CHAP。14。——HOWTHEMEANINGOFUNKNOWNWORDSANDIDIOMSISTOBEDISCOVERED。
21。Aboutambiguoussigns,however,Ishallspeakafterwards。Iamtreatingatpresentofunknownsigns,ofwhich,asfarasthewordsareconcerned,therearetwokinds,Foreitherawordoranidiom,ofwhichthereaderisignorant,bringshimtoastop。Nowifthesebelongtoforeigntongues,wemusteithermakeinquiryaboutthemfrommenwhospeakthosetongues,orifwehaveleisurewemustlearnthetonguesourselves,orwemustconsultandcompareseveraltranslators。If,however,therearewordsoridiomsinourowntonguethatweareunacquaintedwith,wegraduallycometoknowthemthroughbeingaccustomedtoreadortohearthem。Thereisnothingthatitisbettertocommittomemorythanthosekindsofwordsandphraseswhosemeaningwedonotknow,sothatwherewehappentomeeteitherwithamorelearnedmanofwhomwecaninquire,orwithapassagethatshows,eitherbytheprecedingorsucceedingcontext,orbyboth,theforceandsignificanceofthephraseweareignorantof,wecaneasilybythehelpofourmemoryturnourattentiontothematterandlearnallaboutit。Sogreat,however,istheforceofcustom,eveninregardtolearning,thatthosewhohavebeeninasortofwaynurturedandbroughtuponthestudyofHolyScripture,aresurprisedatotherformsofspeech,andthinkthemlesspureLatinthanthosewhichtheyhavelearntfromScripture,butwhicharenottobefoundinLatinauthors。Inthismatter,too,thegreatnumberofthetranslatorsprovesaverygreatassistance,iftheyareexaminedanddiscussedwithacarefulcomparisonoftheirtexts。Onlyallpositiveerrormustberemoved。Forthosewhoareanxioustoknow,theScripturesoughtinthefirstplacetousetheirskillinthecorrectionofthetexts,sothattheuncorrectedonesshouldgivewaytothecorrected,atleastwhentheyarecopiesofthesametranslation。
CHAP。15——AMONGVERSIONSAPREFERENCEISGIVENTOTHESEPTUAGINTAND
THEITALA。
22。NowamongtranslationsthemselvestheItalian(Itala)(1)istobepreferredtotheothers,foritkeepsclosertothewordswithoutprejudicetoclearnessofexpression。AndtocorrecttheLatinwemustusetheGreekversions,amongwhichtheauthorityoftheSeptuagintispre-eminentasfarastheOldTestamentisconcerned;foritisreportedthroughallthemorelearnedchurchesthattheseventytranslatorsenjoyedsomuchofthepresenceandpoweroftheHolySpiritintheirworkoftranslation,thatamongthatnumberofmentherewasbutonevoice。
Andif,asisreported,andasmanynotunworthyofconfidenceassert,(2)theywereseparatedduringtheworkoftranslation,eachmanbeinginacellbyhimself,andyetnothingwasfoundinthemanuscriptofanyoneofthemthatwasnotfoundinthesamewordsandinthesameorderofwordsinalltherest,whodaresputanythingincomparisonwithanauthoritylikethis,nottospeakofpreferringanythingtoit?Andeveniftheyconferredtogetherwiththeresultthataunanimousagreementsprangoutofthecommonlaborandjudgmentofthemall;evenso,itwouldnotberightorbecomingforanyoneman,whateverhisexperience,toaspiretocorrecttheunanimousopinionofmanyvenerableandlearnedmen。Wherefore,evenifanythingisfoundintheoriginalHebrewinadifferentformfromthatinwhichthesemenhaveexpressedit,IthinkwemustgivewaytothedispensationofProvidencewhichusedthesementobringitabout,thatbookswhichtheJewishracewereunwilling,eitherfromreligiousscrupleorfromjealousy,tomakeknowntoothernations,were,withtheassistanceofthepowerofKingPtolemy,madeknownsolongbeforehandtothenationswhichinthefutureweretobelieveintheLord。AndthusitispossiblethattheytranslatedinsuchawayastheHolySpirit,whoworkedinthemandhadgiventhemallonevoice,thoughtmostsuitablefortheGentiles。Butnevertheless,asIsaidabove,acomparisonofthosetranslatorsalsowhohavekeptmostcloselytothewords,isoftennotwithoutvalueasahelptotheclearingupofthemeaning。TheLatintexts,therefore,oftheOldTestamentare,asIwasabouttosay,tobecorrectedifnecessarybytheauthorityoftheGreeks,andespeciallybythatofthosewhothoughtheywereseventyinnumber,aresaidtohavetranslatedaswithonevoice。AstothebooksoftheNewTestament,again,ifanyperplexityarisesfromthediversitiesoftheLatintexts,wemustofcourseyieldtotheGreek,especiallythosethatarefoundinthechurchesofgreaterlearningandresearch。
CHAP。16。——THEKNOWLEDGEBOTHOFLANGUAGEANDTHINGSISHELPFULFOR
THE
UNDERSTANDINGOFFIGURATIVEEXPRESSIONS。
23。Inthecaseoffigurativesigns,again,ifignoranceofanyofthemshouldchancetobringthereadertoastand-still,theirmeaningistobetracedpartlybytheknowledgeoflanguages,partlybytheknowledgeofthings。ThepoolofSiloam,forexample,wherethemanwhoseeyesourLordhadanointedwithclaymadeoutofspittlewascommandedtowash,hasafigurativesignificance,andundoubtedlyconveysasecretsense;butyetiftheevangelisthadnotinterpretedthatname,(1)ameaningsoimportantwouldlieunnoticed。Andwecannotdoubtthat,inthesameway,manyHebrewnameswhichhavenotbeeninterpretedbythewritersofthosebooks,would,ifanyonecouldinterpretthem,beofgreatvalueandserviceinsolvingtheenigmasofScripture。AndanumberofmenskilledinthatlanguagehaveconferrednosmallbenefitonposteritybyexplainingallthesewordswithoutreferencetotheirplaceinScripture,andtellinguswhatAdammeans,whatEve,whatAbraham,whatMoses,andalsothenamesofplaces,whatJerusalemsignifies,orSion,orSinai,orLebanon,orJordan,andwhateverothernamesinthatlanguagewearenotacquaintedwith。Andwhenthesenameshavebeeninvestigatedandexplained,manyfigurativeexpressionsinScripturebecomeclear。
24。Ignoranceofthings,too,rendersfigurativeexpressionsobscure,aswhenwedonotknowthenatureoftheanimals,orminerals,orplants,whicharefrequentlyreferredtoinScripturebywayofcomparison。Thefactsowellknownabouttheserpent,forexample,thattoprotectitsheaditwillpresentitswholebodytoitsassailants——howmuchlightitthrowsuponthemeaningofourLord’scommand,thatweshouldbewiseasserpents;(2)
thatistosay,thatforthesakeofourhead,whichisChrist,weshouldwillinglyofferourbodytothepersecutors,lesttheChristianfaithshould,asitwere,bedestroyedinus,iftosavethebodywedenyourGod!Oragain,thestatementthattheserpentgetsridofitsoldskinbysqueezingitselfthroughanarrowhole,andthusacquiresnewstrength——howappropriatelyitfitsinwiththedirectiontoimitatethewisdomoftheserpent,andtoputofftheoldman,astheapostlesays,thatwemayputonthenew;(3)andtoputitoff,too,bycomingthroughanarrowplace,accordingtothesayingofourLord,\"Enteryeinatthestraitgate!\"(4)As,then,knowledgeofthenatureoftheserpentthrowslightuponmanymetaphorswhichScriptureisaccustomedtodrawfromthatanimal,soignoranceofotheranimals,whicharenolessfrequentlymentionedbywayofcomparison,isaverygreatdrawbacktothereader。Andsoinregardtomineralsandplants:knowledgeofthecarbuncle,forinstance,whichshinesinthedark,throwslightuponmanyofthedarkplacesinbookstoo,whereitisusedmetaphorically;andignoranceoftheberylortheadamantoftenshutsthedoorsofknowledge。Andtheonlyreasonwhywefinditeasytounderstandthatperpetualpeaceisindicatedbytheolivebranchwhichthedovebroughtwithitwhenitreturnedtotheark,(5)isthatweknowboththatthesmoothtouchofoliveoilisnoteasilyspoiledbyafluidofanotherkind,andthatthetreeitselfisanevergreen。Many,again,byreasonoftheirignoranceofhyssop,notknowingthevirtueithasincleansingthelungs,northepoweritissaidtohaveofpiercingrockswithitsroots,althoughitisasmallandinsignificantplant,cannotmakeoutwhyitissaid,\"Purgemewithhyssop,andIshallbeclean。\"(6)
25。Ignoranceofnumbers,too,preventsusfromunderstandingthingsthataresetdowninScriptureinafigurativeandmysticalway。Acandidmind,ifImaysospeak,cannotbutbeanxious,forexample,toascertainwhatismeantbythefactthatMosesandElijah,andourLordHimself,allfastedforfortydays。(7)Andexceptbyknowledgeofandreflectionuponthenumber,thedifficultyofexplainingthefigureinvolvedinthisactioncannotbegotover。Forthenumbercontainstenfourtimes,indicatingtheknowledgeofallthings,andthatknowledgeinterwovenwithtime。Forboththediurnalandtheannualrevolutionsareaccomplishedinperiodsnumberingfoureach;thediurnalinthehoursofthemorning,thenoontide,theevening,andthenight;
theannualinthespring,summer,autumn,andwintermonths。Nowwhileweliveintime,wemustabstainandfastfromalljoyintime,forthesakeofthateternityinwhichwewishtolive;althoughbythepassageoftimewearetaughtthisverylessonofdespisingtimeandseekingeternity。Further,thenumbertensignifiestheknowledgeoftheCreatorandthecreature,forthereisatrinityintheCreator;andthenumbersevenindicatesthecreature,becauseofthelifeandthebody。Forthelifeconsistsofthreeparts,whencealsoGodistobelovedwiththewholeheart,thewholesoul,andthewholemind;anditisveryclearthatinthebodytherearefourelementsofwhichitismadeup。Inthisnumberten,therefore,whenitisplacedbeforeusinconnectionwithtime,thatis,whenitistakenfourtimesweareadmonishedtoliveunstainedby,andnotpartakingof,anydelightintime,thatis,tofastforfortydays。OfthisweareadmonishedbythelawpersonifiedinMosesbyprophecypersonifiedinElijah,andbyourLordHimself,who,asifreceivingthewitnessbothofthelawandtheprophets,appearedonthemountbetweentheothertwo,whileHisthreediscipleslookedoninamazement。Next,wehavetoinquireinthesameway,howoutofthenumberfortyspringsthenumberfifty,whichinourreligionhasnoordinarysacrednessattachedtoitonaccountofthePentecost,andhowthisnumbertakenthriceonaccountofthethreedivisionsoftime,beforethelaw,underthelaw,andundergrace,orperhapsonaccountofthenameoftheFather,Son,andHolySpirit,andtheTrinityitselfbeingaddedoverandabove,hasreferencetothemysteryofthemostHolyChurch,andreachestothenumberoftheonehundredandfifty-threefisheswhichweretakenaftertheresurrectionofourLord,whenthenetswerecastoutontheright-handsideoftheboat。(1)
Andinthesameway,manyothernumbersandcombinationsofnumbersareusedinthesacredwritings,toconveyinstructionunderafigurativeguise,andignoranceofnumbersoftenshutsoutthereaderfromthisinstruction。
26。Notafewthings,too,areclosedagainstusandobscuredbyignoranceofmusic。Oneman,forexample,hasnotunskillfullyexplainedsomemetaphorsfromthedifferencebetweenthepsalteryandtheharp。(2)Anditisaquestionwhichitisnotoutofplaceforlearnedmentodiscuss,whetherthereisanymusicallawthatcompelsthepsalteryoftenchordstohavejustsomanystrings;orwhether,iftherebenosuchlaw,thenumberitselfisnotonthatveryaccountthemoretobeconsideredasofsacredsignificance,eitherwithreferencetothetencommandmentsofthelaw(andifagainanyquestionisraisedaboutthatnumber,wecanonlyreferittotheCreatorandthecreature),orwithreferencetothenumbertenitselfasinterpretedabove。Andthenumberofyearsthetemplewasinbuilding,whichismentionedinthegospel(3)——viz。,forty-six——hasacertainundefinablemusicalsound,andwhenreferredtothestructureofourLord’sbody,inrelationtowhichthetemplewasmentioned,compelsmanyhereticstoconfessthatourLordputon,notafalse,butatrueandhumanbody。AndinseveralplacesintheHolyScriptureswefindbothnumbersandmusicmentionedwithhonor。
CHAP。17。——ORIGINOFTHELEGENDOFTHE
NINEMUSES。
27。Forwemustnotlistentothefalsitiesofheathensuperstition,whichrepresentthenineMusesasdaughtersofJupiterandMercury。Varrorefutesthese,andIdoubtwhetheranyonecanbefoundamongthemmorecuriousormorelearnedinsuchmatters。Hesaysthatacertainstate(Idon’trecollectthename)
orderedfromeachofthreeartistsasetofstatuesoftheMuses,tobeplacedasanofferinginthetempleofApollo,intendingthatwhicheveroftheartistsproducedthemostbeautifulstatues,theyshouldselectandpurchasefromhim。Itsohappenedthattheseartistsexecutedtheirworkswithequalbeauty,thatallninepleasedthestate,andthatallwereboughttobededicatedinthetempleofApollo;andhesaysthatafterwardsHesiodthepoetgavenamestothemall。ItwasnotJupiter,therefore,thatbegatthenineMuses,butthreeartistscreatedthreeeach。Andthestatehadoriginallygiventheorderforthree,notbecauseithadseentheminvisions,norbecausetheyhadpresentedthemselvesinthatnumbertotheeyesofanyofthecitizens,butbecauseitwasobvioustoremarkthatallsound,whichisthematerialofsong,isbynatureofthreekinds。Foritiseitherproducedbythevoice,asinthecaseofthosewhosingwiththemouthwithoutaninstrument;orbyblowing,asinthecaseoftrumpetsandflutes;orbystriking,asinthecaseofharpsanddrums,andallotherinstrumentsthatgivetheirsoundwhenstruck。
CHAP。18。——NOHELPISTOBEDESPISED,EVENTHOUGHITCOMEFROMAPROFANE
SOURCE。
28。ButwhetherthefactisasVarrohasrelated,orisnotso,stillweoughtnottogiveupmusicbecauseofthesuperstitionoftheheathen,ifwecanderiveanythingfromitthatisofusefortheunderstandingofHolyScripture;nordoesitfollowthatwemustbusyourselveswiththeirtheatricaltrumperybecauseweenteruponaninvestigationaboutharpsandotherinstruments,thatmayhelpustolayholduponspiritualthings。ForweoughtnottorefusetolearnlettersbecausetheysaythatMercurydiscoveredthem;norbecausetheyhavededicatedtemplestoJusticeandVirtue,andprefertoworshipintheformofstonesthingsthatoughttohavetheirplaceintheheart,oughtweonthataccounttoforsakejusticeandvirtue。Nay,butleteverygoodandtrueChristianunderstandthatwherevertruthmaybefound,itbelongstohisMaster;andwhileherecognizesandacknowledgesthetruth,evenintheirreligiousliterature,lethimrejectthefigmentsofsuperstition,andlethimgrieveoverandavoidmenwho,\"whentheyknewGod,glorifiedhimnotasGod,neitherwerethankful;butbecamevainintheirimaginations,andtheirfoolishheartwasdarkened。Professingthemselvestobewise,theybecamefools,andchangedthegloryoftheuncorruptibleGodintoanimagemadeliketocorruptibleman,andtobirds,andfour-footedbeasts,andcreepingthings。\"(1)
CHAP。19。——TWOKINDSOFHEATHENKNOWLEDGE。
29。Buttoexplainmorefullythiswholetopic(foritisonethatcannotbeomitted),therearetwokindsofknowledgewhichareinvogueamongtheheathen。Oneistheknowledgeofthingsinstitutedbymen,theotherofthingswhichtheyhavenoted,eitherastransactedinthepastorasinstitutedbyGod。Theformerkind,thatwhichdealswithhumaninstitutions,ispartlysuperstitious,partlynot。
CHAP。20。——THESUPERSTITIOUSNATUREOF
HUMANINSTITUTIONS。
30。Allthearrangementsmadebymenforthemakingandworshippingofidolsaresuperstitious,pertainingastheydoeithertotheworshipofwhatiscreatedorofsomepartofitasGod,ortoconsultationsandarrangementsaboutsignsandleagueswithdevils,such,forexample,asareemployedinthemagicalarts,andwhichthepoetsareaccustomednotsomuchtoteachastocelebrate。Andtothisclassbelong,butwithabolderteachofdeception,thebooksoftheharuspicesandaugurs。Inthisclasswemustplacealsoallamuletsandcureswhichthemedicalartcondemns,whethertheseconsistinIncantations,orinmarkswhichtheycallcharacters,orinhangingortyingonorevendancinginafashioncertainarticles,notwithreferencetotheconditionofthebody,buttocertainsignshiddenormanifest;andtheseremediestheycallbythelessoffensivenameofphysica,soastoappearnottobeengagedinsuperstitiousobservances,buttobetakingadvantageoftheforcesofnature。
Examplesofthesearetheearringsonthetopofeachear,ortheringsofostrichboneonthefingers,ortellingyouwhenyouhiccuptoholdyourleftthumbinyourrighthand。
31。Tothesewemayaddthousandsofthemostfrivolouspractices,thataretobeobservedifanypartofthebodyshouldjump,orif,whenfriendsarewalkingarm-in-arm,astone,oradog,oraboy,shouldcomebetweenthem。Andthekickingofastone,asifitwereadivideroffriends,doeslessharmthantocuffaninnocentboyifhehappenstorunbetweenmenwhoarewalkingsidebyside。Butitisdelightfulthattheboysaresometimesavengedbythedogs;forfrequentlymenaresosuperstitiousastoventureuponstrikingadogwhohasrunbetweenthem,——notwithimpunityhowever,forinsteadofasuperstitiousremedy,thedogsometimesmakeshisassailantruninhothasteforarealsurgeon。Tothisclass,too,belongthefollowingrules:Totreaduponthethresholdwhenyougooutinfrontofthehouse;togobacktobedifanyoneshouldsneezewhenyouareputtingonyourslippers;toreturnhomeifyoustumblewhengoingtoaplace;whenyourclothesareeatenbymice,tobemorefrightenedattheprospectofcomingmisfortunethangrievedbyyourpresentloss。WhencethatwittysayingofCato,who,whenconsultedbyamanwhotoldhimthatthemicehadeatenhisboots,replied,\"Thatisnotstrange,butitwouldhavebeenverystrangeindeedifthebootshadeatenthemice。\"
CHAP。21。——SUPERSTITIONOFASTROLOGERS。
32。Norcanweexcludefromthiskindofsuperstitionthosewhowerecalledgenethliaci,onaccountoftheirattentiontobirthdays,butarenowcommonlycalledmathematici。Forthese,too,althoughtheymayseekwithpainsforthetruepositionofthestarsatthetimeofourbirth,andmaysometimesevenfinditout,yetinsofarastheyattemptthencetopredictouractions,ortheconsequencesofouractions,grievouslyerr,andsellinexperiencedmenintoamiserablebondage。Forwhenanyfreemangoestoanastrologerofthiskind,hegivesmoneythathemaycomeawaytheslaveeitherofMarsorofVenus,orrather,perhaps,ofallthestarstowhichthosewhofirstfellintothiserror,andhandeditontoposterity,havegiventhenameseitherofbeastsonaccountoftheirlikenesstobeasts,orofmenwithaviewtoconferhonoronthosemen。Andthisisnottobewonderedat,whenweconsiderthatevenintimesmorerecentandnearerourown,theRomansmadeanattempttodedicatethestarwhichwecallLucifertothenameandhonorofCaesar。
Andthiswould,perhaps,havebeendone,andthenamehandeddowntodistantages,onlythathisancestressVenushadgivenhernametothisstarbeforehim,andcouldnotbyanylawtransfertoherheirswhatshehadneverpossessed,norsoughttopossess,inlife。Forwhereaplacewasvacant,ornotheldinhonorofanyofthedeadofformertimes,theusualproceedinginsuchcaseswascarriedout。Forexample,wehavechangedthenamesofthemonthsQuintilisandSextilistoJulyandAugust,namingtheminhonorofthemenJuliusCaesarandAugustusCaesar;andfromthisinstanceanyonewhocarescaneasilyseethatthestarsspokenofaboveformerlywanderedintheheavenswithoutthenamestheynowbear。Butasthemenweredeadwhosememorypeoplewereeithercompelledbyroyalpowerorimpelledbyhumanfollytohonor,theyseemedtothinkthatinputtingtheirnamesuponthestarstheywereraisingthedeadmenthemselvestoheaven。Butwhatevertheymaybecalledbymen,stilltherearestarswhichGodhasmadeandsetinorderafterHisownpleasure,andtheyhaveafixedmovement,bywhichtheseasonsaredistinguishedandvaried。
Andwhenanyoneisborn,itiseasytoobservethepointatwhichthismovementhasarrived,byuseoftherulesdiscoveredandlaiddownbythosewhoarerebukedbyHolyWritintheseterms:
\"Foriftheywereabletoknowsomuchthattheycouldweightheworld,howdidtheynotmoreeasilyfindouttheLordthereof?\"(1)
CHAP。22。——THEFOLLYOFOBSERVINGTHESTARS
INORDERTOPREDICTTHEEVENTSOFALIFE。
33。Buttodesiretopredictthecharacters,theacts,andthefateofthosewhoarebornfromsuchanobservation,isagreatdelusionandgreatmadness。Andamongthoseatleastwhohaveanysortofacquaintancewithmattersofthiskind(which,indeed,areonlyfittobeunlearntagain),thissuperstitionisrefutedbeyondthereachofdoubt。Fortheobservationisofthepositionofthestars,whichtheycallconstellations,atthetimewhenthepersonwasbornaboutwhomthesewretchedmenareconsultedbytheirstillmorewretcheddupes。Nowitmayhappenthat,inthecaseoftwins,onefollowstheotheroutofthewombsocloselythatthereisnointervaloftimebetweenthemthatcanbeapprehendedandmarkedinthepositionoftheconstellations。Whenceitnecessarilyfollowsthattwinsareinmanycasesbornunderthesamestars,whiletheydonotmeetwithequalfortuneeitherinwhattheydoorwhattheysuffer,butoftenmeetwithfatessodifferentthatoneofthemhasamostfortunatelife,theotheramostunfortunate。As,forexample,wearetoldthatEsauandJacobwereborntwins,andinsuchclosesuccession,thatJacob,whowasbornlast,wasfoundtohavelaidholdwithhishandupontheheelofhisbrother,whoprecededhim。(2)Now,assuredly,thedayandhourofthebirthofthesetwocouldnotbemarkedinanywaythatwouldnotgiveboththesameconstellation。Butwhatadifferencetherewasbetweenthecharacters,theactions,thelabors,andthefortunesofthesetwo,theScripturesbearwitness,whicharenowsowidelyspreadastobeinthemouthofallnations。
34。Norisittothepointtosaythattheverysmallestandbriefestmomentoftimethatseparatesthebirthoftwins,producesgreateffectsinnature,andintheextremelyrapidmotionoftheheavenlybodies。For,althoughImaygrantthatitdoesproducethegreatesteffects,yettheastrologercannotdiscoverthisintheconstellations,anditisbylookingintothesethatheprofessestoreadthefates。If,then,hedoesnotdiscoverthedifferencewhenheexaminestheconstellations,whichmust,ofcourse,bethesamewhetherheisconsultedaboutJacoborhisbrother,whatdoesitprofithimthatthereisadifferenceintheheavens,whichherashlyandcarelesslybringsintodisrepute,whenthereisnodifferenceinhischart,whichhelooksintoanxiouslybutinvain?Andsothesenotionsalso,whichhavetheiroriginincertainsignsofthingsbeingarbitrarilyfixeduponbythepresumptionofmen,aretobereferredtothesameclassasiftheywereleaguesandcovenantswithdevils。
CHAP。23。——WHYWEREPUDIATEARTSOFDIVINATION。
35。Forinthiswayitcomestopassthatmenwholustafterevilthingsare,byasecretjudgmentofGod,deliveredovertobemockedanddeceived,asthejustrewardoftheirevildesires。Fortheyaredeludedandimposedonbythefalseangels,towhomthelowestpartoftheworldhasbeenputinsubjectionbythelawofGod’sprovidence,andinaccordancewithHismostadmirablearrangementofthings。Andtheresultofthesedelusionsanddeceptionsis,thatthroughthesesuperstitiousandbanefulmodesofdivinationmanythingsinthepastandfuturearemadeknown,andturnoutjustastheyareforetoldandinthecaseofthosewhopractisesuperstitiousobservances,manythingsturnoutagreeablytotheirobservances,andensnaredbythesesuccesses,theybecomemoreeagerlyinquisitive,andinvolvethemselvesfurtherandfurtherinalabyrinthofmostperniciouserror。Andtoouradvantage,theWordofGodisnotsilentaboutthisspeciesoffornicationofthesoul;anditdoesnotwarnthesoulagainstfollowingsuchpracticesonthegroundthatthosewhoprofessthemspeaklies,butitsays,\"Evenifwhattheytellyoushouldcometopass,hearkennotuntothem。\"IForthoughtheghostofthedeadSamuelforetoldthetruthtoKingSaul,(2)thatdoesnotmakesuchsacrilegiousobservancesasthosebywhichhisghostwasbroughtupthelessdetestable;andthoughtheventriloquistwoman(3)intheActsoftheApostlesboretruetestimonytotheapostlesoftheLord,theApostlePauldidnotsparetheevilspiritonthataccount,butrebukedandcastitout,andsomadethewomanclean。(4)
36。Allartsofthissort,therefore,areeithernullities,orarepartofaguiltysuperstition,springingoutofabalefulfellowshipbetweenmenanddevils,andaretobeutterlyrepudiatedandavoidedbytheChristianasthecovenantsofafalseandtreacherousfriendship。\"Notasiftheidolwereanything,\"saystheapostle;\"butbecausethethingswhichtheysacrificetheysacrificetodevilsandnottoGod;andIwouldnotthatyeshouldhavefellowshipwithdevils。\"(5)Nowwhattheapostlehassaidaboutidolsandthesacrificesofferedintheirhonor,thatweoughttofeelinregardtoallfanciedsignswhichleadeithertotheworshipofidols,ortoworshippingcreationoritspartsinsteadofGod,orwhichareconnectedwithattentiontomedicinalcharmsandotherobservancesforthesearenotappointedbyGodasthepublicmeansofpromotinglovetowardsGodandourneighbor,buttheywastetheheartsofwretchedmeninprivateandselfishstrivingsaftertemporalthings。Accordingly,inregardtoallthesebranchesofknowledge,wemustfearandshunthefellowshipofdemons,who,withtheDeviltheirprince,striveonlytoshutandbarthedooragainstourreturn。As,then,fromthestarswhichGodcreatedandordained,menhavedrawnlyingomensoftheirownfancy,soalsofromthingsthatareborn,orinanyotherwaycomeintoexIstenceunderthegovernmentofGod’sprovidence,iftherechanceonlytobesomethingunusualintheoccurrence,——aswhenamulebringsforthyoung,oranobjectisstruckbylightning,——menhavefrequentlydrawnomensbyconjecturesoftheirown,andhavecommittedthemtowriting,asiftheyhaddrawnthembyrule。
CHAP。24。——THEINTERCOURSEANDAGREEMENTWITHDEMONSWHICHSUPERSTITIOUS
OBSERVANCESMAINTAIN。
37。Andalltheseomensareofforcejustsofarashasbeenarrangedwiththedevilsbythatpreviousunderstandinginthemindwhichis,asitwere,thecommonlanguage,buttheyareallfullofhurtfulcuriosity,torturinganxiety,anddeadlyslavery。Foritwasnotbecausetheyhadmeaningthattheywereattendedto,butitwasbyattendingtoandmarkingthemthattheycametohavemeaning。Andsotheyaremadedifferentfordifferentpeople,accordingtotheirseveralnotionsandprejudices。Forthosespiritswhicharebentupondeceiving,takecaretoprovideforeachpersonthesamesortofomensastheyseehisownconjecturesandpreconceptionshavealreadyentangledhimin。For,totakeanillustration,thesamefigureoftheletterX,whichismadeintheshapeofacross,meansonethingamongtheGreeksandanotheramongtheLatins,notbynature,butbyagreementandpre-arrangementastoitssignification;andso,anyonewhoknowsbothlanguagesusesthisletterinadifferentsensewhenwritingtoaGreekfromthatinwhichheusesitwhenwritingtoaLatin。Andthesamesound,beta,whichisthenameofaletteramongtheGreeks,isthenameofavegetableamongtheLatins;andwhenIsay,lege,thesetwosyllablesmeanonethingtoaGreekandanothertoaLatin。Now,justasallthesesignsaffectthemindaccordingtothearrangementsofthecommunityinwhicheachmanlives,andaffectdifferentmen’smindsdifferently,becausethesearrangementsaredifferent;
andas,further,mendidnotagreeuponthemassignsbecausetheywerealreadysignificant,butonthecontrarytheyarenowsignificantbecausemenhaveagreeduponthem;inthesamewayalso,thosesignsbywhichtheruinousintercoursewithdevilsismaintainedhavemeaningjustinproportiontoeachman’sobservations。
Andthisappearsquiteplainlyintheritesoftheaugurs;forthey,bothbeforetheyobservetheomensandaftertheyhavecompletedtheirobservations,takepainsnottoseetheflightorhearthecriesofbirds,becausetheseomensareofnosignificanceapartfromthepreviousarrangementinthemindoftheobserver。
CHAP。25。——INHUMANINSTITUTIONSWHICHARENOTSUPERSTITIOUS,THERE
ARESOMETHINGS
SUPERFLUOUSANDSOMECONVENIENTANDNECESSARY。
38。ButwhenallthesehavebeencutawayandrootedoutofthemindoftheChristianwemustthenlookathumaninstitutionswhicharenotsuperstitious,thatis,suchasarenotsetupinassociationwithdevils,butbymeninassociationwithoneanother。
Forallarrangementsthatayeinforceamongmen,becausetheyhaveagreedamongthemselvesthattheyshouldbeinforce,arehumaninstitutions;andofthese,somearemattersofsuperfluityandluxury,someofconvenienceandnecessity。Forifthosesignswhichtheactorsmakeindancingwereofforcebynature,andnotbythearrangementandagreementofmen,thepubliccrierwouldnotinformertimeshaveannouncedtothepeopleofCarthage,whilethepantomimewasdancing,whatitwashemeanttoexpress,——athingstillrememberedbymanyoldmenfromwhomwehavefrequentlyheardit。IAndwemaywellbelievethis,becauseevennow,ifanyonewhoisunaccustomedtosuchfolliesgoesintothetheatre,unlesssomeonetellshimwhatthesemovementsmean,hewillgivehiswholeattentiontotheminvain。Yetallmenaimatacertaindegreeoflikenessintheirchoiceofsigns,thatthesignsmayasfaraspossiblebelikethethingstheysignify。Butbecauseonethingmayresembleanotherinmanyways,suchsignsarenotalwaysofthesamesignificanceamongmen,exceptwhentheyhavemutuallyagreeduponthem。
39。Butinregardtopicturesandstatues,andotherworksofthiskind,whichareintendedasrepresentationsofthings,nobodymakesamistake,especiallyiftheyareexecutedbyskilledartists,buteveryone,assoonasheseesthelikenesses,recognizesthethingstheyarelikenessesof。Andthiswholeclassaretobereckonedamongthesuperfluousdevicesofmen,unlesswhenitisamatterofimportancetoinquireinregardtoanyofthem,forwhatreason,where,when,andbywhoseauthorityitwasmade。Finally,thethousandsoffablesandfictions,inwhoseliesmentakedelight,arehumandevices,andnothingistobeconsideredmorepeculiarlyman’sownandderivedfromhimselfthananythingthatisfalseandlying。Amongtheconvenientandnecessaryarrangementsofmenwithmenaretobereckonedwhateverdifferencestheychoosetomakeinbodilydressandornamentforthepurposeofdistinguishingsexorrank;andthecountlessvarietiesofsignswithoutwhichhumanintercourseeithercouldnotbecarriedonatall,orwouldbecarriedonatgreatinconvenience;andthearrangementsastoweightsandmeasures,andthestampingandweighingofcoins,whicharepeculiartoeachstateandpeople,andotherthingsofthesamekind。Nowthese,iftheywerenotdevicesofmen,wouldnotbedifferentindifferentnations,andcouldnotbechangedamongparticularnationsatthediscretionoftheirrespectivesovereigns。
40。Thiswholeclassofhumanarrangements,whichareofconvenienceforthenecessaryintercourseoflife,theChristianisnotbyanymeanstoneglect,butonthecontraryshouldpayasufficientdegreeofattentiontothem,andkeeptheminmemory。
CHAP。26。——WHATHUMANCONTRIVANCESWEARETOADOPT,ANDWHATWEARE
TOAVOID。
Forcertaininstitutionsofmenareinasortofwayrepresentationsandlikenessesofnaturalobjects。Andofthese,suchashaverelationtofellowshipwithdevilsmust,ashasbeensaid,beutterlyrejectedandheldindetestation;those,ontheotherhand,whichrelatetothemutualintercourseofmen,are,sofarastheyarenotmattersofluxuryandsuperfluity,tobeadopted,especiallytheformsoftheletterswhicharenecessaryforreading,andthevariouslanguagesasfarasisrequired——amatterI
havespokenofabove。(2)Tothisclassalsobelongshorthandcharacters,(3)
thosewhoareacquaintedwithwhicharecalledshorthandwriters。(4)Alltheseareuseful,andthereisnothingunlawfulinlearningthem,nordotheyinvolveusinsuperstition,orenervateusbyluxury,iftheyonlyoccupyourmindssofarasnottostandinthewayofmoreimportantobjectstowhichtheyoughttobesubservientCHAP。27。——SOMEDEPARTMENTSOFKNOWLEDGE,NOTOFMEREHUMANINVENTION,AIDUSIN
INTERPRETINGSCRIPTURE。
41。But,comingtothenextpoint,wearenottoreckonamonghumaninstitutionsthosethingswhichmennavehandeddowntous,notasarrangementsoftheirown,butastheresultofinvestigationintotheoccurrencesofthepast,andintothearrangementsofGod’sprovidence。Andofthese,somepertaintothebodilysenses,sometotheintellect。Thosewhicharereachedbythebodilysensesweeitherbelieveontestimony,orperceivewhentheyarepointedouttous,orinferfromexperience。
CHAP。28。——TOWHATEXTENTHISTORYISANAID。
42。Anything,then,thatwelearnfromhistoryaboutthechronologyofpasttimesassistsusverymuchinunderstandingtheScriptures,evenifitbelearntwithoutthepaleoftheChurchasamatterofchildishinstruction。ForwefrequentlyseekinformationaboutavarietyofmattersbyuseoftheOlympiads,andthenamesoftheconsuls;andignoranceoftheconsulshipinwhichourLordwasborn,andthatinwhichHesuffered,hasledsomeintotheerrorofsupposingthatHewasforty-sixyearsofagewhenHesuffered,thatbeingthenumberofyearsHewastoldbytheJewsthetemple(whichHetookasasymbolofHisbody)wasinbuilding。(1)NowweknowontheauthorityoftheevangelistthatHewasaboutthirtyyearsofagewhenHewasbaptized;(2)ButthenumberofyearsHelivedafterwards,althoughbyputtingHisactionstogetherwecanmakeitout,yetthatnoshadowofdoubtmightarisefromanothersource,canbeascertainedmoreclearlyandmorecertainlyfromacomparisonofprofanehistorywiththegospel。Itwillstillbeevident,however,thatitwasnotwithoutapurposeitwassaidthatthetemplewasfortyandsixyearsinbuilding;sothat,asmoresecretformationofthebodywhich,foroursakes,theonly-begottenSonofGod,bywhomallthingsweremade,condescendedtoputon。(3)
43。Astotheutilityofhistory,moreover,passingovertheGreeks,whatagreatquestionourownAmbrosehassetatrest!
For,whenthereadersandadmirersofPlatodaredcalumniouslytoassertthatourLordJesusChristlearntallthosesayingsofHis,whichtheyarecompelledtoadmireandpraise,fromthebooksofPlato——because(theyurged)itcannotbedeniedthatPlatolivedlongbeforethecomingofourLord!——didnottheillustriousbishop,whenbyhisinvestigationsintoprofanehistoryhehaddiscoveredthatPlatomadeajourneyintoEgyptatthetimewhenJeremiahtheprophetwasthere,(4)showthatitismuchmorelikelythatPlatowasthroughJeremiah’smeansinitiatedintoourliterature,soastobeabletoteachandwritethoseviewsofhiswhicharesojustlypraised?FornotevenPythagorashimself,fromwhosesuccessorsthesemenassertPlatolearnttheology,livedatadatepriortothebooksofthatHebrewrace,amongwhomtheworshipofoneGodsprangup,andofwhomasconcerningthefleshourLordcame。Andthus,whenwereflectuponthedates,itbecomesmuchmoreprobablethatthosephilosopherslearntWhatevertheysaidthatwasgoodandtruefromourliterature,thanthattheLordJesusChristlearntfromthewritingsofPlato,——athingwhichitistheheightoffollytobelieve。
44。Andevenwheninthecourseofanhistoricalnarrativeformerinstitutionsofmenaredescribed,thehistoryitselfisnottobereckonedamonghumaninstitutions;becausethingsthatarepastandgoneandcannotbeundonearetobereckonedasbelongingtothecourseoftime,ofwhichGodistheauthorandgovernor。
Foritisonethingtotellwhathasbeendone,anothertoshowwhatoughttobedone。Historynarrateswhathasbeendone,faithfullyandwithadvantage;butthebooksoftheharuspices,andallwritingsofthesamekind,aimatteachingwhatoughttobedoneorobserved,usingtheboldnessofanadviser,notthefidelityofanarrator。
CHAP。29。——TOWHATEXTENTNATURALSCIENCEISANEXEGETICALAID。
45。Thereisalsoaspeciesofnarrativeresemblingdescription,inwhichnotapastbutanexistingstateofthingsismadeknowntothosewhoareignorantofit。Tothisspeciesbelongsallthathasbeenwrittenaboutthesituationofplaces,andthenatureofanimals,trees,herbs,stones,andotherbodies。AndofthisspeciesIhavetreatedabove,andhaveshownthatthiskindofknowledgeisserviceableinsolvingthedifficultiesofScripture,notthattheseobjectsaretobeusedconformablytocertainsignsasnostrumsortheinstrumentsofsuperstition;forthatkindofknowledgeIhavealreadysetasideasdistinctfromthelawfulandfreekindnowspokenof。Foritisonethingtosay:Ifyoubruisedownthisherbanddrinkit,itwillremovethepainfromyourstomach;andanothertosay:Ifyouhangthisherbroundyourneck,itwillremovethepainfromyourstomach。Intheformercasethewholesomemixtureisapprovedof,inthelatterthesuperstitiouscharmiscondemned;althoughindeed,whereincantationsandinvocationsandmarksarenotused,itisfrequentlydoubtfulwhetherthethingthatistiedorfixedinanywaytothebodytocureit,actsbyanaturalvirtue,inwhichcaseitmaybefreelyused;oractsbyasortofcharm,inwhichcaseitbecomestheChristiantoavoiditthemorecarefully,themoreefficaciousitmayseemtobe。Butwhenthereasonwhyathingisofvirtuedoesnotappear,theintentionwithwhichitisusedisofgreatimportance,atleastinhealingorintemperingbodies,whetherinmedicineorinagriculture。
46。Theknowledgeofthestars,again,isnotamatterofnarration,butofdescription。Veryfewofthese,however,arementionedinScripture。Andasthecourseofthemoon,whichisregularlyemployedinreferencetocelebratingtheanniversaryofourLord’spassion,isknowntomostpeople;sotherisingandsettingandothermovementsoftherestoftheheavenlybodiesarethoroughlyknowntoveryfew。Andthisknowledge,althoughinitselfitinvolvesnosuperstition,rendersverylittle,indeedalmostnoassistance,intheinterpretationofHolyScripture,andbyengagingtheattentionunprofitablyisahindrancerather;andasitiscloselyrelatedtotheveryperniciouserrorofthedivinersofthefates,itismoreconvenientandbecomingtoneglectit。Itinvolves,moreover,inadditiontoadescriptionofthepresentstateofthings,somethinglikeanarrativeofthepastalso;becauseonemaygobackfromthepresentpositionandmotionofthestars,andtracebyruletheirpastmovements。Itinvolvesalsoregularanticipationsofthefuture,notinthewayofforebodingsandomens,butbywayofsurecalculation;notwiththedesignofdrawinganyinformationfromthemastoourownactsandfates,intheabsurdfashionofthegenethliaci,butonlyastothemotionsoftheheavenlybodiesthemselves。For,asthemanwhocomputesthemoon’sagecantell,whenhehasfoundoutheragetoday,whatheragewasanynumberofyearsago,orwhatwillbeherageanynumberofyearshence,injustthesamewaymenwhoareskilledinsuchcomputationsareaccustomedtoanswerlikequestionsabouteveryoneoftheheavenlybodies。AndIhavestatedwhatmyviewsareaboutallthisknowledge,sofarasregardsitsutility。
CHAP。30。——WHATTHEMECHANICALARTSCONTRIBUTETOEXEGETICS。
47。Further,astotheremainingarts,whetherthosebywhichsomethingismadewhich,whentheeffortoftheworkmanisover,remainsasaresultofhiswork,as,forexample,ahouse,abench,adish,andotherthingsofthatkind;orthosewhich,sotospeak,assistGodinHisoperations,asmedicine,andagriculture,andnavigation:orthosewhosesoleresultisanaction,asdancing,andracing,andwrestling;——inalltheseartsexperienceteachesustoinferthefuturefromthepast。Fornomanwhoisskilledinanyoftheseartsmoveshislimbsinanyoperationwithoutconnectingthememoryofthepastwiththeexpectationofthefuture。Nowoftheseartsaverysuperficialandcursoryknowledgeistobeacquired,notwithaviewtopractisingthem(unlesssomedutycompelus,amatteronwhichIdonottouchatpresent),butwithaviewtoformingajudgmentaboutthem,thatwemaynotbewhollyignorantofwhatScripturemeanstoconveywhenitemploysfiguresofspeechderivedfromthesearts。
CHAP。31。——USEOFDIALECTICS。OFFALLACIES。
48。Thereremainthosebranchesofknowledgewhichpertainnottothebodilysenses,buttotheintellect,amongwhichthescienceofreasoningandthatofnumberarethechief。ThescienceofreasoningisofverygreatserviceinsearchingintoandunravellingallsortsofquestionsthatcomeupinScripture,onlyintheuseofitwemustguardagainsttheloveofwrangling,andthechildishvanityofentrappinganadversary。Fortherearemanyofwhatarecalledsolphisms,inferencesinreasoningthatarefalse,andyetsocloseanimitationofthetrue,astodeceivenotonlydullpeople,butclevermentoo,whentheyarenotontheirguard。Forexample,onemanlaysbeforeanotherwithwhomheistalking,theproposition,\"WhatIam,youarenot。\"Theotherassents,forthepropositionisinparttrue,theonemanbeingcunningandtheothersimple。Thenthefirstspeakeradds:\"Iamaman;\"andwhentheotherhasgivenhisassenttothisalso,thefirstdrawshisconclusion:\"Thenyouarenotaman。\"’Nowofthissortofensnaringarguments,Scripture,asIjudge,expressesdetestationinthatplacewhereitissaid,\"Thereisonethatshowethwisdominwords,andishated;\"(1)although,indeed,astyleofspeechwhichisnotintendedtoentrap,butonlyaimsatverbalornamentationmorethanisconsistentwithseriousnessofpurpose,isalsocalledsophistical。
49。Therearealsovalidprocessesofreasoningwhichleadtofalseconclusions,byfollowingouttoitslogicalconsequencestheerrorofthemanwithwhomoneisarguing;andtheseconclusionsaresometimesdrawnbyagoodandlearnedman,withtheobjectofmakingthepersonfromwhoseerrortheseconsequencesresult,feelashamedofthemandofthusleadinghimtogiveuphiserrorwhenhefindsthatifhewishestoretainhisoldopinion,hemustofnecessityalsoholdotheropinionswhichhecondemns。Forexample,theapostledidnotdrawtrueconclusionswhenhesaid,\"ThenisChristnotrisen,\"andagain,\"Thenisourpreachingvain,andyourfaithisalsovain;\"(1)andfurtherondrewotherinferenceswhichareallutterlyfalse;forChristhasrisen,thepreachingofthosewhodeclaredthisfactwasnotinvain,norwastheirfaithinvainwhohadbelievedit。Butallthesefalseinferencesfollowedlegitimatelyfromtheopinionofthosewhosaidthatthereisnoresurrectionofthedead。Theseinferences,then,beingrepudiatedasfalse,itfollowsthatsincetheywouldbetrueifthedeadrisenot,therewillbearesurrectionofthedead。As,then,validconclusionsmaybedrawnnotonlyfromtruebutfromfalsepropositions,thelawsofvalidreasoningmayeasilybelearntintheschools,outsidethepaleoftheChurch。ButthetruthofpropositionsmustbeinquiredintointhesacredbooksoftheChurch。
CHAP。32。——VALIDLOGICALSEQUENCEISNOTDEVISEDBUTONLYOBSERVEDBY
MAN。
50。Andyetthevalidityoflogicalsequencesisnotathingdevisedbymen,butisobservedandnotedbythemthattheymaybeabletolearnandteachit;foritexistseternallyinthereasonofthings,andhasitsoriginwithGod。Forasthemanwhonarratestheorderofeventsdoesnothimselfcreatethatorder;andashewhodescribesthesituationsofplaces,orthenaturesofanimals,orroots,orminerals,doesnotdescribearrangementsofman;
andashewhopointsoutthestarsandtheirmovementsdoesnotpointoutanythingthathehimselforanyothermanhasordained;——inthesameway,hewhosays,\"Whentheconsequentisfalse,theantecedentmustalsobefalse,\"sayswhatismosttrue;buthedoesnothimselfmakeitso,heonlypointsoutthatitisso。AnditisuponthisrulethatthereasoningIhavequotedfromtheApostlePaulproceeds。Fortheantecedentis,\"Thereisnoresurrectionofthedead,\"——thepositiontakenupbythosewhoseerrortheapostlewishedtooverthrow。Next,fromthisantecedent,theassertion,viz。,thatthereisnoresurrectionofthedead,thenecessaryconsequenceis,\"ThenChristisnotrisen。\"Butthisconsequenceisfalse,forChristhasrisen;thereforetheantecedentisalsofalse。Buttheantecedentis,thatthereisnoresurrectionofthedead。Weconclude,therefore,thatthereisaresurrectionofthedead。Nowallthisisbrieflyexpressedthus:Ifthereisnoresurrectionofthedead,thenisChristnotrisen;butChristisrisen,thereforethereisaresurrectionofthedead。Thisrule,then,thatwhentheconsequentisremoved,theantecedentmustalsoberemoved,isnotmadebyman,butonlypointedoutbyhim。Andthisrulehasreferencetothevalidityofthereasoning,nottothetruthofthestatements。
CHAP。33。——FALSEINFERENCESMAYBEDRAWNFROMVALIDREASONINGS,AND
VICEVERSA。
51。Inthispassage,however,wheretheargumentisabouttheresurrection,boththelawoftheinferenceisvalid,andtheconclusionarrivedatistrue。Butinthecaseoffalseconclusions,too,thereisavalidityofinferenceinsomesuchwayasthefollowing。Letussupposesomemantohaveadmitted:Ifasnailisananimal,ithasavoice。Thisbeingadmitted,then,whenithasbeenprovedthatthesnailhasnovoice,itfollows(sincewhentheconsequentisprovedfalse,theantecedentisalsofalse)
thatthesnailisnotananimal。Nowthisconclusionisfalse,butitisatrueandvalidinferencefromthefalseadmission。Thus,thetruthofastatementstandsonitsownmerits;thevalidityofaninferencedependsonthestatementortheadmissionofthemanwithwhomoneisarguing。Andthus,asIsaidabove,afalseinferencemaybedrawnbyavalidprocessofreasoning,inorderthathewhoseerrorwewishtocorrectmaybesorrythathehasadmittedtheantecedent,whenheseesthatitslogicalconsequencesareutterlyuntenable。Andhenceitiseasytounderstandthatastheinferencesmaybevalidwheretheopinionsarefalse,sotheinferencesmaybeunsoundwheretheopinionsaretrue。Forexample,supposethatamanpropoundsthestatement,\"Ifthismanisjust,heisgood,\"andweadmititstruth。
Thenheadds,\"Butheisnotjust;\"andwhenweadmitthistoo,hedrawstheconclusion,\"Thereforeheisnotgood。\"Nowalthougheveryoneofthesestatementsmaybetrue,stilltheprincipleoftheinferenceisunsound。Foritisnottruethat,aswhentheconsequentisprovedfalsetheantecedentisalsofalse,sowhentheantecedentisprovedfalsetheconsequentisfalse。Forthestatementistrue,\"Ifheisanorator,heisaman。\"Butifweadd,\"Heisnotanorator,\"theconsequencedoesnotfollow,\"Heisnotaman。\"
CHAP。34。——ITISONETHINGTOKNOWTHELAWSOFINFERENCE,ANOTHERTO
KNOWTHETRUTH
OFOPINIONS。
52。Thereforeitisonethingtoknowthelawsofinference,andanothertoknowthetruthofopinions。Intheformercasewelearnwhatisconsequent,whatisinconsequent,andwhatisincompatible。
Anexampleofaconsequentis,\"Ifheisanorator,heisaman;\"ofaninconsequent,\"Ifheisaman,heisanorator;\"ofanincompatible,\"Ifheisaman,heisaquadruped。\"Intheseinstanceswejudgeoftheconnection。Inregardtothetruthofopinions,however,wemustconsiderpropositionsastheystandbythemselves,andnotintheirconnectionwithoneanother;butwhenpropositionsthatwearenotsureaboutarejoinedbyavalidinferencetopropositionsthataretrueandcertain,theythemselves,too,necessarilybecomecertain。Nowsome,whentheyhaveascertainedthevalidityoftheinference,plumethemselvesasifthisinvolvedalsothetruthofthepropositions。Many,again,whoholdthetrueopinionshaveanunfoundedcontemptforthemselves,becausetheyareignorantofthelawsofinference;whereasthemanwhoknowsthatthereisaresurrectionofthedeadisassuredlybetterthanthemanwhoonlyknowsthatitfollowsthatifthereisnoresurrectionofthedead,thenisChristnotrisen。
CHAP。35。——THESCIENCEOFDEFINITIONISNOTFALSE,THOUGHITMAYBE
APPLIEDTO
FALSITIES。
53。Again,thescienceofdefinition,ofdivision,andofpartition,althoughitisfrequentlyappliedtofalsities,isnotitselffalse,norframedbyman’sdevice,butisevolvedfromthereasonofthings。Foralthoughpoetshaveappliedittotheirfictions,andfalsephilosophers,orevenheretics——thatis,falseChristians——totheirerroneousdoctrines,thatisnoreasonwhyitshouldbefalse,forexample,thatneitherindefinition,norindivision,norinpartition,isanythingtobeincludedthatdoesnotpertaintothematterinhand,noranythingtobeomittedthatdoes。Thisistrue,eventhoughthethingstobedefinedordividedarenottrue。
Forevenfalsehooditselfisdefinedwhenwesaythatfalsehoodisthedeclarationofastateofthingswhichisnotaswedeclareittobe;andthisdefinitionistrue,althoughfalsehooditselfcannotbetrue。Wecanalsodivideit,sayingthattherearetwokindsoffalsehood,oneinregardtothingsthatcannotbetrueatall,theotherinregardtothingsthatarenot,thoughitispossibletheymightbe,true。Forexample,themanwhosaysthatsevenandthreeareeleven,sayswhatcannotbetrueunderanycircumstances;buthewhosaysthatitrainedonthekalendsofJanuary,althoughperhapsthefactisnotso,sayswhatposssiblymighthavebeen。Thedefinitionanddivision,therefore,ofwhatisfalsemaybeperfectlytrue,althoughwhatisfalsecannot,ofcourse,itselfbetrue。