdownthegreatandfavourthelesserwithoutreproachtotheking。Neithercouldyouhaveabetteroramoreprudentarrangement，oragreatersourceofsecuritytothekingandkingdom。Fromthisonecandrawanotherimportantconclusion，thatprincesoughttoleaveaffairsofreproachtothemanagementofothers，andkeepthoseofgraceintheirownhands。Andfurther，I
considerthataprinceoughttocherishthenobles，butnotsoastomakehimselfhatedbythepeople。
Itmayappear，perhaps，tosomewhohaveexaminedthelivesanddeathsoftheRomanemperorsthatmanyofthemwouldbeanexamplecontrarytomyopinion，seeingthatsomeofthemlivednoblyandshowedgreatqualitiesofsoul，neverthelesstheyhavelosttheirempireorhavebeenkilledbysubjectswhohaveconspiredagainstthem。Wishing，therefore，toanswertheseobjections，Iwillrecallthecharactersofsomeoftheemperors，andwillshowthatthecausesoftheirruinwerenotdifferenttothoseallegedbyme;atthesametimeIwillonlysubmitforconsiderationthosethingsthatarenoteworthytohimwhostudiestheaffairsofthosetimes。
ItseemstomesufficienttotakeallthoseemperorswhosucceededtotheempirefromMarcusthephilosopherdowntoMaximinus;theywereMarcusandhissonCommodus，Pertinax，Julian，SeverusandhissonAntoninusCaracalla，Macrinus，Heliogabalus，Alexander，andMaximinus。
Thereisfirsttonotethat，whereasinotherprincipalitiestheambitionofthenoblesandtheinsolenceofthepeopleonlyhavetobecontendedwith，theRomanemperorshadathirddifficultyinhavingtoputupwiththecrueltyandavariceoftheirsoldiers，amattersobesetwithdifficultiesthatitwastheruinofmany;foritwasahardthingtogivesatisfactionbothtosoldiersandpeople;becausethepeoplelovedpeace，andforthisreasontheylovedtheunaspiringprince，whilstthesoldierslovedthewarlikeprincewhowasbold，cruel，andrapacious，whichqualitiestheywerequitewillingheshouldexerciseuponthepeople，sothattheycouldgetdoublepayandgiveventtotheirowngreedandcruelty。Henceitarosethatthoseemperorswerealwaysoverthrownwho，eitherbybirthortraining，hadnogreatauthority，andmostofthem，especiallythosewhocamenewtotheprincipality，recognizingthedifficultyofthesetwoopposinghumours，wereinclinedtogivesatisfactiontothesoldiers，caringlittleaboutinjuringthepeople。Whichcoursewasnecessary，because，asprincescannothelpbeinghatedbysomeone，theyought，inthefirstplace，toavoidbeinghatedbyeveryone，andwhentheycannotcompassthis，theyoughttoendeavourwiththeutmostdiligencetoavoidthehatredofthemostpowerful。Therefore，thoseemperorswhothroughinexperiencehadneedofspecialfavouradheredmorereadilytothesoldiersthantothepeople;acoursewhichturnedoutadvantageoustothemornot，accordinglyastheprinceknewhowtomaintainauthorityoverthem。
FromthesecausesitarosethatMarcus，Pertinax，andAlexander，beingallmenofmodestlife，loversofjustice，enemiestocruelty，humane，andbenignant，cametoasadendexceptMarcus;healonelivedanddiedhonoured，becausehehadsucceededtothethronebyhereditarytitle，andowednothingeithertothesoldiersorthepeople;andafterwards，beingpossessedofmanyvirtueswhichmadehimrespected，healwayskeptbothordersintheirplaceswhilsthelived，andwasneitherhatednordespised。
ButPertinaxwascreatedemperoragainstthewishesofthesoldiers，who，beingaccustomedtolivelicentiouslyunderCommodus，couldnotendurethehonestlifetowhichPertinaxwishedtoreducethem;thus，havinggivencauseforhatred，towhichhatredtherewasaddedcontemptforhisoldage，hewasoverthrownattheverybeginningofhisadministration。Andhereitshouldbenotedthathatredisacquiredasmuchbygoodworksasbybadones，therefore，asIsaidbefore，aprincewishingtokeephisstateisveryoftenforcedtodoevil;forwhenthatbodyiscorruptwhomyouthinkyouhaveneedoftomaintainyourself——itmaybeeitherthepeopleorthesoldiersorthenobles——youhavetosubmittoitshumoursandtogratifythem，andthengoodworkswilldoyouharm。
ButletuscometoAlexander，whowasamanofsuchgreatgoodness，thatamongtheotherpraiseswhichareaccordedhimisthis，thatinthefourteenyearsheheldtheempirenoonewaseverputtodeathbyhimunjudged;nevertheless，beingconsideredeffeminateandamanwhoallowedhimselftobegovernedbyhismother，hebecamedespised，thearmyconspiredagainsthim，andmurderedhim。
TurningnowtotheoppositecharactersofCommodus，Severus，AntoninusCaracalla，andMaximinus，youwillfindthemallcruelandrapacious——
menwho，tosatisfytheirsoldiers，didnothesitatetocommiteverykindofiniquityagainstthepeople;andall，exceptSeverus，cametoabadend;butinSeverustherewassomuchvalourthat，keepingthesoldiersfriendly，althoughthepeoplewereoppressedbyhim，hereignedsuccessfully;forhisvalourmadehimsomuchadmiredinthesightofthesoldiersandpeoplethatthelatterwerekeptinawayastonishedandawedandtheformerrespectfulandsatisfied。Andbecausetheactionsofthisman，asanewprince，weregreat，Iwishtoshowbrieflythatheknewwellhowtocounterfeitthefoxandthelion，whichnatures，asIsaidabove，itisnecessaryforaprincetoimitate。
KnowingtheslothoftheEmperorJulian，hepersuadedthearmyinSclavonia，ofwhichhewascaptain，thatitwouldberighttogotoRomeandavengethedeathofPertinax，whohadbeenkilledbythepraetoriansoldiers;andunderthispretext，withoutappearingtoaspiretothethrone，hemovedthearmyonRome，andreachedItalybeforeitwasknownthathehadstarted。OnhisarrivalatRome，theSenate，throughfear，electedhimemperorandkilledJulian。AfterthisthereremainedforSeverus，whowishedtomakehimselfmasterofthewholeempire，twodifficulties;oneinAsia，whereNiger，headoftheAsiaticarmy，hadcausedhimselftobeproclaimedemperor;theotherinthewestwhereAlbinuswas，whoalsoaspiredtothethrone。
Andasheconsidereditdangeroustodeclarehimselfhostiletoboth，hedecidedtoattackNigerandtodeceiveAlbinus。Tothelatterhewrotethat，beingelectedemperorbytheSenate，hewaswillingtosharethatdignitywithhimandsenthimthetitleofCaesar;and，moreover，thattheSenatehadmadeAlbinushiscolleague;whichthingswereacceptedbyAlbinusastrue。ButafterSeverushadconqueredandkilledNiger，andsettledorientalaffairs，hereturnedtoRomeandcomplainedtotheSenatethatAlbinus，littlerecognizingthebenefitsthathehadreceivedfromhim，hadbytreacherysoughttomurderhim，andforthisingratitudehewascompelledtopunishhim。AfterwardshesoughthimoutinFrance，andtookfromhimhisgovernmentandlife。
Hewhowill，therefore，carefullyexaminetheactionsofthismanwillfindhimamostvaliantlionandamostcunningfox;hewillfindhimfearedandrespectedbyeveryone，andnothatedbythearmy;anditneednotbewonderedatthathe，anewman，wasabletoholdtheempiresowell，becausehissupremerenownalwaysprotectedhimfromthathatredwhichthepeoplemighthaveconceivedagainsthimforhisviolence。
ButhissonAntoninuswasamosteminentman，andhadveryexcellentqualities，whichmadehimadmirableinthesightofthepeopleandacceptabletothesoldiers，forhewasawarlikeman，mostenduringoffatigue，adespiserofalldelicatefoodandotherluxuries，whichcausedhimtobebelovedbythearmies。Nevertheless，hisferocityandcrueltiesweresogreatandsounheardofthat，afterendlesssinglemurders，hekilledalargenumberofthepeopleofRomeandallthoseofAlexandria。Hebecamehatedbythewholeworld，andalsofearedbythosehehadaroundhim，tosuchanextentthathewasmurderedinthemidstofhisarmybyacenturion。Andhereitmustbenotedthatsuch—
likedeaths，whicharedeliberatelyinflictedwitharesolvedanddesperatecourage，cannotbeavoidedbyprinces，becauseanyonewhodoesnotfeartodiecaninflictthem;butaprincemayfearthemthelessbecausetheyareveryrare;hehasonlytobecarefulnottodoanygraveinjurytothosewhomheemploysorhasaroundhimintheserviceofthestate。Antoninushadnottakenthiscare，buthadcontumeliouslykilledabrotherofthatcenturion，whomalsohedailythreatened，yetretainedinhisbodyguard;which，asitturnedout，wasarashthingtodo，andprovedtheemperor’sruin。
ButletuscometoCommodus，towhomitshouldhavebeenveryeasytoholdtheempire，for，beingthesonofMarcus，hehadinheritedit，andhehadonlytofollowinthefootstepsofhisfathertopleasehispeopleandsoldiers;but，beingbynaturecruelandbrutal，hegavehimselfuptoamusingthesoldiersandcorruptingthem，sothathemightindulgehisrapacityuponthepeople;ontheotherhand，notmaintaininghisdignity，oftendescendingtothetheatretocompetewithgladiators，anddoingothervilethings，littleworthyoftheimperialmajesty，hefellintocontemptwiththesoldiers，andbeinghatedbyonepartyanddespisedbytheother，hewasconspiredagainstandwaskilled。
ItremainstodiscussthecharacterofMaximinus。Hewasaverywarlikeman，andthearmies，beingdisgustedwiththeeffeminacyofAlexander，ofwhomIhavealreadyspoken，killedhimandelectedMaximinustothethrone。Thishedidnotpossessforlong，fortwothingsmadehimhatedanddespised;theone，hishavingkeptsheepinThrace，whichbroughthimintocontempt（itbeingwellknowntoall，andconsideredagreatindignitybyeveryone），andtheother，hishavingattheaccessiontohisdominionsdeferredgoingtoRomeandtakingpossessionoftheimperialseat;hehadalsogainedareputationfortheutmostferocitybyhaving，throughhisprefectsinRomeandelsewhereintheempire，practisedmanycruelties，sothatthewholeworldwasmovedtoangeratthemeannessofhisbirthandtofearathisbarbarity。FirstAfricarebelled，thentheSenatewithallthepeopleofRome，andallItalyconspiredagainsthim，towhichmaybeaddedhisownarmy;thislatter，besiegingAquileiaandmeetingwithdifficultiesintakingit，weredisgustedwithhiscruelties，andfearinghimlesswhentheyfoundsomanyagainsthim，murderedhim。
IdonotwishtodiscussHeliogabalus，Macrinus，orJulian，who，beingthoroughlycontemptible，werequicklywipedout;butIwillbringthisdiscoursetoaconclusionbysayingthatprincesinourtimeshavethisdifficultyofgivinginordinatesatisfactiontotheirsoldiersinafarlessdegree，because，notwithstandingonehastogivethemsomeindulgence，thatissoondone;noneoftheseprinceshavearmiesthatareveteransinthegovernanceandadministrationofprovinces，aswerethearmiesoftheRomanEmpire;andwhereasitwasthenmorenecessarytogivesatisfactiontothesoldiersthantothepeople，itisnowmorenecessarytoallprinces，excepttheTurkandtheSoldan，tosatisfythepeopleratherthesoldiers，becausethepeoplearethemorepowerful。
FromtheaboveIhaveexceptedtheTurk，whoalwayskeepsroundhimtwelvethousandinfantryandfifteenthousandcavalryonwhichdependthesecurityandstrengthofthekingdom，anditisnecessarythat，puttingasideeveryconsiderationforthepeople，heshouldkeepthemhisfriends。ThekingdomoftheSoldanissimilar;beingentirelyinthehandsofsoldiers，itfollowsagainthat，withoutregardtothepeople，hemustkeepthemhisfriends。ButyoumustnotethatthestateoftheSoldanisunlikeallotherprincipalities，forthereasonthatitisliketheChristianpontificate，whichcannotbecalledeitheranhereditaryoranewlyformedprincipality;becausethesonsoftheoldprincearenottheheirs，buthewhoiselectedtothatpositionbythosewhohaveauthority，andthesonsremainonlynoblemen。Andthisbeinganancientcustom，itcannotbecalledanewprincipality，becausetherearenoneofthosedifficultiesinitthataremetwithinnewones;foralthoughtheprinceisnew，theconstitutionofthestateisold，anditisframedsoastoreceivehimasifhewereitshereditarylord。
Butreturningtothesubjectofourdiscourse，Isaythatwhoeverwillconsideritwillacknowledgethateitherhatredorcontempthasbeenfataltotheabove—namedemperors，anditwillberecognizedalsohowithappenedthat，anumberofthemactinginonewayandanumberinanother，onlyoneineachwaycametoahappyendandtheresttounhappyones。BecauseitwouldhavebeenuselessanddangerousforPertinaxandAlexander，beingnewprinces，toimitateMarcus，whowasheirtotheprincipality;andlikewiseitwouldhavebeenutterlydestructivetoCaracalla，Commodus，andMaximinustohaveimitatedSeverus，theynothavingsufficientvalourtoenablethemtotreadinhisfootsteps。Thereforeaprince，newtotheprincipality，cannotimitatetheactionsofMarcus，nor，again，isitnecessarytofollowthoseofSeverus，butheoughttotakefromSeverusthosepartswhicharenecessarytofoundhisstate，andfromMarcusthosewhichareproperandglorioustokeepastatethatmayalreadybestableandfirm。