MentallytheHopiseemtobetheequalofanytribe，butitisdoubtfulwhethertheyhavemuchmoreinnatecapacitythanmanyoftheirmorebackwardneighbors。Neverthelesstheymademuchmoreprogressbeforethedaysofthewhiteman，ascaneasilybeseenintheirartisticdevelopment。EveryonewhohascrossedthecontinentbytheSantaFerouteknowshowinterestingandbeautifularetheirpottery，basketry，andweaving。NotonlyinartbutalsoingovernmenttheHopiarehighlyadvanced。Theirgoverningbodyisacouncilofhereditaryelderstogetherwiththechiefsofreligiousfraternities。Amongtheseofficialsthereisaspeakerchiefandawarchief，butthereseemsnevertohavebeenanysupremechiefofalltheHopi。Eachpueblohasanhereditarychiefwhodirectsallthecommunalwork，suchasthecleaningofthespringsandthegeneralcareofthevillage。
Crimesarerare。Thisatfirstsightseemsstrangeinviewofthefactthatnopenaltywasinflictedforanycrimeexceptsorcery，butunderHopilawalltransgressionscouldbereducedtosorcery。OneofthemoststrikingfeaturesofHopilifewasitsrichreligiousdevelopment。TheHopirecognizedalargenumberofsupernaturalbeingsandhadagreatstoreofmostinterestingandpoeticmythologicaltales。ThehomeoftheHopiwouldseematfirstsightasunfavorabletoprogressasthatoftheirUtecousins，buttheHopihavetheadvantageofbeingthemostnorthwesterlyrepresentativesoftheIndianswhodwellwithintheregionsofsummerrain。Fortunatelyforthem，theircountryistoodesertandunforestedforthemtosubsisttoanygreatdegreebythechase。Theyarethusforcedtodevotealltheirenergytoagriculture，throughwhichtheyhavedevelopedarelativelyhighstandardofliving。Theydwellfarenoughsouthtohavetheirheaviestrainfallinsummerandnotinwinter，asisthecaseinUtah，sothattheyareabletocultivatecropsofcornandbeans。
Wheresuchanintensivesystemofagricultureprevails，theworkofwomenisasvaluableasthatofmen。ThepositionofwomanisthusrelativelyhighamongtheHopi，forsheisusefulnotonlyforherassistanceinthelaborsofthefieldbutalsoforherskillinpreservingthecrops，grindingtheflour，andotherwisepreparingthecomparativelyvariedfoodwhichthistribefortunatelypossesses。
FromnorthernNewMexicoandArizonatoMexicoCitysummerrains，drywinters，andstilldriersprings，aretherule。Forestsarefew，andmuchofthecountryisdesert。Themoreabundanttherains，thegreaterthenumberofpeopleandthegreatertheopportunitiesfortheaccumulationofwealth，andthusforthatleisurewhichisnecessarytopartofacommunityifcivilizationistomakeprogress。Thatisonereasonwhythecivilizationofthesummerrainpeoplebecomesmorehighlydevelopedastheygofromnorthtosouth。ThefactthatthealtitudeofthecountryincreasesfromtheUnitedStatesbordersouthwardalsotendsinthesamedirection，foritcausestheclimatetobecoolerandmorebracingatMexicoCitythanatplacesfarthernorth。
Theimportanceofsummerrainsinstimulatinggrowthandinfacilitatingtheearlystagesofagricultureisnoteworthy。EveryonefamiliarwithArizonaandNewMexicoknowshowthesuddensummershowersfillthemountainvalleyswithfloodswhichflowdownupontheplainandrapidlyspreadoutintobroad，thinsheets，oftenknownasplayas。Therethewaterstandsashorttimeandtheneithersinksintothegroundorevaporates。Suchplacesarefavoredwiththebestkindofnaturalirrigation，andafterthefirstshoweritisaneasymatterfortheprimitivefarmertogooutanddropgrainsofcornintoholespunchedwithastick。Thereafterhecancountonothershowerstowaterhisfieldwhilethecornsproutsandgrowstomaturity。Allthatheneedstodoistowatchthefieldtoprotectitfromtheraredepredationsofwildanimals。Astimegoesontheprimitivefarmerrealizestheadvantageofleadingthewatertoparticularlyfavorablespotsandthusbeginstodevelopasystemofartificialirrigation。Inregionswheresuchadvantageousconditionsprevail，thepeoplewholivepermanentlyinoneplacesucceedbest，fortheworkthattheydooneyearhelpsthemthenext。Theyarenotgreatlytroubledbyweeds，for，thoughgrassesgrowaswellascornintheplaceswherethewaterspreadsout，thegrassestaketheformoflittleclumpswhichcaneasilybepulledup。Inthedrierpartsoftheareaofsummerrain，itbecomesnecessarytoconservethewatersupplytotheutmost。TheHopiconsidersandyfieldsthebest，fortheloosesandontopactsasanaturalblankettopreventevaporationfromtheunderlyinglayers。SometimesindryseasonstheHopiuseextraordinarymethodstohelptheirseedstosprout。Forinstance，theyplaceaseedinaballofsaturatedmudwhichtheyburybeneathseveralinchesofsand。Asthesandpreventsevaporation，practicallyallthewaterisretainedfortheuseoftheseed，whichthereuponsproutsandgrowssomeinchesbythetimethefirstsummerfloodsarrive。
TheIndiansoftheGreatPlainslivedaverydifferentlifefromthatofthenativesofeitherthemountainsorthePacificcoast。
Inthefarnorth，tobesure，therigorousclimatecausedalltheIndianstolivepracticallyalike，whetherintheRockies，theplains，ortheLaurentianhighland。Southofthem，inthatgreatcentralexpansestretchingfromthelatitudeofLakeWinnipegtotheRioGrandeRiver，theIndiansoftheplainspossessedarelativelyuniformtypeoflifepeculiartothemselves。Thisindividualitywasduepartlytotheluxuriantcarpetofgrasswhichcoveredtheplainsandpartlytothesupplyofanimalfoodaffordedbythevastherdsofbuffaloeswhichroamedintensofthousandsthroughoutthewholeterritory。ThegrasswasimportantchieflybecauseitpreventedtheIndiansfromengaginginagriculture，foritmustneverbeforgottenthattheIndianshadneitherirontoolsnorbeastsofburdentoaidtheminovercomingthenaturaldifficultiesinthewayofagriculture。Tobesure，theydidoccasionallypoundmeteoricironintousefulimplements，butthissubstancewassorarethatprobablynotoneIndianinahundredhadeverseenapiece。TheIndianswerequitefamiliarwithcopper，butthereisnottheslightestevidencethattheyhaddiscoveredanymeansofhardeningit。MetalsplayednorealpartinthelifeofanyoftheIndiansofAmerica，andwithoutsuchtoolsasironspadesandhoesitwasimpossibleforthemtocultivategrassland。Iftheyburnedtheprairieanddroppedseedsintoholes，thecornorbeanswhichtheythusplantedweresuretobechokedbythequicklyspringinggrass。Todigawaythetoughsodaroundtheholeforeachseedwouldrequireanalmostincredibleamountofworkevenwithirontools。Toaccomplishthiswithwoodenspades，rudehoesmadeoflargeflakesofflint，ortheshoulderbladesofthebuffalo，wasimpossibleonanylargescale。Nowandtheninsomeriverbottomwherethegrassgrewinclumpsandcouldbeeasilypulledup，alittleagriculturewaspossible。Thatisallthatseemstohavebeenattemptedonthegreatgrassyplains。
TheIndianscouldnotundertakeanywidespreadcultivationoftheplainsnotonlybecausetheylackedirontoolsbutalsobecausetheyhadnodraftanimals。Thebuffalowastoobig，toofierce，andtoostupidtobedomesticated。InallthelengthandbreadthofthetwoAmericastherewasnoanimaltotaketheplaceoftheusefulhorse，donkey，orox。Thellamawastoosmalltodoanythingbutcarrylightloads，anditcouldliveonlyinamostlimitedareaamongthecoldAndeanhighlands。EveniftheaboriginalAmericanscouldhavemadeironploughs，theycouldnothaveploughedthetoughsodwithouttheaidofanimals。Moreover，evenifthepossessionofmetaltoolsandbeastsofburdenhadmadeagriculturepossibleinthegrass-lands，itwouldhavebeendifficult，intheabsenceofwoodforfences，topreventthebuffalofromeatingupthecropsoratleastfromtrampingthroughthemandspoilingthem。ThusthefertilelandofthegreatplainsremainedlargelyunuseduntilthewhitemancametotheNewWorldbringingtheirontoolsanddomesticanimalsthatwerenecessarytosuccessfulagriculture。
Althoughfarmingofanysortwasalmostasimpossibleintheplainsasinthedryregionsofwinterrainsfartherwest，theabundanceofbuffaloesmadelifemucheasierinmanyrespects。Itisastonishingtoseehowmanypurposestheseanimalsserved。Anearlytravelerwhodweltamongoneofthebuffalo-huntingtribes，theTonkawaofcentralTexas，says：\"Besidestheirmeatit[thebuffalo]furnishesthemliberallywhattheydesireforconveniences。Thebrainsareusedtosoftenskins，thehornsforspoonsanddrinkingcups，theshoulderbladestodigupandclearofftheground，thetendonsforthreadsandbowstrings，thehoofstogluethearrow-feathering。Fromthetail-hairtheymakeropesandgirths，fromthewool，beltsandvariousornaments。Thehidefurnishes……shields，tents，shirts，footwear，andblanketstoprotectthemfromthecold。\"*
*SeeHodge，\"HandbookofAmericanIndians，\"vol。II，p。781。
Thebuffaloisasurprisinglystupidanimal。Whenaherdisfeedingitispossibleforamantowalkintothemidstofitandshootdownananimal。Evenwhenoneoftheircompanionsfallsdead，thebuffaloespaynoattentiontothehunterprovidedheremainsperfectlystill。Thewoundedanimalsarenotatfirstdangerousbutseektoflee。Onlywhenpursuedandbroughttobaydotheyturnontheirpursuers。WhentheIndiansofanencampmentunitedtheirforces，aswastheirregularhabit，theywereabletoslaughterhundredsofanimalsinafewdays。Themoredelicatepartsofthemeattheyatefirst，oftenwithoutcookingthem。Theresttheydriedandpackedawayforfutureuse，whiletheypreparedthehidesascoveringsforthetentsorasrugsinwhichtosleep。
Whereverthebuffaloeswerepresentinlargenumbers，thehabitsoftheIndiansweremuchthesame。Theycouldnotliveinsettledvillages，fortherewasnoassurancethatthebuffalowouldcometoanyparticularplaceeachyear。Theplainstribeswerethereforemorethoroughlynomadicthanalmostanyothers，especiallyaftertheintroductionofhorses。Becausetheywanderedsomuch，theycameintocontactwithothertribestoanunusualdegree，andmuchofthecontactwasfriendly。GraduallytheIndiansdevelopedasignlanguagebywhichtribesofdifferenttonguescouldcommunicatewithoneanother。Atfirstthesesignswerelikepictographs，forthespeakerpointedasnearlyaspossibletothethingthathedesiredtoindicate，butlatertheybecamemoreandmoreconventional。Forexample，man，theerectanimal，wasindicatedbythrowingupthehand，withitsbackoutwardandtheindexfingerextendingupward。Womanwasindicatedbyasweepingdownwardmovementofthehandatthesideoftheheadwithfingersextendedtodenotelonghairorthecombingofflowinglocks。
AmongtheplainsIndians，theDakotas，themaintribeoftheSiouxfamily，areuniversallyconsideredtohavestoodhighestnotonlyphysicallybutmentally，andprobablymorally。Theirbraverywasneverquestioned，andtheyconqueredordroveouteveryrivalexcepttheChippewas。Theirsuperioritywasclearlyseenintheirsystemofgovernment。Personalfitnessandpopularitydeterminedchieftainshipmorethandidheredity。TheauthorityofthechiefwaslimitedbytheBandCouncil，withoutwhoseapprobationlittleornothingcouldbeaccomplished。InoneoftheDakotatribes，theTetons，thepolicingofavillagewasconfidedtotwoorthreeofficerswhowereappointedbythechiefandwhoremainedinpoweruntiltheirsuccessorswereappointed。
Dayandnighttheywerealwaysonthewatch，andsoarduousweretheirlaborsthattheirtermofservicewasnecessarilyshort。
Thebrevityoftheirterm，however，wasatonedforbythegreatnessoftheirauthority，forinthesuppressionofdisturbancesnoresistancewassuffered。Theirpersonsweresacred，andifintheexecutionoftheirdutytheystruckevenachiefofthesecondclasstheycouldnotbepunished。
TheDakotas，wholivedintheregionwheretheirnameisstillpreserved，inhabitedthatpartofthegreatplainwhichisclimaticallymostfavorabletogreatactivity。Itisperhapsbecauseoftheirresponsetotheinfluenceofthisfactorofgeographicalenvironmentthattheyandtheirneighborsarethebestknownoftheplainstribes。TheiractivityinlatertimesisevidentfromthefactthattheTetonswerecalled\"theplunderingArabsofAmerica。\"Iftheiractivitieshadbeenmorewiselydirected，theymighthavemadeagreatnameforthemselvesinIndianhistory。Intheartstheystoodashighascouldbeexpectedinviewofthewanderinglifewhichtheyledandthelimitedmaterialswithwhichtheyhadtowork。Intheartofmakingpictographs，forinstance，theyexcelledallothertribes，exceptperhapstheKiowas，aplainstribeofColoradoandwesternKansas。Onthehidesofbuffalo，deer，andantelopewhichformedtheirtents，theDakotaspaintedcalendars，whichhadapictureforeachyear，orratherforeachwinter，whilethoseoftheKiowashadasummersymbolandawintersymbol。Probablythesecalendarsrevealtheinfluenceofthewhites，buttheyatleastshowthatthesepeopleoftheplainswerequickwitted。
FarthersouththetribesoftheplainsstoodonamuchlowerlevelthantheDakotas。TheSpanishexplorer，CabezadeVaca，describestheYguasesinTexas，amongwhomhelivedforseveralyears，inthesewords：\"Theirsupportisprincipallyrootswhichrequireroastingtwodays。Manyareverybitter。Occasionallytheytakedeerandattimesfish，butthequantityissosmallandthefaminesogreatthattheyeatspidersandeggsofants，worms，lizards，salamanders，snakes，andvipersthatkillwhomtheystrike，andtheyeatearthandallthatthereis，thedungofdeer，thingsIomittomentionandIearnestlybelievethatweretherestonesinthatlandtheywouldeatthem。Theysavethebonesofthefishtheyconsume，thesnakesandotheranimals，thattheymayafterwardbeatthemtogetherandeatthepowder。\"
Duringthesepainfulperiods，theybadeCabezadeVaca\"nottobesad。Therewouldsoonbepricklypears，althoughtheseasonofthisfruitofthecactusmightbemonthsdistant。Whenthepearswereripe，thepeoplefeastedanddancedandforgottheirformerprivations。Theydestroyedtheirfemaleinfantstopreventthembeingtakenbytheirenemiesandthusbecomingthemeansofincreasingthelatter’snumber。\"
EastoftheGreatPlainstheredweltstillanotherimportanttypeofIndians，thepeopleofthedeciduousforests。TheirhomeextendedfromtheGreatLakestotheGulfofMexico。Aswehavealreadyseen，theIroquoiswhoinhabitedthenorthernpartofthisregionwereinmanyrespectsthehighestproductofaboriginalAmerica。ThenorthernIroquoistribes，especiallythoseknownastheFiveNations，weresecondtonootherIndianpeoplenorthofMexicoinpoliticalorganization，statecraft，andmilitaryprowess。Theirleadersweregenuinediplomats，asthewilyFrenchandEnglishstatesmenwithwhomtheytreatedsoondiscovered。Oneoftheirmostnotabletraitswasthereverencewhichtheyhadforthetriballaw。Thewarsthattheywagedwereprimarilyforpoliticalindependence，forthefundamentalprincipleoftheirconfederationwasthatbyunitingwithoneanothertheywouldsecurethepeaceandwelfareofallwithwhomtheywereconnectedbytiesofblood。Theypreventedbloodfeudsbydecreeingthatthereshouldbeapriceforthekillingofaco-tribesman，andtheyabstainedfromeatingthefleshoftheirenemiesinordertoavoidfuturestrife。Sothoroughlydidtheybelieveintherightsoftheindividualthatwomenwereaccordedahighposition。Amongsomeofthetribestheconsentofallthewomenwhohadbornechildrenwasrequiredbeforeanyimportantmeasurecouldbetaken。Candidatesforachiefshipwerenominatedbythevotesofthemothers，and，aslandsandhouseswerethepropertyofthewomen，theirpowerinthetribewasgreat。
TheIroquoisweresedentaryandagricultural，anddependedonthechaseforonlyasmallpartoftheirexistence。Thenortherntribeswereespeciallynotedfortheirskillinbuildingfortificationsandhouses。Theirso-calledcastlesweresolidwoodenstructureswithplatformsrunningaroundthetopontheinside。Fromtheplatformsstonesandothermissilescouldbehurleddownuponbesiegers。Accordingtoourstandardssuchdwellingswereveryprimitive，buttheywerealmostasgreatanadvanceuponthebrushpilesoftheUtesasourskyscrapersareuponthem。FarthersouthintheCarolinas，theCherokees，anotherIroquoiantribe，standoutprominentlybyreasonoftheirunusualmentalability。Undertheinfluenceofthewhiteman，theCherokeeswerethefirsttoadoptaconstitutionalformofgovernmentembodiedinacodeoflawswrittenintheirownlanguage。TheirlanguagewasreducedtowritingbymeansofanalphabetwhichoneoftheirnumbernamedSequoyahaddevised。
Sequoyaandotherleaders，however，maynothavebeenpureIndians，forbythattimemuchwhitebloodhadbeenmixedwiththetribe。YetevenbeforethecomingofthewhitemantheCherokeeswereapparentlymoreadvancedinagriculturethantheIroquoiswere，butlessadvancedintheirformofgovernment，intheirtreatmentofwomen，andinmanyotherrespects。Ingeneral，aswegofromnorthtosouthintheregionofdeciduousforests，wefindthatamongtheearlyIndiansagriculturebecamemoreandmoreimportantandthepeoplemoresedentary，thoughnotalwaysmoreprogressiveinotherways。TheCatawbas，forinstance，inSouthCarolinaweresedentaryagriculturistsandseemtohavedifferedlittleingeneralcustomsfromtheirneighbors。Theirmenwerebraveandhonestbutlackinginenergy。IntheMuskhogeanfamilyofIndians，comprisingtheCreeks，Choctaws，Chickasaws，andSeminoles，whooccupiedtheGulfStatesfromGeorgiatoMississippi，allthetribeswereagriculturalandsedentaryandoccupiedvillagesofsubstantialhouses。Thetownsnearthetribalfrontierswereusuallypalisaded，butthosemoreremotefrominvasionwereunprotected。AlltheseIndianswerebravebutnotwarlikeintheviolentfashionoftheFiveNations。
TheChoctawswouldfightonlyinself-defense，itwassaid，buttheCreeksandespeciallytheChickasawsweremoreaggressive。IntheirgovernmenttheseMuskhogeantribesappeartohaveattainedapositioncorrespondingtotheirsomewhatadvancedcultureinotherrespects。YettheirconfederacieswerelooseandflimsycomparedwiththatoftheFiveNations。AnotherphaseofthelifeofthetribesinthesouthernpartoftheregionofdeciduousforestsisillustratedbytheNatchezofMississippi。Thesepeoplewerestrictlysedentaryanddependedchieflyuponagricultureforalivelihood。Theypossessedconsiderableskillinthearts。Forinstance，theywoveaclothfromtheinnerbarkofthemulberrytreeandmadeexcellentpottery。Theyalsoconstructedgreatmoundsofearthuponwhichtoerecttheirdwellingsandtemples。Likeagoodmanyoftheothersoutherntribes，theyfoughtwhenitwasnecessary，buttheywerepeaceablecomparedwiththeFiveNations。Theyhadaformofsun-worshipresemblingthatofMexico，andinotherwaystheirideaswerelikethoseofthepeoplefarthersouth。Forinstance，whenachiefdied，hiswiveswerekilled。Intimesofdistresstheparentsfrequentlyofferedtheirchildrenassacrifice。
ManycharacteristicsoftheNatchezandothersoutherntribesseemtoindicatethattheyhadformerlypossessedacivilizationhigherthanthatwhichprevailedwhenthewhitemancame。TheFiveNations，onthecontrary，apparentlyrepresentanenergeticpeoplewhowereontheupwardpathandwhomighthaveachievedgreatthingsifthewhiteshadnotinterruptedthem。ThesouthernIndiansresemblepeoplewhosebestdayswerepast，forthemoundswhichaboundintheGulfStatesappeartohavebeenbuiltchieflyinpre-Columbiandays。Theirobjectsofart，suchastheremarkablewoodenmortarsfoundatKeyMarcoandtheembossedcopperplatesfoundelsewhereinFlorida，pointtoahighlydevelopedartisticsensewhichwasnolongerinevidenceatthecomingofthewhiteman。
ItisinterestingtoseethewayinwhichclimaticenergytendedtogivetheFiveNationsamarkedsuperiorityoverthetribesmenoftheSouth，whileagriculturetendedintheoppositedirection。
TherehasbeenmuchdiscussionastothepartplayedbyagricultureamongtheprimitiveAmericans，especiallyinthenortheast。Corn，beans，andsquasheswereanimportantelementinthedietoftheIndiansoftheNewEnglandregion，whilefarthersouthpotatoes，sunflowerseeds，andmelonswerealsoarticlesoffood。TheNewEnglandtribesknewenoughaboutagriculturetousefishandshellsforfertilizer。Theyhadwoodenmattocksandhoesmadefromtheshoulderbladesofdeer，fromtortoiseshells，orfromconchshellssetinhandles。Theyalsohadstonehoesandspades，whilethewomenusedshortpickersorparersaboutafootlongandfiveincheswide。Seatedonthegroundtheyusedthesetobreaktheupperpartofthesoilandtogruboutweeds，grass，andoldcornstalks。Theyhadtheregularcustomofburningoveranoldpatcheachyearandthenreplantingit。Sometimestheymerelyputtheseedsinholesandsometimestheydugupandloosenedthegroundforeachseed。Clearingstheymadebygirdlingthetrees，thatis，bycuttingoffthebarkinacircleatthebottomandthuscausingthetreetodie。Thebrushtheyhackedorbrokedownandburnedwhenitwasdryenough。
ThereismuchdangerofconfusingtheagriculturalconditionoftheIndianaftertheEuropeanhadmodifiedhislifewithhisconditionbeforetheEuropeancametoAmerica。Forinstance，intheexcellentarticleonagricultureinthe\"HandbookofAmericanIndians，\"conditionsprevailingaslateas1794intheStatessouthoftheGreatLakesarespokenofasiftypicalofaboriginalAmerica。ButatthattimethewhitemanhadlongbeenincontactwiththeIndian，andirontoolshadlargelytakentheplaceofstone。TherapiditywithwhichEuropeanimportationsspreadmaybejudgedbythefactthatasearlyas1736theIroquoisinNewYorknotonlyhadobtainedhorsesbutwereregularlybreedingthem。Theuseoftheironaxeofcoursespreadwithvastlygreaterrapiditythanthatofthehorse，foranaxeoraknifewasthefirstthingthatanIndiansoughtfromthewhiteman。Intheeighteenthcenturyagriculturehadthusbecomeimmeasurablyeasierthanbefore，yeteventhentheIndiansstillkeptuptheiroldhabitofcultivatingthesamefieldsonlyashorttime。Theregularpracticewastocultivateafieldfive，ten，andsometimeseventwentyormoreyears，andthenabandonit。*
*Ordinarilyitisstatedthatthispracticewasduetotheexhaustionofthesoil。That，however，isopentoquestion，forfiveortenyears’desultorycultivationonthepartoftheIndianwouldscarcelyexhaustthesoilsomuchthatpeoplewouldgotothegreatlaborofmakingnewclearingsandmovingtheirvillages。Moreover，intheSouthernStatesitiswellknowntodaythatthesoilisexhaustedmuchmorerapidlythanfarthernorthbecauseitcontainslesshumus。Neverthelessthesoutherntribescultivatedthelandabouttheirvillagesforlongperiods。TribesliketheCreeks，theCherokees，andtheNatchezappeartohavebeendecidedlylesspronetomovethantheIroquois，inspiteoftherelativelyhighdevelopmentofthesenorthernnations。
Whathinderedagriculturemostinthenorthernpartofthedeciduousforestwasthegrass。Anyonewhohascultivatedagardenknowshowrapidlytheweedsgrow。Healsoknowsthatthereisnoweedsohardtoexterminateasgrass。Whenonceitgetsafootholdmerehoeingseemsonlytomakeitgrowthefaster。Theonlywaytogetridofgrasswhenonceithasbecomewellestablishedistoplowthefieldandstartoveragain，butthistheIndianscouldnotdo。Whenfirstaclearingwasmadeinthemidstoftheforest，therewasnograsstobecontendedwith。
Littlebylittle，however，itwassuretocomein，untilatlengthwhathadbeenagardenwasinafairwaytobecomeameadow。ThentheIndianswoulddecidethatitwasnecessarytoseeknewfields。
OnemightsupposethatundersuchcircumstancestheIndianswouldmerelyclearanotherpatchofforestnotfarfromthevillageandsocontinuetoliveintheoldplace。This，however，theydidnotdobecausethelaborofmakingaclearingwithstoneaxesandbytheslowprocessofgirdlingandburningthetreeswassogreatthatitwaspossibleonlyincertainfavoredspotswherebyaccidentthegrowthwaslessdensethanusual。Whenonceaclearingbecamegrassy，theonlythingtodowastohuntforanewsite，prepareaclearing，andthenmovethevillage。ThiswasapparentlythereasonwhytheIroquois，althoughsuccessfulinotherways，failedtoestablishpermanenttownslikethoseofthePueblosandtheHaidas。Theiradvancementnotonlyinarchitecturebutinmanyofthemostimportantelementsofcivilizationwasforthisreasongreatlydelayed。Therewaslittletostimulatethemtoimprovethelandtowhichtheywereattached，fortheyknewthatsoontheywouldhavetomove。
Farthersouththecharacterofthegrassyvegetationchanges，andtheconditionofagriculturealterswithit。Thegrassceasestohavethatthick，close，turfyqualitywhichweadmiresomuchinthefieldsofthenorth，anditbeginstogrowinbunches。OftenasouthernhillsidemayappearfromadistancetobeasdenselycoveredwithgrassasaNewEnglandhayfield。Oncloserexamination，however，thegrowthisseentoconsistofindividualbuncheswhichcaneasilybepulledup，sothatamongthesoutherntribesthefieldsdidnotbecomefilledwithgrassastheydidinthenorth，forthewomenhadrelativelylittledifficultyinkeepingoutthiskindofweedaswellasothers。
InthissurveyofaboriginalAmericawehavebeenimpressedbythecontrastbetweentwodiverseaspectsofthecontrolofhumanactivitiesbyphysicalenvironment。Wesaw，inthefirstplace，thatinourowndaythedistributionofcultureinAmericaismorecloselyrelatedtoclimaticenergythantoanyotherfactor，becausemanisnowsoadvancedintheartsandcraftsthatagriculturaldifficultiesdonotimpedehim，exceptinthefarnorthandintropicalforests。Secondly，wehavefoundthat，althoughallthegeographicalfactorsactedupontheIndianastheydotoday，theabsenceofmetalsandbeastsofburdencompelledmantobenomadic，andhencetoremaininalowstageofcivilizationinmanyplaceswherehenowcanthrive。InthedayslongbeforeColumbusthedistributionofcivilizationintheRedMan’sContinentofferedstillathirdaspect，strikinglydifferentbothfromthatoftodayandfromthatoftheageofdiscovery。Inthatearlierperiodthegreatcentersofcivilizationweresouthoftheirpresentsituation。InthesouthernpartofNorthAmericafromArizonatoFloridathereareabundantevidencesthattheIndianswhomthewhitemanfoundwerelessadvancedthantheirpredecessors。TheabundantruinsofArizonaandNewMexico，theirwidespreaddistribution，andthehighlyartisticcharacterofthepotteryandotherproductsofhandicraftfoundinthemseemtoindicatethattheancientpopulationwasbothdenserandmorehighlyculturedthanthatwhichtheEuropeansfinallyousted。IntheGulfStatesthereisperhapsnotmuchevidencethattherewasadenserpopulationatanearlierperiod，buttheexcellenceofthepre-Columbianhandicraftsandtheexistenceofadecadentsunworshipillustratethewayinwhichthecivilizationofthepastwashigherthanthatoflaterdays。TheAztecs，whofiguresolargelyinthehistoryoftheexplorationandconquestofMexico，weremerelyawarliketribewhichhadbeenfortunateintheinheritanceofarelativelyhighcivilizationfromthepast。So，too，thecivilizationfoundbytheSpaniardsatplacessuchasMitla，intheextremesouthofMexico，couldnotcomparewiththatofwhichevidenceisfoundintheruins。MostremarkableofallistheconditionofYucatanandGuatemala。InnorthernYucatantheSpaniardsfoundaraceofmild，decadentMayaslivingamongtherelicsofformergrandeur。Althoughtheyusedtheoldtemplesasshrines，theyknewlittleofthosewhohadbuiltthesetemplesandshowedstilllesscapacitytoimitatetheancientarchitects。FarthersouthintheforestedregionofsouthernYucatanandnorthernGuatemalatheconditionsarestillmoresurprising，fortodaytheseregionsarealmostuninhabitableandareoccupiedbyonlyafewsickly，degradednativeswholivelargelybythechase。YetinthepastthisregionwasthesceneofbyfarthehighestculturethateverdevelopedinAmerica。
Therealoneinthisgreatcontinentdidmendevelopanarchitecturewhich，notonlyinmassivenessbutinwealthofarchitecturaldetailandsculpturaladornment，vieswiththatofearlyEgyptorChaldea。Therealonedidtheartofwritingdevelop。Yettodayinthoseregionsthedensityoftheforest，theprevalenceofdeadlyfevers，theextremelyenervatingtemperature，andthesteadyhumidityareashostiletocivilizationasarethecoldofthefarnorthandthedrynessofthedesert。
Theonlyexplanationofthisanomalyseemstobethatinthepasttheclimaticzonesoftheworldhaveatcertainperiodsbeenshiftedfarthertowardtheequatorthantheyareatpresent。
PracticallyallthegeographersofAmericanowbelievethatwithinthepasttwoorthreethousandyearsclimaticpulsationshavetakenplacewherebyplaceslikethedrySouthwesthavealternatelyexperiencedcenturiesofgreatermoisturethanatpresentandcenturiesasdryastodayorevendrier。Duringthemoistcenturiesgreaterstorminessprevailed，sothattheclimatewasapparentlybetternotonlyforagriculturebutforhumanenergy。AtsuchtimesthestandardoflivingwashigherthannownotonlyintheSouthwestbutintheGulfStatesandinMexico。
InperiodswhenthedesertsofthesouthwesternUnitedStateswerewet，theMayaregionofYucatanandGuatemalaappearstohavebeenrelativelydry。ThenthedrybeltwhichnowextendsfromnorthernMexicotothenortherntipofYucatanapparentlyshiftedsouthward。SuchconditionswouldcausetheforestsofYucatanandGuatemalatobecomemuchlessdensethanatpresent。
Thiscomparativedeforestationwouldmakeagricultureeasilypossiblewheretodayitisoutofthequestion。Atthesametimetherelativelydryclimateandtheclearingawayofthevegetationwouldtoalargedegreeeliminatethemalarialfeversandotherdiseaseswhicharenowsuchaterriblescourgeinwettropicalcountries。Then，too，thestormswhichatthepresenttimegivesuchvariabilitytotheclimateoftheUnitedStateswouldfollowmoresoutherlycourses。InitsstimulatingqualitiestheclimateofthehomeoftheMayasinthedaysoftheirprimewasmuchmorenearlylikethatwhichnowprevailswherecivilizationriseshighest。
FromfirsttolastthecivilizationofAmericahasbeenboundupwithitsphysicalenvironment。Itmatterslittlewhetherwearedealingwiththeredrace，theblack，orthewhite。Nordoesitmatterwhetherwedealwithonepartofthecontinentoranother。
Whereverweturnwecantracetheinfluenceofmountainsandplains，ofrocksandmetalsfromwhichtoolsaremade，ofwateranditsfinnyinhabitants，ofthebeastsofthechasefromtheharetothebuffalo，ofdomesticanimals，ofthenativeforests，grass-lands，anddeserts，and，lastbutnotleast，oftemperature，moisture，andwindintheirdirecteffectsuponthehumanbody。Atonestageofhumandevelopmentthepossibilitiesofagriculturemaybethedominantfactorinman’slifeinearlyAmerica。Atanother，domesticanimalsmaybemoreimportant，andatstillanother，ironorwaterwaysorsomeotherfactormaybepredominant。ItisthepartofthelaterhistoryoftheAmericanContinenttotracetheeffectofthesevariousfactorsandtochronicletheinfluencethattheyhavehaduponman’sprogress。
BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE
AlthoughmanybooksdealwiththephysicalfeaturesoftheWesternHemisphereandmanyotherswiththeIndians，fewdealwiththetwoinrelationtooneanother。Onebook，however，standsoutpreeminentinthisrespect，namely，EdwardJohnPayne’s\"HistoryoftheNewWorldCalledAmerica，\"2vols。
（1892-99）。Thisbook，whichhasneverbeenfinished，attemptstoexplaintheconditionsoflifeamongtheAmericanaboriginesastheresultofgeographicalconditions，especiallyofthefoodsupply。Wheretheauthorcarriesthisattemptintothefieldofspecialcustomsandreligiousrites，hegoestoofar。
NeverthelesshisworkisuncommonlystimulatinganddeservesthecarefulattentionofthereaderwhowouldgainabroadgraspoftherelationofgeographytothehistoryoftheNewWorld。
TwoothergoodbookswhichdealwiththerelationofgeographytoAmericanhistoryareMissEllenC。Semple’s\"AmericanHistoryanditsGeographicalConditions\"（1903）andA。P。Brigham’s\"GeographicInfluencesinAmericanHistory\"（1903）。Bothofthesebooksinterpretgeographyasifitincludedlittleexcepttheformoftheland。Whiletheybringoutclearlytheeffectofmountainbarriers，indentedcoasts，andeasyrouteswhetherbylandorwater，theyscarcelytouchonthemoresubtlerelationshipsbetweenmanontheonehandandtheclimate，plants，andanimalswhichformthedominantfeaturesofhisphysicalenvironmentontheotherhand。
IntheiremphasisontheformofthelandbothSempleandBrighamfollowtheleadofW。M。Davis。InhisadmirablearticlesonAmericaandtheUnitedStatesin\"TheEncyclopaediaBritannica\"
（11thedition）andinTheInternationalGeographyeditedbyH。R。
Mill（1901），DavishasgivenanuncommonlyclearandvividdescriptionofthemainphysicalfeaturesoftheNewWorld。
Livingbeings，however，playlittlepartinthisdescription，sothatthereaderisnotledtoanunderstandingofhowphysicalgeographyaffectshumanactions。
OthergooddescriptionsoftheNorthAmericancontinentarefoundinthefollowingbooks：I。C。Russell’s\"NorthAmerica\"（1904），Stanford’s\"CompendiumofModernGeographyandTravel，\"includingthevolumesonCanada，theUnitedStates，andCentralAmerica，andthegreatvolumesonAmericain\"TheEarthanditsInhabitants\"byEliseReclus，19vols。（1876-1894）。Russell’sbookislargelyphysiographicbutcontainssomegoodchaptersontheIndians。InStanford’s\"Compendium\"thepurposeistotreatmanandnatureintheirrelationtooneanother，buttherelationshipsarenotclearlybroughtout，andthereistoomuchemphasisonpurelydescriptiveandencyclopedicmatter。Sofarasinterestisconcerned，thefamousworkbyEliseReclusholdshighrank。Itisanencyclopediaofgeographicalfactsarrangedandeditedinsuchawaythatithasalltheinterestofafinebookoftravel。Likemostoftheotherbooks，however，itfailstobringoutrelationships。
AssourcesofinformationontheIndians，twobooksstandoutwithspecialprominence。\"TheAmericanRace，\"byD。G。Brinton（1891），isamostscholarlyvolumedevotedlargelytoastudyoftheIndiansonalinguisticbasis。Itcontainssomegeneralchapters，however，ontheIndiansandtheirenvironment，andthesearemostilluminating。Theotherbookisthe\"HandbookofAmericanIndiansNorthofMexico，\"editedbyF。W。Hodge，andpublishedbytheUnitedStatesBureauofEthnology（Washington，1897，1910，1911）。Itstwolargevolumesarearrangedinencyclopedicform。Thevariousarticlesarewrittenbyalargenumberofscholars，includingpracticallyallthestudentswhowereatworkonIndianethnologyatthetimeofpublication。ManyofthearticlesarethebestthathavebeenwrittenandwillnotonlyinterestthegeneralreaderbutwillcontributetoanunderstandingofwhatAmericawaswhentheIndianscamehereandwhatitstillistoday。