eachpersoncouldpaywhatheliked。Thesumsproducedbythetaxwereintendedforthepaymentofthearmy。DuringthenexttwoyearswefindtheSoborconsultingtheCzaronmattersofwarandtaxation，ontherelationsofthelandwithPolandandtheTartarsoftheCrimea。TheCzarcomplainedoftheill-treatmenttowhichhisenvoywassubjectedbytheKhan。Thesuperiorclergy，whoseansweralonehasbeenpreserved，insistedonthenecessityofbuildingfortressesontheSouthernboundariesoftheMoscoviteempire，inthosecitiesoftheUkraine，whichlikeBelgorodorVoroneg，remainedforcenturiesthepioneersofChristianityandcultureinthesouthernsteppesofRussia，andwhichwereperiodicallyplunderedbytheTartars。
TwoyearslaterthemilitaryoccupationofAsovbytheCossacksoftheDonandtheimpendingnecessityofawarwiththeCrimeanTartarsforthepreservationoftheconquest，causedanewSobortobeconvened。ThisAssemblywasinfavourofwarandaccordinglyorderedthelevyofmilitaryforces，\"evenfromthevillagesbelongingtothecrownlandandthelandsoftheclergy。\"In1642mattersconcerningthefortressofAsovagainbecametheimmediatecauseofanewassemblingoftheRussianEstates。AstheTurkshadnointentionofleavingAsovinthehandsoftheCossacks，whowerenotabletoholditthemselves，thequestionofannexingittotheRussianstatesuggesteditselftotheGovernment，thoughitinvolvedtheriskofincurringtheresponsibilityofanewandalmostimminentwar。TheCzarfindingitnecessarytoknowthefeelingofthenation，summonedonehundredandninety-fivepersonselectedbytheEstates，besidestheDoumaorPrivyCouncilandthesuperiorclergy，toMoscow。
Nearlyallclassesofsocietysentrepresentatives，eachclassgaveitsopinionoradviceseparatelyonpapersbearingthesignaturesofallthemembersofthesameEstate，whilethedissentientssentintheiropinionsonseparateandprivatepapers。
Thesuperiorclergy，faithfultotheiroldhabits，assuredtheCzarthattheywerequiteunabletoadvisehimonthequestion；itwasnot，theysaid，theircustomtodoSo，foritwastheBusinessoftheCzarandhisDouma；theirsoledutywastoinvokeGod’sblessingontheCzar’sundertakings。ShouldtheCzar，however，wantmilitaryaid，theydeclaredthemselvesreadytomakethenecessarysacrificesinordertopaythesoldiers，andthataccordingtotheirmeans。ThemajorityoftheMoscovitenobilityexpressedthemselvesinfavourofannexation。TheCzaroughttoholdthenewlyacquiredfortress，butheshouldmerelyordertheCossackstocontinuetheiroccupationofit。Volunteersaloneoughttobenecessarytogivehelpandassistance。SomeadvisedthatsoldiersshouldBesenttoAsov，notonlyfromthecitiesoftheUkraine，butevenfromMoscow。Allsortsofmen，withtheexceptionofserfsandsuchashadlosttheirlibertythroughnothavingpaidtheirdebts，oughttobeselectedforthatpurpose。Ifmoneywerewanted，eachEstateoughttonominatetwoorthreepersonswhomtheCzarmightauthorisetolevysubsidiesfromallpersonsandgoods，fromofficers（prikasnii）
andtheCzar’ssuite，fromwidowsandorphans，from\"hosts\"andmerchants，andfromeachandeverypersonnotengagedinmilitaryservice。
Someofthenobility，amongstothersthoseofVladimir，simplypromisedtoobeytheCzar’sorders，pointingatthesametimetothemiserablestateoftheircitiesandcountry，whichtheysaidwaswellknowntotheCzarandtotheboyarsofhisDouma。Muchmoreperemptorywastheadvicegivenbythelocalnobilityofcertainlargercities，suchasSousdal，Juriev（themodernDorpat），Novgorod，andRostov。TheywereofopinionthatthesurrenderofAsovwouldbringdownthewrathofGod：\"TheCzarcannotleaveinthehandsoftheinfidels，\"saidthey，\"theholyimagesofJohntheBaptistandofSt。Nicholas。\"IfthearmywantedvictualstheymightbetakenoutofthemagazinesbelongingtothecitiesoftheUkraine。MilitaryaidcouldbegivenfromMoscowandtheexpensesforthevictuallingofthearmyoughttobelaiduponthewholeland，withoutexception。
ComplainingofthegreatquantityoflandgiveninbeneficestotheboyarsandofthelargeamountofmoneygotbybribesandextortionsbytheofficersoftheState（prikasnii），whoafterwardsinvesteditinvastbuildingsandpalaces，theburgessesinsistedonthenecessityoflayingpartoftheburdenofthefuturewarontheshouldersofthatclass，andofobligingthemtoarmthesoldiers；theymaintained，moreover，thattheirfortunesshouldbetaxedlikethoseofallotherclassesoftheState。Thesamemeasuresoughtalsotobetakenwiththeclergy，thebishopsandabbotsbeingequallycalledontoequipwarriors，accordingtothenumberofserfstheypossessed。TheCzaroughttoissueanukase，statingthenumberofserfsasoldieroughttopossess，orrathertheproportionexistingbetweenthenumberofhisserfsandtheservicerequiredofhim。Thisproportionshouldbestrictlymaintainedinfuture，andthosewhohadnotserfsenoughoughttoreceivenewgiftsofserfsfromthegovernment。
Moneyforpurposesofwar，theyalsoinsisted，mightbetakenoutofthetreasuriesofthePatriarchandthemonasteries。
Thelowernobility，orwhatisthesamething，themen-of-warofthecitiesofToula，Kolomna，Serpouchov，Riazan，Kalouga，etc。，wereevenmorepreciseintheirdemandsthattheproportionofmilitaryserviceshouldtallywiththenumberofserfswhicheachman-of-warorknightpossessed。Thosewhohadoverfiftyserfsoughttoservewithoutpay，andalsocontributetotheexpensesofthewarbysupplyingfoodtothearmy，whistthosewhohadnotmorethanfiftyoughttobefreefromthelatterobligation。
Ifweturnourattentiontothe\"writtenopinions\"giveninbythemembersofthethirdestate，wefindthemcomplainingofthemiserablestateintowhichtheyhadrecentlyfallen，partlybecauseallthecommerceofMoscowwasinthehandsofforeigners，andpartlybecauseoftheoppressionofthevoivodes，orGovernorsofprovinces，whohadsupersededthefreelyelectedheadsofdistricts（thegoubniistarostiofthesixteenthcentury）。ThedelegatesofthehostsandmerchantsofMoscowneverthelessinsistonthenecessityofholdingAsov，pointingoutatthesametimethattheyreceivenolandsfromtheCrown，andhavemoretroublethanprofitinthelevyingoftaxesandexciseduties，andgenerallysuggestingtotheCzartheimpossibilityofincreasingtheirpayments。
The\"memorial\"ofthehundredmenandheadmenoftheblackhundredsandtownships，underwhichnamemustbeunderstoodtherepresentativesoftheruralpopulation，containsmoreorlessthesamecomplaintsandsimilardesires。Thepeopleareexhaustedbytaxes，forcedlabour，militaryservice，etc。；theyhavealsosufferedmuchfromfire；thevoivodeshaveruinedthembytheirexactions；somiserableistheirconditionthatmanyofthemhaverunaway，leavingtheirhousesandlands。Theconclusionofthisveryinterestingdocumenthasunfortunatelynotcomedowntous。
OurgeneralimpressiononreadingthememorialsorpetitionsofthisSoboristhat，althoughallEstateswereunanimousintheirpatrioticdesiretokeeptheirholdonthenewlyconqueredfortress，theystillfeltthemselvesscarcelyinapositiontobeartheexpenseofanewwarwiththeTurks；andsharingintheseapprehensionstheCzardidnotdaretoincurtheresponsibility，andsentorderstotheCossackstowithdrawfromAsov。
TheSoborof1642wasthelastgeneralAssemblyconvenedbythefirstoftheRomanovs。
AlthoughthedirectsuccessorofMichael，AlexisMichaelovich，ascendedthethronewithoutenteringintoanycovenantwithhispeople，neverthelesstheSoborwascalledtoconfirmtheactofhiscoronation。Thishappenedin1645。FouryearslatertheSoborwascalledupontoaidintheimportantbusinessofcodification。ModerninquirershavebroughttolightthefactthatthepetitionspresentedatthisAssemblymorethanoncefurnishedimportantmaterialsforthereformationoftheRussianlaw，andthattheirinfluencemaybetracedthroughthewholecodeofAlexis（knownunderthetitleofOulogenie）。DuringthefollowingyeartheSoborwasagainconvenedatMoscowinordertoadvisetheGovernmentastothesuppressionofinsurrectionarymovementsindifferentpartsoftheempire，andespeciallyatPskov。TheAssemblyadvisedlenienttreatmentoftheinsurgents，andtheGovernmentactedaccordingly。
In1651and1653theSoborontwodifferentoccasionsdeclareditselfinfavouroftheannexationofLittleRussia。
ThiscountryhadbeenliberatedfromthePolesbythe\"Hetman\"oftheCossacks，BogdanChmelnizky，whosoonafterwardsofferedittotheCzarofRussia。ItwasfearedthattheacceptanceofthisoffermightinvolveRussiainanewwarwithPoland；thereforetheadviceoftheSoborof1651wasonlyconditional。IfPolandacquiescedinthedemandsoftheCzar，Russiawastoabstainfromannexation；ifnot，theriskofanewwaroughtnottobeavoided，andChristianbrethrenweretobetakenundertheprotectionoftheorthodoxCzar。Threeyearslater，whenthePolishkingJanKasimirenteredintodirectalliancewiththeancientenemiesofRussia——theSwedesandtheCrimeanTartars——andwhenthereforenodoubtcouldbeentertainedastothenecessityforwar，theSoboropenlyinvitedtheCzartotaketheHetmanandtheCossacksoftheDnieper\"underhishighhand，togetherwiththeircitiesandlands，andthatinordertopreservethetrueOrthodoxChurch。\"ThedelegatesspokeoftheirreadinesstofightthePolishkingandtolosetheirlivesforthehonouroftheCzar。
TheSoborof1653wasthelastgeneralAssemblycalledinthetimeofAlexis。Followingtheexampleofbispredecessors，theCzaronseveraloccasionsalsoconvenedrepresentativesofonesingleestatetoconsultwiththemonmattersdirectlyconcerningtheirorder。SuchanassemblyofnotablessatinMoscowintheyear1617。ItconsistedchieflyofMoscovitemerchants。ItwasconvenedtoheartheopinionofRussiantradesmenastothedesirabilityofgrantingtoEnglishmerchantstradinginMoscow，andtotheirchiefagent，JohnMerrick，therightofmakingexplorationsinsearchofanewroadtoChinaandIndia\"bywayoftheriverOb。\"Themajorityofthedelegateswereopposedtotheproject。
Thesamefeelingofanimositytowardsforeignersfounditsexpressionin1626，whenonthedemandofEnglishmerchantstobeallowedtotradewithPersia，themembersoftheguildofguestsandtheMoscowmerchantsinsistedonthenecessityofupholdingthemonopolywhichtheMoscovitetradesmenenjoyedingoingtoAstrachantobuyPersiangoods。Themajorityofthemerchantsdeclaredthemselvesunabletocompetewithforeignmerchants，andeventheminoritywereofopinionthatiffreetradewerepermittedtoEnglishtradersinreturnforlargepaymentsmadebythemtothecrown，thislibertyoughtnottobeextendedtothetrafficinRussiancommodities。Halfacenturylater，in1667，thesameMoscovitemerchants，consultedbyAlexis，stoutlyopposedthedemandofArmenianmerchantsforfreetradeinPersiancommodities，andbeggedtheGovernmentnottoendangertheirowntradebyforeigncompetition。TenyearslatertheMoscowtradesmen，togetherwiththedelegatesoftheblackhundredsandvillages，werecalledtogethertogivetheiropinionastothecauseswhichtendedtoraisethepriceofcorn。Theycomplainedofengrossersandaskedthattheirpracticesmightbeforbiddeninfuture。Theyalsospokeofthegreatdamageagriculturehadsustainedthroughrecentwars。Theincreaseinthenumberofdistillerieswasalsomentionedasoneoftheprincipalreasonsforthedearnessofcorn。
In1681-2the\"menofservice\"wereconvenedtogetherwiththeDoumatoreformthemilitaryadministration。itwasthismemorableAssemblywhichabolishedtheoldcustomofappointingmentothechiefpostsinthearmy，notaccordingtotheirpersonalmerit，buttotherankoftheirfamily，andthelengthoftimeithadservedtheState；andwhichalsoorderedtheheraldicbookstobeburnt。
ThelastinstanceswehaveoftheconveningoftheRussianSoborsbelongtotheperiodofEternaltroublewhichfollowedthedeathoftheCzarTheodore。In1682aSobortowhichtheinhabitantsofMoscowaloneweresummoned，pronounceditselfinfavouroftheoccupationofthevacantthronebytheyoungestsonofAlexis，thefutureemperor，PetertheGreat。AnewAssembly，whichinitscompositionansweredevenlessthanitspredecessortotheideaofageneralrepresentativecouncil，wasconvokedafewmonthslaterbythepartythatfavouredthepoliticaldesignsofthePrincessSophia，sistertoPetertheGreat。ItinsistedonthedivisionofthesovereignpowerbetweenthetwobrothersofTheodore，PeterandJohn。PrincessSophiabecamefromthattimetherealruleroftheempire。AgainMoscowalonewasrepresentedthoughtheActsspeakofthepresenceofdelegatesfromalltheprovincesandcitiesoftheempire。
Itwasin1698thattheSoborwasconvokedforthelasttime。
ItwascalledtogethertopronouncejudgmentonthePrincessSophiawho，duringtheabsenceofPetertheGreatintheWesternStatesofEurope，hadtriedbythehelpofthestrelzi（akindofLife-Guards）toseatherselfontheRussianthrone。TheonlycontemporarywriterwhomentionsthisAssemblyisaGermanofthenameofKorb，whowassecretaryoftheGermanLegation。AccordingtohimtheyoungmonarchinsistedonthisoccasiononthepresenceoftwodelegatesfromeachoftheEstates，beginningwiththehighestandendingwiththelowest。Unfortunatelynoinformationhascomedowntousastothedecisionarrivedatbythisquasi-generalrepresentativebodyoftheRussianpeople。
Onefactespeciallymeritsourattention：TheSoborswereneverabolishedbylaw。TheysimplyceasedtoexistjustasdidtheStates-GeneralofFrancefromthebeginningoftheseventeenth（1613）totheendoftheeighteenthcentury。Nolegalact，therefore，liesinthewayofanewconvocationoftherepresentativesoftheempire。ShouldthepresentEmperorconvokethem，insodoinghewouldbeinperfectaccordwiththefirstfoundersofhisdynasty，andalsowiththepromisescontainedintheMagnaChartaofthefirstRomanov。
TurningfromthepoliticalhistoryoftheoldRussianParliaments，wewillnowconsidertheirinternalconstitution。Aswehaveseen，theseventeenthcenturyintroducedacompletechangeintheircomposition。DuringthereignofIvantheTerribletheadministrativeandmilitaryclasseshadalonebeenrepresented；fromthetimeoftheinterregnumtheybecamemeetingsofdelegatesfromallthedifferentEstates。Thefollowingweretheclassesofthepeoplewhowererepresented：
thesuperiorclergy，thehighernobility，thelowerclergy，andthelowernobility，orwhatisthesamethingtheministerialorknightlyclassastheywerecalledatthattime，thethreeGuildsofMoscovitemerchants，thecitizensofthedifferenturbandistrictsand，ontwodifferentoccasions，in1614and1682，theblackhundredsandvillages，whichmeantinthetechnicallanguageofthetime，thepeasantsestablishedonthelandsoftheState。Serfs，andpersonswhohadlosttheirpersonallibertyonaccountofdebtsoranyotherreason，wereneveradmittedtotherightofrepresentation。Thearmywasveryoftenrepresentedbydelegatesfromtheregularregiments，suchasthestrelzi，andsomeirregulartroops，theCossacksforinstance。ThelargeextentoftheRussiandominionsandtheconsequentremotenessofcertainplacesfromthemetropolis，wasanaturalbarriertotheappearanceofcertaindelegatesattheSobor。ItwasforthisreasonthatthecitiesofSiberiaremainedwithoutrepresentation。Otherplaceslessremotegotexemptionfromthedutyofchoosingdelegatesonaccountofthebadstateoftheroadsandthedifficultyandevendangerconnectedwithtravelling。Somefewconsidereditagreatburden，onaccountoftheexpenseofthejourneyandthemaintenanceofthedelegates。
InthistheyactedlikethosemediaevalEnglishcitiesandboroughs，whichunderthePlantagenetsdidtheirbesttoshirkthedutyofrepresentation。Thenumberofpersonssentbyeachelectoralcircuitwasnotstrictlyfixed。Generallythewritsofsummonsspeakoftwoorthreedelegates。
Theelectoraldistrictwas，asarule，thecityanditsoutlyingparts。Largercities，asNovgorod，constitutedbythemselvesseveraldistricts；inNovgorodtherewerenolessthanfivesuchdistricts。TheMetropolis（Moscow）waslargelyrepresentedbydelegatesfromthelowernobility，bythoseofthethreeclassesofMoscovitetradersandtherepresentativesoftheblackhundredsandvillages。
Thewritsofsummonswereaddressedtothevoivodes，orGovernorsofprovinces，andtothegoubniistarosti，orelectivedistrictheads。
Togiveyouaclearnotionofthemodeinwhichtheelectionsweremanaged，Iwilltranslateoneofthesewrits。Thewritinquestionwasissuedonthe9thofSeptember，7128，countingfromthebeginningoftheworld（thatistheyear1619）：\"InthenameoftheCzarMichael，thevoivodeofOustujna，namedBoutourlin，isorderedtoelectamongtheclergy，onemanortwo，andfromthenobility（thesonsofboyars）twopersons，andtwomorefromtheinhabitantsoftheurbandistrict（posadskiiliudi）。Thepersonsmustbewell-to-doandintelligent，capableofnarratingthewrongstheyhavesustained，andtheoppressionanddestructionwhichtheyhavesuffered。TheelectionrollsmustbesentbythevoivodetoMoscow，andshouldbereceivednotlaterthanonSt。Nicholas’sday。\"
Thevoivode，orgoubuoistarosta，assoon，asthewritwasinhishands，summonedtheelectorsandorderedthemtoproceedtothenominationoftheirdelegates。Eachestateororderactedseparately。Inanswertothewritstheyhadreceived，thevoivodessentinadetailedaccountoftheelectionproceedings。
SeveraloftheseveryinterestingdocumentshavebeenfoundinthearchivesoftheMinistryofJusticeinMoscow。ProfessorLatkinhaspublishedagreatmanyoftheminhisvaluable\"MaterialsforahistoryoftheSobors，\"and，inreadingthem，theconclusionisarrivedat，thattheelectionasarulewasmadebytheEstatesthemselves，withouttheinterventionofthevoivodeoroubnoistorasta。\"Thenobilityofvoroneg，\"statesthevoivodeofthisplace，PrinceAlexisKrapotkin，intheyear1651，\"haveelectedfromamongthemselvestwopersons，theonecalledTrofimMichnev，andtheotherTheodorPhiloppof。ThecitizensonlyonepersonnamedSacharof，andI，yourMajesty’sslave（cholop），havesentyouthesethreementoMoscow。\"Theactionofthosevoivodes，who，insteadofconsultingtheelectors，proceededtoadirectnominationofthedelegates，wassometimesdisavowed。Suchwas，forinstance，thecaseofthevoivodeofKropivna，acertainAstafiev。IntheletterssenttohiminthenameoftheGovernment，hewasgreatlyblamedforhavingmisunderstoodtheordersgiventohim，\"thenobilitywereaskedtoelectagoodnoblemanfromamongthemselves，andyouhadnojustificationformakingthenominationofthedelegateyourself。\"
Thedelegatebelonged，asarule，tothesameestateashiselector，butitsometimeshappenedthatonaccountofthesmallnumberofpersonscapableofsupportingtheburdenofrepresentation，apersonofanotherorderwasintrustedwiththedutyofdelegate。Thevoivodesandstarostasmentionmorethanoncesuchfactsasthefollowing。In1651thestarostaofZvenigorod，ElizarMarcov，declaresinaletteraddressedtotheCzar，thatitwasimpossibleforhimtonominateadelegatefromamongtheinhabitantsofthecitydistrict（posadskiiliudi），forthebestofthemwereengagedinmasonryworkattheStorojevoymonastery，accomplishingtheir\"hedgeduty，\"whichtheyowedtothecrown（ograduaiapovinnost）。AnotherstarostafromKropivnawroteatthesametime，thatinhisdistrictthenumberofcityresidentswasnotmorethanthree。Theywereallverypoorandgainedtheirlivelihoodbygoingfromonehouseholdtoanothertoworkatcleaningthecourt-yards。Therefore，hefounditmoresuitabletonameagentlemantorepresentthemattheSobor。
Thedelegates，asarule，receivedinstructionscalledNakasi，inwhichtheelectorsstatedtheiropinionsonthechiefsubjectstobediscussedattheGeneralAssembly。Unfortunatelynodocumentsofthiskindhavebeenpreserved，andweknowoftheirexistenceonlythroughtheirbeingbychancementionedinsomecontemporarydocuments。SpeakingofthedelegatessummonedtotheSoborof1613，thechartersofthetimedirectlystate，thattheybroughtwiththemfromMoscow\"completeinstructions\"
（dogovori）concerningtheelectionoftheCzar。Thedelegatesreceivedfromtheirelectorsthesupplyofvictuals（zapassi），whichtheywouldneedduringtheirstayinMoscow。NeverthelesstheyveryoftenmadeanapplicationtotheGovernmentformoneytocovertheirexpenses。Thisfactismentionedmorethanonceinthedocumentsofthetime。Thewritsofsummonsestablishnoruleastotheamountoffortunewhichadelegatewasrequiredtopossess；theyonlyrecommendtheelectionof\"goodsensible，andwealthypersons，accustomedtotreatofmattersofState。\"ThisdidnotimplythatthedelegateswererequiredtoknowtherulesofgrammarortobeabletosigntheirnamesontherollsoftheSoborcorrectly。ThenumberofilliteratepersonswasratherlargeevenatsolateanAssemblyasthatof1649，andtheyweretobefound，notonlyamongthelowernobilityandtherepresentativesofcities，butalsointheranksoftheboyars；
not，however，inthoseofthehigherclergy。
TheordinaryplaceofmeetingwasthepalaceintheHallcalledthegranovitaiaPalata。SometimestheSoborsatinthepalaceofthePatriarch，orintheCathedral（OuspenskiSobor）。
ThesessionwasopenedeitherbytheCzarinperson，or，aswasmoreoftenthecase，byoneofhissecretaries，who，inawrittenpaperorinaspeech，declaredthereasonforwhichtheAssemblywascalledtogether，andthequestionsithadtodiscuss。ThereadingofthisaddresswaslistenedtobyallthedelegatesandallthemembersoftheDouma，andoftheclericalsynod。ThedivisionbyEstatestookplaceimmediatelyafter，andeachorderdeliberatedseparatelyonthequestionswhichtheGovernmenthadproposed。TheresultofthediscussionswaspresentedtotheCzarinwritingseparatelybyeachEstate。Thedocumentsweredrawnupbysecretaries，speciallyattachedforthispurposetotheAssembliesofthedifferentEstates。Ontwooccasionsonly，in1649and1682，werethemembersoftheSoborassembledintwodifferentchambers，ahigherandlower。TheUpperHousewasformedbytheDoumaandthehigherclergy，andthelowerbythedelegatesofthelowerordersButthecustomaccordingtowhicheachEstatedeliberatedseparately，prevailedevenonthesetwooccasions，thehigherandlowerchambersbeingsubdividedintoasmanysectionsastherewereEstates。
InansweringthedemandsoftheGovernment，thedelegatesveryoftenexpressedtheirownsentimentsastothecourseofRussianpolitics。TheycomplainedbitterlyofthewrongsdonetothepeoplebytheofficersoftheStateandjudges；theypointedtothenecessityofamendingthewholeexecutiveandmilitaryadministration；andbywrittenpetitions（chelobitnia），theyinsistedonthenecessityofintroducingcertainamendmentsintotheexistinglaws。ThelargepartwhichthesepetitionsplayedintheworkofcodifyingthelawsofRussia，aworkwhichrenderedillustriousthereignofAlexisMichaelovitch，hasbeenamplyrecognisedbyrecentinquirers，andespeciallybyDitiatin，Zagoskin，andLatkin。
ThedecisionstowhichthedifferentEstatesarrivedwereattheendofthesessioncondensedintoonesingledocument，knownunderthenameofZemskiiprigovor，whichmeansthegeneralverdictoftheland。Severaldocumentsofthiskindhavebeenpreserved。Theyaresealed，asarule，withthesealsoftheCzar，ofthePatriarch，andofthehigherorders。Astothelowerorders，theirmemberskissedthecrossinsignofapproval。
HavingthusconsideredthepoliticalhistoryandinternalconstitutionoftheSoborswewillnowexaminethefunctionswhichtheydischarged。Foreignresidents，andamongthemthewell-knownFletcher，havenoticedcertainweakpointsintheirorganisationwhichpreventedourrepresentativeAssembliesfromrisingtothelevelofEnglishParliaments。FletchermakestheingeniousobservationthatthemembersoftheSoborhadnorighttopresentbills。ThisdoesnotimplythattheinitiativeofallreformscouldproceedonlyfromtheGovernment；morethanoncetheEstatescomplainedofwrongswhichwerenotmentionedintheaddressfromthecrownandaskedforreformswhichhadnotbeenthoughtofbytheGovernment。ButtheirrighttopetitionthecrowndidnotgofurtherthanthatoftheFrenchEstates-General。
LikethemtheSoborswereunabletoprovideforthefulfilmentoftheirdemands，andforthesamereasonwhichpreventedtheEstates-GeneralofFrancefromgettingintotheirownhandsthelegalpower。Therightofinitiatingreforms，whichtheEnglishParliamentbegantoexerciseundertheLancastriankingsremainedtotallyunknowninFranceaswellasinRussia。AtthetimewhentheEnglishParliamentwerereplacingpetitionsbybills，theFrenchEstatescontinuedtopresenttheircahiersdedoleances，leavingtotheGovernmenttherightoftakinginitsordonnancesnonoticewhateveroftheirdemands。ThesamewasalsothecaseinRussia，wherenewlawsweredirectlydecreedbytheCzarandhisDoumaandthe\"generalverdictoftheland\"remainedforyearsandyearsinoperative。
IftheSoborsonlyplayedasecondarypartinmattersoflegislation，thecontrolthattheyexercisedovertheexecutivemachineryoftheStatewasevenlessefficacious。Icannotmentionasinglecase，inwhichroyalcouncillorswereremovedandnewpersonsappointedintheirsteadattheexpressdesireoftheSobor。TheMoscoviteGovernmentwas，itistrue，innowayaParliamentaryGovernment。NeverthelessthefactdoesnotprovethattheSoborshadnothingincommonwithEnglishParliamentsorFrenchStates-General。WemustnotforgetthatmedievalEuropewas，asarule，ignorantofParliamentaryGovernment，andthatAssemblies，liketheMadParliamentofOxfordortherevolutionaryFrenchEstatesof1355，bothofwhichtriedtoestablishakindofcabinet，werebutexceptions。AlthoughtheSoborhadnorighttoimposeontheCzartheobligationofcallingcertainpersonstohiscounsels，thepartittookinthegeneralpoliticsofthecountrywasalargeone。Wehavehadoccasiontoshowthatquestionsofwarandpeaceweresettledbyitsadvice。BoththesurrenderofAsovandtheannexationofLittleRussiatookplaceincompliancewithitsdesires。AndthoughtheSoborwasdeniedtherightofchoosingtheMinistry，ithadamuchhigherright，thatofchoosingtheCzars。OnthispointithadnogroundstoenvyeithertheEnglishParliaments，ortheStates-GeneralofFrance。
SolongasthenewdynastyoftheRomanovsremainedfaithfultotheengagementsenteredintobytheCzarMichael，thatistosayduringthefirstpartoftheseventeenthcentury，thevotingsubsidieswasasmuchthefunctionoftheRussianrepresentativeAssemblyasitwasoftherepresentativeAssembliesofEngland，France，Germany，orSpain。DuringthegreaterpartofthereignofthefirstRomanovnosubsidywaslevied，nobenevolenceextortedwithouttheconsentoftheSobor。ThisscrupulousobservanceofitsfinancialauthorityrequireditsperiodicalconvocationjustasmuchasthemeetingoftheEnglishrepresentativeswasneededmanyyearsbeforetheintroductionoftriennialandseptennialparliaments。Exceptingduringtheperiodjustmentioned，theSoborsweresummonedatirregularperiodsandonlywhentheneedsoftheGovernmentrequiredtheirhelp。LikeotherrepresentativeAssembliestheywereconvenedanddissolvedbythesovereign，andhadnorighttoassembleaccordingtotheirownwill。
IfwewouldknowwhatgoodtheyhavedonetoRussiawemuststudytheparttheyhaveplayedintheremovalofpublicgrievancesandthereformofjustice。WemustrememberthatmorethanoncetheyopposedtheoligarchicalGovernmentoftheboyars，thelocaldespotismofprovincialGovernorsorvoivodes，andthebriberyandexactionsofthebureaucracyofMoscow。Wemustrememberhowoftentheywerethechampionsofjusticeandequalityinopposingthesystemofjudicialimmunities，theextravagantdonationsofcrownlands，andtheexemptionfromtaxationofthenobilityandclergy。Weshallthenhavenodifficultyinacknowledgingthattheirinfluencewastrulybeneficial。Onseveraloccasionstheyhadthehonourofparticipatinginlargeadministrativeandjudicialreforms，suchasthecodificationofthelawandtheabolitionoftheabnormalcustombywhichofficesinthearmywereheld，notbymenofabilityandtalent，butbythoseofaristocraticbirth。ForeignpoliticsweremorethanoncetreatedbytheSoborswithdiscernmentandpracticalgoodsense。Theirpatrioticandreligiousfeelingsdidnotkeepthemfromrecognisingthedangerofanewwarandthenecessityofrelinquishingaconquestwhichhadbeeneasilymade。OntheotherhandtheirnaturaldislikeofnewtaxesdidnotpreventthemfromstretchingoutahelpinghandtotheirorthodoxbrethrenintheirendeavourstoemancipatethemselvesfromthereligiouspersecutionofCatholicPoland。
ThoughtheyopposedononeoccasiontheannexationofAsov，neverthelessonanotheroccasiontheserepresentativesofthepeopleofGreatRussiaopenlymanifestedtheirdesireforunionwithLittleRussia，notwithstandingthepossibilityofanewwarthatwouldnecessarilybefollowedbyanincreaseintaxation，Intheso-calledperiodoftroublestheystoodforthasthechampionsofthenationalideabytheoppositionwhichtheymadetoeverypoliticalcombinationwhichmighthaveresultedinthesubmissionofRussiatoaforeignprince。InthoseunhappydayswhensomanyprovinceswereoccupiedbyPolishandSwedishsoldiers，andtheboyarswerehalfgainedovertotheinterestsofVladislas，thesonofthePolishking，whenNovgorodmadeaseparatepeacewiththeSwedes，andwasonthepointofrecognisingthedoubtfulrightsofaSwedishpretender，thepoliticalunityofRussiafoundchampionsonlyintheranksofthelowerordersrepresentedattheSobor。
ThehistoryoftheseoldRussianParliamentspresentscertainlyalessdramaticinterestthanthehistoryofEnglishParliamentsorFrenchStates-General。CasesofconflictbetweenthedifferentordersconvenedtotheNationalCouncilsoccurveryseldom。Wereadofnovehementinvectives，likethosewhichthedeputiesofthenobilitythunderedforthagainstthethirdestateattheetatsgenerauxof1613。Wehearalsoofnocompactsorassociationsbetweenestates，likethose，whichmorethanonceallowedtheEnglishbaronsandburgessestoachieveamanifestvictoryovertheking。ThelanguageemployedbyRussianrepresentativesinspeakingtotheirsovereignismoderate，andsometimesevenservile。Theyliketocallthemselvesthe\"slavesofhisMajesty，\"but，insodoing，theyneverforgettheirobligationstowardstheirelectors，toopentheeyesoftheGovernmentto\"allthewrongs，depredations，andoppressions，committedbyitsofficers。\"Theyaresubjects，consciousoftheirdutytowardssovereignandcountry，readytosacrificetheirlifeandestatesforthedefenceofitsessentialinterest；theyarenotslaves，afraidofopeningtheirmouthsorofoffendingtheearofthemonarchbyatruthfuldescriptionoftheirwrongs。
TheirloyaltytowardstheCzarfindsaparallelinthatwhichtheyentertaintowardstheGreekChurch。Theyareorthodox，and，therefore，readytoshed。theirbloodinthedefenceoftheircreed，simplyrepresented，asitsometimesis，bytheimagesofthesaints；buttheyhavenoinclinationtowardsclericalism，andnoobjectiontoimposingtaxesontheclergyandeventosecularisingtheirestatesforthegoodofthecountryandtheadvantageofthemilitaryclass。Illiterateasweretheirmembers，itisnotsurprisingthattheSoborstooknomeasuretoincreasethenumberofschoolsandeducationalestablishments。
TheyareprobablythesolerepresentativeAssemblieswhichneverutteredawordaboutscienceorscholarship。Itwaschieflyduetotheirignorancethattheiropinionsaboutcommercialintercoursewithforeigncountriesweresolittlerational。itisnotsurprisingifthewholepolicyoftradereduceditself，accordingtotheirunderstanding，totheeliminationofthecompetitionoftheEasternandWesternmerchants。
Withsuchhelpersasthesenogeneralreform，likethatofPetertheGreat，waslikelytobeaccomplished。Itmaybeeasilyunderstood，therefore，whythisgreatestofRussianrevolutionistsnevertriedtoassociatetheSoborsinhiswork。
Thereformsatwhichheaimed：thesubversionofthecivilandmilitaryorganisation，theintroductionofatotallynewprovincialadministration，copiedfromSwedishoriginals；ofastandingarmy，likethoseoftheFrenchandGermanautocrats；theopeningofRussianmarketstothecompetitionofforeignmerchants；theestablishmentoftechnicalschoolsandsuchlikeinnovations，werenottobecarriedoutby\"thedecisionofthewholeland，\"toemploytheconsecratedtermforRussianlegalenactmentsduringtheperioddirectlyprecedingthatofPetertheGreat。\"Enlighteneddespostism\"foundinRussiathesamedifficultyingoinghandinhandwiththeoldAssembliesofestates，asitdidinAustriaatthetimeofJosephtheSecond。
FullytounderstandthereasonswhichpreventedtheWitherdevelopmentoftheRussiannationalcouncils，wemustalsobearinmindthattheperiodinwhichRussia，bythegeniusofPeter，wasthrownintoactiveintercoursewithEuropeanpowers，wasfarfrombeingthegoldenageofrepresentativeGovernment。WhentheSoborsbegantotakerootintheRussiansoil，ParliamentsandStates-Generalwererapidlyadvancingtoastateofcompleteannihilationortemporarysuppression。WhatimportancecanweattachtothedeliberationsoftheEnglishParliamentsundertheTudors，orevenundertheStuarts，uptotheyear1640？WhatNationalAssemblycanwementioninFranceaftertheyear1613？
Thefallofrepresentativeinstitutions，whichwenoticebothinEnglandandinFrance，wasacommonfactofEuropeanhistory。TheGermanReichstagandtheLandstandeofthedifferentStateswhichcomposedtheHolyRomanEmpirehadfallenintothesamestateofpoliticalinsignificanceduringtheperiodfollowingthetreatyofMunster。ThesamefatehadovertakentheCortesofCastilleandAragon，andtheprovincialestatesofHungaryandBohemia。
AlloverEuropemonarchicalpowerwassteadilyincreasing，andautocracybecomingtherulingprincipleoftheday。Wasitlikely，therefore，thatPeter，whodeclaredthathewouldwillinglyhavegiventoRichelieuagoodmoietyofhisdominionsonconditionofbeingtaughtbyhimhowtoruletheremainder，wasitlikely，Iask，thatthatsamePetershouldbringhomefromhislongvoyagesintheWestanyparticularrespectforrepresentativeinstitutions？Itis，therefore，easilyunderstoodwhy，fromthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury，theSobors，withoutbeingabolished，shouldhaveceasedtobeconvened。
ItwasnotuntiltherewasageneralrevivalofrepresentativeinstitutionsthroughoutEuropethatRussianstatesmenwerefoundoncemoreoccupiedwiththequestionoftheSobors。
AlexanderI，tojudgebytheliberalitywithwhichheendowedthePoleswitharepresentativeassembly，was，atleastinthefirstpartofhisreign，notdirectlyopposedtotheideaofre-callingtolifethosevenerableinstitutionsofthepast。
AmongthepapersofhismostintimateCouncillor，Speransky，therehasbeenfoundtheprojectofaconstitution，accordingtowhichtheCouncilofState，thisnaturalheiroftheoldRussianDouma，wastobestrengthenedbytheintroductionofrepresentativesandnotables，chosenfromthedifferentEstatesoftheEmpire。InmuchmorerecentdaysasimilarprojectwaspresentedbyLorisMelikofftoAlexanderII，andanimperialukasesummoningthisnewAssemblyofnotableswasalreadysigned，whentheprematuredeathoftheEmperorputanendtotheexpectationsoftheLiberalparty。InthefirstweeksofhisreignAlexanderIIIhimselfwasnotopposedtotheideaofrevivingtheoldnationalinstitutionoftheSobors，andhisfirsttwoministersforHomeAffairs，LorisMelikoffandIgnatiev，werebothinfavourofsuchareform。ItwasonlyfromthedaywhenCountDimitriTolstoitookuponhisshoulderstheburthenofthehomepoliticsofRussia，thatallthoughtsweregivenupofconvokingarepresentativeassembly。TheGovernmentthenenteredonthefataltaskofthesubversionofallrecentreforms。Nobodycantellhowlongwillbethedurationoftheperiodofreactionuponwhichwehaveentered；butontheotherhandnobodycandoubtthattheconvocationofanationalcouncilisthemostnaturalwayofsatisfyingthewishesoftheconstantlyincreasingpartyofmalcontents——abodyofmenwhichhasbeennick-namedbyitsopponents\"theIntelligentParty\"
（intelligentia）——anick-name，whichcertainlycannotoffendthoseonwhomitisconferred。
TheconvocationofanationalrepresentativeassemblywouldnodoubtclosetheeraofmisunderstandingbetweentheRussianpeopleandtheimperialpoweroftheCzars；itwouldunitetheRussianpastwiththepresentandfuture；andwouldoncemoreopenalargefieldtotheco-operationofsocietyfortheredressofoldwrongsandtheestablishmentofpersonallibertyandsocialjustice。
NOTES：
1。CompareKluchevsky’srecentarticle，\"OntheRepresentativeSystemoftheSobors，\"inRussianThought，amonthlyperiodical，publishedatMoscow，January，1890。
2。TheweremuchthesameastheCarlovingianbenefices。
3。AdesiatinisapproximatelythreeEnglishacres。
4。Nordenflicht，\"DieSchwedischeStaatsverfassunginihrergeschichlichenEntwickelung，\"p。23。
5。Bavelier，\"EssaiHistoriquesurleDroitd’ElectionetsurlesAnciennesAssembleesRepresentativesenFrance，\"p。92。
6。\"Historisch-GeographischeBeschreibungderNordlundOestl。
TheilevonEuropaundAsien，\"p。202。
7。p。284。
8。\"VordemCronungsActhatMichaelfolgendePuncteundconditionesacceptirtundunterschrieben，nahmlich：（1）DieReligionzuerhaltenundzuschutzen：（2）alleswassememVaterwiderfahrenzuvergessenundzuvergeben，undkeineparticulareFeindschaft，siemogeNahmenhabenwiesiewowllezugedenken；
（3）keineneueGesetzezumachen，oderaltezuundern，hoheundwichtigeSachennachdemGesetzeundnichtalleinvorsichselbst，sonderndurchordentlichenProcezurtheilenzulassen；
（4）wederKriegnochFriedenalleinundvorsichselbstmitdemNachbarvorzunehmenund；（5）seineGuterzurBezeugungderGerechtigkeitundVermeidungallerProceszmitparticularenLeuten，entwederanseineFamilieabzutretenodersolchedenenKron-Gutherneinzuverleiben。\"（p。209）。
ModernCustomsandAncientLawsofRussiabyMaximeKovalevskyLecture6
TheOrigin，Growth，andAbolitionofPersonalServitudeinRussiaAnaccountoftheorigin，growth，andabolitionofserfdominRussiamighteasilybemadetofillvolumes，sovastandsovariousarethematerialsonwhichthestudyofitisbased。Butforthepurposenowinview，thatofbringingbeforeyournoticethegeneralconclusiontowhichRussianhistoriansandlegistshavecomeastothesocialdevelopmentoftheircountry，perhapsasinglelecturewillsuffice。InitIcannotpretendtodomorethanpresenttoyouthoseaspectsofthesubjectonwhichthemindsofRussianscholarshavebeenspeciallyfixedoflateyears。
AmongthefirsttobeconsideredistheoriginofthatsystemofpersonalservitudeandbondagetothelandinwhichtheRussianpeasantlivedforcenturies。AnopinionlongprevailedthatthissystemwasduesolelytotheactionoftheState，which，attheendofthesixteenthcentury，abolishedthefreedomofmigrationpreviouslyenjoyedbytheRussianpeasantandboundhimforevertothesoil。Thisopinion，whichwouldhavemadeRussianserfdomaninstitutionquiteapartfromthatoftheserfdomoftheWesternStatesofEurope，hasbeenhappilyabandoned，andconsequentlyitsdevelopmentbecomesthemoreinteresting，insofarasitdisclosestheactionofthoseeconomicandsocialforceswhichproducedthepersonalandrealservitudeoftheso-calledvilleinalloverEurope。
WhilststatingthemostimportantfactsinthehistoryofRussianserfdom，IshallconstantlykeepinviewtheiranalogywiththosepresentedbythehistoryofEnglishorFrenchvillenage。BysodoingIhopetorenderthenaturalevolutionofRussianserfdomthemoreeasilyunderstood。
ThefirstpointtowhichIdesiretocallyourattentionisthesocialfreedomenjoyedbytheRussianpeasantintheearlierportionofmedievalhistory。Thepeasant，thenknownbythenameofsmerd——fromtheverbsmerdet，tohaveabadsmell——wasasfreetodisposeofhispersonandproperty，aswastheAnglo-Saxonceorl，ortheoldGermanmarkgenosse。HehadtherighttoappearasawitnessinCourtsofJustice，bothincivilandincriminalactions；heenjoyedtherightofinheriting——aright，however，whichwassomewhatlimitedbytheprevalenceoffamilycommunism——andnoonecouldpreventhimfromengaginghisservicestoanylandlordforasmanyyearsasheliked，andontermssettledbycontract。Lackofmeanstobuyaploughandthecattlewhichheneededfortillingthegroundveryoftenledthefreepeasanttogetthemfromhislandlordonconditionthateveryyearheploughedandharrowedthefieldsofhiscreditor。
Itisinthiswaythataneconomicdependencewasfirstestablishedbetweentwopersonsequallyfree，equallyinpossessionofthesoil，butdisposingtheoneofalarger，theotherofasmallercapital。ThenameunderwhichthevoluntaryserfisknowntothePravda，thefirstlegalcodeofRussia，isthatofroleinizakoup；thistermsignifiesapersonwhohasborrowedmoneyonconditionofperformingtheworkofploughing（ralomeanstheplough）solongashisdebtremainsunpaid。
Thefrequentwantofthesimplestagriculturalimplements，whichMagnaChartadesignatesascontenementum，wasalsoprobablythechiefcause，whichinducedmorethanoneRussianpeasanttoprefertheconditionofasortofFrenchmetayerorpettyfarmer，whoserent，paidinkind，amountstoafixedproportionoftheyearlyproduce，tothatofafreeshareholderintheopenfieldsandvillagecommon。Thealmostuniversalexistenceofmetayage，orfarmingonthesystemofhalf-profits，isnowgenerallyrecognised。ThoroldRogershasproveditsexistenceinmedievalEngland，andinFranceandItalythissystemisstillfound。Insayingthis，IhaveparticularlyinviewtheFrenchchampartandthemezzeriaofTuscany。
TheprevalenceinancientRussiaofthesamerudeandelementarymodeoffarmingisestablishedbynumerouschartersandcontracts，someofwhichareaslateastheendoftheseventeenthcentury，whilstothersgobacktothebeginningofthesixteenth。Itwouldappearthatprevioustothatdatesuchcontractswerenotputintowriting，apparentlyonaccountofthesmalldiffusionofknowledge。Wearethereforereducedtothenecessityofpresumingtheexistenceofthesecontractssolelybecausetheintrinsiccauseswhichbroughtthemintoexistenceinthesixteenthcenturyhadbeeninoperationforhundredsofyearsbefore。Thepeasant，onenteringintosuchacontract，tookuponhimselftheobligationofpayingbackinthecourseoftimethemoneywhichhadbeenlenttohim——the\"serebro，\"silver，accordingtotheexpressionusedincontemporarydocuments。Fromthenameofthecapitalintrustedtothem（theserebro）arosethesurnameofserebrenik，whichmaybetranslatedsilver-men，underwhichpeasantssettledonamanorweregenerallyknown；theirotherbeingpolovnik，ormenpayinghalfoftheiryearlyproducetothelord，althoughasaruletheirpaymentsdidnotamounttomorethanaquarter。Solongashisdebtremainedunpaidthemetayerwasobligedtoremuneratethelandlordbyvilleinserviceperformedonthedemesnelandsofthemanor。AccordingtotheGermanwriterHerberstein，whovisitedRussiaintheseventeenthcentury，theagriculturallabourwhichtheserebrenikperformedforthelordveryoftenamountedeachweektoasixdays’service，atanyrateinsummer。Contractsstillpreservedalsospeakofotherobligationsoftheserebrenik，verylikethoseofthemedievalEnglishsocman。Such，forinstance，weretheobligationsofcuttingwoodandofforwardingitontheirowncartstothemanor-house，andofpayingcertainduesontheoccasionofthemarriageofthepeasant’sdaughter。IneednotinsistonthesimilaritywhichthislastcustompresentstothemedievalEnglishandFrenchmaritagium，orformariage，soevidentisthelikenessbetweenthem。CustomalsorequiredthepeasanttomakecertainpresentstohislordatChristmasandEaster，oratsomeotheryearlyfestival，suchforinstanceasthatoftheAssumptionoftheBlessedVirgin。
Thepeasantwhochosetosettleonthelandofamanoriallordgotthegrantofahomesteadinadditiontothatofland，andthiswastheoriginofasortofhouse-rentcalledtheprojivnoe，whichasaruleamountedyearlytothefourthpartofthevalueofthehomestead。
Astothelandcededbythelandlordtothesettlerwhowishedtoliveonhismanor，itsusebecametheoriginofanotherspecialpayment，theobrok，whichrepresentedadefiniteamountofagriculturalproduce。Theobrokwasoftenrepliedbytheobligationofdoingcertainfixedagriculturallabouronthedemesnelandofthemanor。
Assoonasthepeasanthadrepaidthemoneyborrowedfromthemanoriallord，andhaddischargedallthepaymentsrequiredfromhimfortheuseofhislandandhomestead，hewasauthorisedbycustomtoremovewhereverheliked，ofcoursegivinguptothesquirehishouseandhisshareintheopenfieldsofthemanor。
Atfirstthisrightofremovalcouldbeexercisedatanyperiodoftheyear，butthisbeingfoundprejudicialtotheagriculturalinterestsofthecountrycertainfixedperiodsweresoonestablished，atwhichalonesucharemovalwasallowed。Usuallytheendofharvestwasfixedasthetimewhennewarrangementscouldbeenteredintowithregardtofutureagriculturallabourwithoutcausinganylosstotheinterestsofthelandlord。Notonlyinautumn，however，butalsoinspring，soonafterEaster，manoriallordswereinthehabitofpermittingtheestablishmentofnewsettlersontheirestates，andthewithdrawalofthosepeasantswhoexpressedadesiretoleave。
ThefirstSoudebnik，thelegalcodepublishedbyIvanIIIin1497，speaksofthefestivalofSaintGeorge，whichaccordingtotheRussiancalendarfallsonthe26thofNovember，asaperiodatwhichallremovalsoughttotakeplace。Thosepeasantswhohadnotbeenfortunateenoughtofreethemselvesfromallobligationstothemanorbythisperiodwereobligedtoremainanotheryearonitslands。Hewho，wasunabletorepaythelordthesumborrowedwasreducedtothesameconditionasthatoftheinsolventfarmersoftheRomanagerpublicus，who，accordingtoFusteldeCoulanges，sawtheirarrearsofdebtchangedintoaperpetualrentcalledthecanon，andtheirlibertyofmigrationsupersededbyastateofcontinualbondagetothelandtheycultivated。NoRussianhistorianhasshowntheanalogyexistingbetweentheoriginoftheRomancolonatusandthatofRussianserfdomsoclearlyasMrKluchevsky，theeminentprofessorofRussianhistoryintheUniversityofMoscow。Itistohimthatweareindebtedforthediscoveryofthefactthatcenturiesbeforethelegalandgeneralabolitionoftherightoffreemigrationaconsiderablenumberofpeasantshadthusceasedtoenjoythatliberty。Suchwasthecaseofthoseso-called\"silver-menfromtheoldesttimes，\"viz。，starinniiserebrenniki，whoduringthesixteenthcenturywerealreadydeprivedoftherightoffreeremovalfromnoothercausebutthewantofmoney，sothattheonlyconditiononwhichtheycouldwithdrawfromthemanoronwhichtheywerewasthatoffindingsomeotherlandlordwillingtopaythemoneytheyowed，andtherebyacquiringtherighttoremovethemtohisownmanor。
SolongastheRussianpowerwasgeographicallylimitedtothepossessionofthecentralprovincesintheimmediateneighbourhoodofMoscow，andsolongastheshoresoftheVolgaandDniepersufferedfromalmostperiodicalinvasionsoftheTartars，theRussianpeasantwhomightwishtoleaveamanorcouldnoteasilyhaveprocuredthelandherequired；butwhentheconquestsofIvanIIIandIvantheTerriblehadreducedtonaughtthepoweroftheTartars，andhadextendedtheRussianpossessionsbothtotheEastandtotheSouth，thepeasantswereseizedwithaspiritofmigration，andlegislationwasrequiredtoputastoptotheeconomicinsecuritycreatedbytheircontinualwithdrawalfromthemanorsofInnerRussiatotheSouthernandEasternsteppes。Itis，therefore，easytounderstandwhylawstopreventthepossibilityofareturnofpeasantmigrationwerefirstpassed，atleastonageneralscale，atthisperiod。Itisnodoubttruethat，evenattheendofthefifteenthcentury，tocertainmonasteriesweregranted，amongotherprivileges，thatofbeingfreefromtheliabilityofhavingtheirpeasantsremovedtotheestatesofotherlandlords。A
charteroftheyear1478recognisessuchaprivilegeasbelongingtothemonksofthemonasteryofTroitzko-Sergievsk，whichis，accordingtopopularbelief，oneofthemostsacredplacesinRussia。ThefinancialinterestsoftheStatealsocontributedgreatlytothechange。Thefactthatthetaxpayerwastiedtothesoilrenderedthecollectionoftaxesbothspeedierandmoreexact。Thesetwocausessufficientlyexplainwhy，bytheendofthesixteenthcentury，theremovalofpeasantsfrommanortomanorhadbecomeveryrare。