CHAPTERI……{1}Thejustificationofallpersonswhohavefreedthemselvesfromtoilisnowfoundedonexperimental，positivescience。Thescientifictheoryisasfollows：—
\"Forthestudyofthelawsoflifeofhumansocieties，thereexistsbutoneindubitablemethod，——thepositive，experimental，criticalmethod\"Onlysociology，foundedonbiology，foundedonallthepositivesciences，cangiveusthelawsofhumanity。Humanity，orhumancommunities，aretheorganismsalreadyprepared，orstillinprocessofformation，andwhicharesubservienttoallthelawsoftheevolutionoforganisms。
\"Oneofthechiefoftheselawsisthevariationofdestinationamongtheportionsoftheorgans。Somepeoplecommand，othersobey。
Ifsomehaveinsuperabundance，andothersinwant，thisarisesnotfromthewillofGod，notbecausetheempireisaformofmanifestationofpersonality，butbecauseinsocieties，asinorganisms，divisionoflaborbecomesindispensableforlifeasawhole。Somepeopleperformthemuscularlaborinsocieties；others，thementallabor。\"
Uponthisdoctrineisfoundedtheprevailingjustificationofourtime。
Notlongago，theirreignedinthelearned，cultivatedworld，amoralphilosophy，accordingtowhichitappearedthateverythingwhichexistsisreasonable；thatthereisnosuchthingasevilorgood；andthatitisunnecessaryformantowaragainstevil，butthatitisonlynecessaryforhimtodisplayintelligence，——onemaninthemilitaryservice，anotherinthejudicial，anotherontheviolin。Therehavebeenmanyandvariedexpressionsofhumanwisdom，andthesephenomenawereknowntothemenofthenineteenthcentury。ThewisdomofRousseauandofLessing，andSpinozaandBruno，andallthewisdomofantiquity；butnooneman’swisdomoverrodethecrowd。Itwasimpossibletosayeventhis，——thatHegel’ssuccesswastheresultofthesymmetryofthistheory。
Therewereotherequallysymmetricaltheories，——thoseofDescartes，Leibnitz，Fichte，Schopenhauer。Therewasbutonereasonwhythisdoctrinewonforitself，foraseason，thebeliefofthewholeworld；andthisreasonwas，thatthedeductionsofthatphilosophywinkedatpeople’sweaknesses。Thesedeductionsweresummedupinthis，——thateverythingwasreasonable，everythinggood；andthatnoonewastoblame。
WhenIbeganmycareer，Hegelianismwasthefoundationofeverything。Itwasfloatingintheair；itwasexpressedinnewspaperandperiodicalarticles，inhistoricalandjudiciallectures，innovels，intreatises，inart，insermons，inconversation。ThemanwhowasnotacquaintedwithHegalhadnorighttospeak。AnyonewhodesiredtounderstandthetruthstudiedHegel。Everythingrestedonhim。Andallatoncethefortiespassed，andtherewasnothingleftofhim。Therewasnotevenahintofhim，anymorethanifhehadneverexisted。Andthemostamazingthingofallwas，thatHegelianismdidnotfallbecausesomeoneoverthrewitordestroyedit。No!Itwasthesamethenasnow，butallatonceitappearedthatitwasofnousewhatevertothelearnedandcultivatedworld。
TherewasatimewhentheHegelianwisementriumphantlyinstructedthemasses；andthecrowd，understandingnothing，blindlybelievedineverything，findingconfirmationinthefactthatitwasonhand；andtheybelievedthatwhatseemedtothemmuddyandcontradictorythereontheheightsofphilosophywasallasclearastheday。Butthattimehasgoneby。Thattheoryiswornout：anewtheoryhaspresenteditselfinitsstead。Theoldonehasbecomeuseless；andthecrowdhaslookedintothesecretsanctuariesofthehighpriests，andhasseenthatthereisnothingthere，andthattherehasbeennothingthere，saveveryobscureandsenselesswords。Thishastakenplacewithinmymemory。
\"Butthisarises，\"peopleofthepresentsciencewillsay，\"fromthefactthatallthatwastheravingofthetheologicalandmetaphysicalperiod；butnowthereexistspositive，criticalscience，whichdoesnotdeceive，sinceitisallfoundedoninductionandexperiment。Nowourerectionsarenotshaky，astheyformerlywere，andonlyinourpathliesthesolutionofalltheproblemsofhumanity。\"
Buttheoldteacherssaidpreciselythesame，andtheywerenofools；andweknowthattherewerepeopleofgreatintelligenceamongthem。Andpreciselythus，withinmymemory，andwithnolessconfidence，withnolessrecognitiononthepartofthecrowdofso—
calledcultivatedpeople，spoketheHegelians。AndneitherwereourHerzens，ourStankevitches，orourByelinskysfools。Butwhencearosethatmarvellousmanifestation，thatsensiblepeopleshouldpreachwiththegreatestassurance，andthatthecrowdshouldacceptwithdevotion，suchunfoundedandunsupportableteachings？Thereisbutonereason，——thattheteachingsthusinculcatedjustifiedpeopleintheirevillife。
AverypoorEnglishwriter，whoseworksareallforgotten，andrecognizedasthemostinsignificantoftheinsignificant，writesatreatiseonpopulation，inwhichhedevisesafictitiouslawconcerningtheincreaseofpopulationdisproportionatetothemeansofsubsistence。Thisfictitiouslaw，thiswriterencompasseswithmathematicalformulaefoundedonnothingwhatever；andthenhelaunchesitontheworld。Fromthefrivolityandthestupidityofthishypothesis，onewouldsupposethatitwouldnotattracttheattentionofanyone，andthatitwouldsinkintooblivion，likealltheworksofthesameauthorwhichfollowedit；butitturnedoutquiteotherwise。Thehack—writerwhopennedthistreatiseinstantlybecomesascientificauthority，andmaintainshimselfuponthatheightfornearlyhalfacentury。Malthus!TheMalthusiantheory，—
—thelawoftheincreaseofthepopulationingeometrical，andofthemeansofsubsistenceinarithmeticalproportion，andthewiseandnaturalmeansofrestrictingthepopulation，——allthesehavebecomescientific，indubitabletruths，whichhavenotbeenconfirmed，butwhichhavebeenemployedasaxioms，fortheerectionoffalsetheories。Inthismannerhavelearnedandcultivatedpeopleproceeded；andamongtheherdofidlepersons，theresprungupapioustrustinthegreatlawsexpoundedbyMalthus。Howdidthiscometopass？Itwouldseemasthoughtheywerescientificdeductions，whichhadnothingincommonwiththeinstinctsofthemasses。Butthiscanonlyappearsoforthemanwhobelievesthatscience，liketheChurch，issomethingself—contained，liabletonoerrors，andnotsimplytheimaginingsofweakanderringfolk，whomerelysubstitutetheimposingword\"science，\"inplaceofthethoughtsandwordsofthepeople，forthesakeofimpressiveness。
AllthatwasnecessarywastomakepracticaldeductionsfromthetheoryofMalthus，inordertoperceivethatthistheorywasofthemosthumansort，withthebestdefinedofobjects。Thedeductionsdirectlyarisingfromthistheorywerethefollowing：Thewretchedconditionofthelaboringclasseswassuchinaccordancewithanunalterablelaw，whichdoesnotdependuponmen；and，ifanyoneistoblameinthismatter，itisthehungrylaboringclassesthemselves。Whyaretheysuchfoolsastogivebirthtochildren，whentheyknowthattherewillbenothingforthechildrentoeat？
Andsothisdeduction，whichisvaluablefortheherdofidlepeople，hashadthisresult：thatalllearnedmenoverlookedtheincorrectness，theutterarbitrarinessofthesedeductions，andtheirinsusceptibilitytoproof；andthethrongofcultivated，i。e。，ofidlepeople，knowinginstinctivelytowhatthesedeductionslead，salutedthistheorywithenthusiasm，conferreduponitthestampoftruth，i。e。，ofscience，anddraggeditaboutwiththemforhalfacentury。
Isnotthissamethingthecauseoftheconfidenceofmeninpositivecritical—experimentalscience，andofthedevoutattitudeofthecrowdtowardsthatwhichitpreaches？Atfirstitseemsstrange，thatthetheoryofevolutioncaninanymannerjustifypeopleintheirevilways；anditseemsasthoughthescientifictheoryofevolutionhastodealonlywithfacts，andthatitdoesnothingelsebutobservefacts。
Butthisonlyappearstobethecase。
ExactlythesamethingappearedtobethecasewiththeHegeliandoctrine，inagreaterdegree，andalsointhespecialinstanceoftheMalthusiandoctrine。Hegelianismwas，apparently，occupiedonlywithitslogicalconstructions，andborenorelationtothelifeofmankind。PreciselythisseemedtobethecasewiththeMalthusiantheory。Itappearedtobebusyitselfonlywithstatisticaldata。
Butthiswasonlyinappearance。
Contemporaryscienceisalsooccupiedwithfactsalone：itinvestigatesfacts。Butwhatfacts？Whypreciselythesefacts，andnoothers？
Themenofcontemporaryscienceareveryfondofsaying，triumphantlyandconfidently，\"Weinvestigateonlyfacts，\"imaginingthatthesewordscontainsomemeaning。Itisimpossibletoinvestigatefactsalone，becausethefactswhicharesubjecttoourinvestigationareINNUMERABLE（inthedefinitesenseofthatword），—
—innumerable。Beforeweproceedtoinvestigatefacts，wemusthaveatheoryonthefoundationofwhichtheseorthosefactscanbeinquiredinto，i。e。，selectedfromtheincalculablequantity。
Andthistheoryexists，andisevenverydefinitelyexpressed，althoughmanyoftheworkersincontemporarysciencedonotknowit，oroftenpretendthattheydonotknowit。Exactlythushasitalwaysbeenwithallprevailingandguidingdoctrines。Thefoundationsofeverydoctrinearealwaysstatedinatheory，andtheso—calledlearnedmenmerelyinventfurtherdeductionsfromthefoundationsoncestated。Thuscontemporaryscienceisselectingitsfactsonthefoundationofaverydefinitetheory，whichitsometimesknows，sometimesrefusestoknow，andsometimesreallydoesnotknow；butthetheoryexists。
Thetheoryisasfollows：Allmankindisanundyingorganism；menaretheparticlesofthatorganism，andeachoneofthemhashisownspecialtaskfortheserviceofothers。Inthesamemanner，thecellsunitedinanorganismshareamongthemthelaboroffightforexistenceofthewholeorganism；theymagnifythepowerofonecapacity，andweakenanother，anduniteinoneorgan，inorderthebettertosupplytherequirementsofthewholeorganism。Andexactlyinthesamemanneraswithgregariousanimals，——antsorbees，——theseparateindividualsdividethelaboramongthem。Thequeenlaystheegg，thedronefructifiesit；thebeeworkshiswholelifelong。Andpreciselythisthingtakesplaceinmankindandinhumansocieties。Andtherefore，inordertofindthelawoflifeforman，itisnecessarytostudythelawsofthelifeandthedevelopmentoforganisms。
Inthelifeanddevelopmentoforganisms，wefindthefollowinglaws：thelawofdifferentiationandintegration，thelawthateveryphenomenonisaccompaniednotbydirectconsequencesalone，anotherlawregardingtheinstabilityoftype，andsoon。Allthisseemsveryinnocent；butitisonlynecessarytodrawthedeductionsfromalltheselaws，inordertoimmediatelyperceivethattheselawsinclineinthesamedirectionasthelawofMalthus。Theselawsallpointtoonething；namely，totherecognitionofthatdivisionoflaborwhichexistsinhumancommunities，asorganic，thatistosay，asindispensable。Andtherefore，theunjustpositioninwhichwe，thepeoplewhohavefreedourselvesfromlabor，findourselves，mustberegardednotfromthepointofviewofcommon—senseandjustice，butmerelyasanundoubtedfact，confirmingtheuniversallaw。
Moralphilosophyalsojustifiedeverysortofcrueltyandharshness；
butthisresultedinaphilosophicalmanner，andthereforewrongly。
Butwithscience，allthisresultsscientifically，andthereforeinamannernottobedoubted。
Howcanwefailtoacceptsoverybeautifulatheory？Itismerelynecessarytolookuponhumansocietyasanobjectofcontemplation；
andIcanconsolemyselfwiththethoughtthatmyactivity，whatevermaybeitsnature，isafunctionalactivityoftheorganismofhumanity，andthatthereforetherecannotariseanyquestionastowhetheritisjustthatI，inemployingthelaborofothers，amdoingonlythatwhichisagreeabletome，astherecanarisenoquestionastothedivisionoflaborbetweenthebraincellsandthemuscularcells。Howisitpossiblenottoadmitsoverybeautifulatheory，inorderthatonemaybeable，everafter，topocketone’sconscience，andhaveaperfectlyunbridledanimalexistence，feelingbeneathone’sselfthatsupportofsciencewhichisnottobeshakennowadays!
Anditisonthisnewdoctrinethatthejustificationformen’sidlenessandcrueltyisnowfounded。
CHAPTERII。
Thisdoctrinehaditsrisenotsoverylong——fiftyyears——ago。ItsprincipalfounderwastheFrenchsavantComte。ThereoccurredtoComte，——asystematist，andareligiousmantoboot，——undertheinfluenceofthethennovelphysiologicalinvestigationsofBiche，theoldideaalreadysetforthbyMeneniusAgrippa，——theideathathumansociety，allhumanityeven，mightberegardedasonewhole，asanorganism；andmenaslivingpartsoftheseparateorgans，havingeachhisowndefiniteappointmenttoservetheentireorganism。
ThisideasopleasedComte，thatuponithebegantoerectaphilosophicaltheory；andthistheorysocarriedhimaway，thatheutterlyforgotthatthepointofdepartureforhistheorywasnothingmorethanaveryprettycomparison，whichwassuitableforafable，butwhichcouldbynomeansserveasthefoundationforscience。He，asfrequentlyhappens，mistookhispethypothesisforanaxiom，andimaginedthathiswholetheorywaserectedontheveryfirmestoffoundations。Accordingtohistheory，itseemedthatsincehumanityisanorganism，theknowledgeofwhatmanis，andofwhatshouldbehisrelationstotheworld，waspossibleonlythroughaknowledgeofthefeaturesofthisorganism。Fortheknowledgeofthesequalities，manisenabledtotakeobservationsonotherandlowerorganisms，andtodrawconclusionsfromtheirlife。
Therefore，inthefistplace，thetrueandonlymethod，accordingtoComte，istheinductive，andallscienceisonlysuchwhenithasexperimentasitsbasis；inthesecondplace，thegoalandcrownofsciencesisformedbythatnewsciencedealingwiththeimaginaryorganismofhumanity，orthesuper—organicbeing，——humanity，——andthisnewlydevisedscienceissociology。
Andfromthisviewofscienceitappears，thatallpreviousknowledgewasdeceitful，andthatthewholestoryofhumanity，inthesenseofself—knowledge，hasbeendividedintothree，actuallyintotwo，periods：thetheologicalandmetaphysicalperiod，extendingfromthebeginningoftheworldtoComte，andthepresentperiod，——thatoftheonlytruescience，positivescience，——beginningwithComte。
Allthiswasverywell。Therewasbutoneerror，andthatwasthis，——thatthewholeedificewaserectedonthesand，onthearbitraryandfalseassertionthathumanityisanorganism。Thisassertionwasarbitrary，becausewehavejustasmuchrighttoadmittheexistenceofahumanorganism，notsubjecttoobservation，aswehavetoadmittheexistenceofanyotherinvisible，fantasticbeing。
Thisassertionwaserroneous，becausefortheunderstandingofhumanity，i。e。，ofmen，thedefinitionofanorganismwasincorrectlyconstructed，whileinhumanityitselfallactualsignsoforganism，——thecentreoffeelingorconsciousness，arelacking。
{2}
But，inspiteofthearbitrarinessandincorrectnessofthefundamentalassumptionofpositivephilosophy，itwasacceptedbytheso—calledcultivatedworldwiththegreatestsympathy。Inthisconnection，onethingisworthyofnote：thatoutoftheworksofComte，consistingoftwoparts，ofpositivephilosophyandofpositivepolitics，onlythefirstwasadoptedbythelearnedworld，—
—thatpartwhichjustifieth，onnewpromises，theexistentevilofhumansocieties；butthesecondpart，treatingofthemoralobligationsofaltruism，arisingfromtherecognitionofmankindasanorganism，wasregardedasnotonlyofnoimportance，butastrivialandunscientific。ItwasarepetitionofthesamethingthathadhappenedinthecaseofKant’sworks。The\"CritiqueofPureReason\"wasadoptedbythescientificcrowd；butthe\"CritiqueofAppliedReason，\"thatpartwhichcontainsthegistofmoraldoctrine，wasrepudiated。InKant’sdoctrine，thatwasacceptedasscientificwhichsubservedtheexistentevil。Butthepositivephilosophy，whichwasacceptedbythecrowd，wasfoundedonanarbitraryanderroneousbasis，wasinitselftoounfounded，andthereforeunsteady，andcouldnotsupportitselfalone。Andso，amidallthemultitudeoftheidleplaysofthoughtofthemenprofessingtheso—calledscience，therepresentsitselfanassertionequallydevoidofnovelty，andequallyarbitraryanderroneous，totheeffectthatlivingbeings，i。e。，organisms，havehadtheirriseineachother，——notonlyoneorganismfromanother，butonefrommany；i。e。，thatinaverylongintervaloftime（inamillionofyears，forinstance），notonlycouldaduckandafishproceedfromoneancestor，butthatoneanimalmightresultfromawholehiveofbees。Andthisarbitraryanderroneousassumptionwasacceptedbythelearnedworldwithstillgreaterandmoreuniversalsympathy。
Thisassumptionwasarbitrary，becausenoonehaseverseenhowoneorganismismadefromanother，andthereforethehypothesisastotheoriginofspecieswillalwaysremainanhypothesis，andnotanexperimentalfact。Andthishypothesiswasalsoerroneous，becausethedecisionofthequestionastotheoriginofspecies——thattheyhaveoriginated，inconsequenceofthelawofheredityandfitness，inthecourseofaninterminablylongtime——isnosolutionatall，butmerelyare—statementoftheprobleminanewform。
AccordingtoMoses’solutionofthequestion（inthedisputewithwhomtheentiresignificanceofthistheorylies），itappearsthatthediversityofthespeciesoflivingcreaturesproceededaccordingtothewillofGod，andaccordingtoHisalmightypower；butaccordingtothetheoryofevolution，itappearsthatthedifferencebetweenlivingcreaturesarosebychance，andonaccountofvaryingconditionsofheredityandsurroundings，throughanendlessperiodoftime。Thetheoryofevolution，tospeakinsimplelanguage，merelyasserts，thatbychance，inanincalculablylongperiodoftime，outofanythingyoulike，anythingelsethatyoulikemaydevelop。
Thisisnoanswertotheproblem。Andthesameproblemisdifferentlyexpressed：insteadofwill，chanceisoffered，andtheco—efficientoftheeternalistransposedfromthepowertothetime。ButthisfreshassertionstrengthenedComte’sassertion。
And，moreover，accordingtotheingenuousconfessionofthefounderofDarwin’stheoryhimself，hisideawasarousedinhimbythelawofMalthus；andhethereforepropoundedthetheoryofthestruggleoflivingcreaturesandpeopleforexistence，asthefundamentallawofeverylivingthing。Andlo!onlythiswasneededbythethrongofidlepeoplefortheirjustification。
Twoinsecuretheories，incapableofsustainingthemselvesontheirfeet，upheldeachother，andacquiredthesemblanceofstability。
Boththeoriesborewiththemthatideawhichisprecioustothecrowd，thatintheexistentevilofhumansocieties，menarenottoblame，andthattheexistingorderofthingsisthatwhichshouldprevail；andthenewtheorywasadoptedbythethrongwithentirefaithandunheard—ofenthusiasm。Andbehold，onthestrengthofthesetwoarbitraryanderroneoushypotheses，acceptedasdogmasofbelief，thenewscientificdoctrinewasratified。
Spencer，forexample，inoneofhisfirstworks，expressesthisdoctrinethus：—
\"Societiesandorganisms，\"hesays，\"arealikeinthefollowingpoints：—
\"1。Inthat，beginningastinyaggregates，theyimperceptiblygrowinmass，sothatsomeofthemattaintothesizeoftenthousandtimestheiroriginalbulk。
\"2。Inthatwhiletheywere，inthebeginning，ofsuchsimplestructure，thattheycanberegardedasdestituteofallstructure，theyacquireduringtheperiodoftheirgrowthaconstantlyincreasingcomplicationofstructure。
\"3。Inthatalthoughintheirearly，undevelopedperiod，thereexistsbetweenthemhardlyanyinterdependenceofparts，theirpartsgraduallyacquireaninterdependence，whicheventuallybecomessostrong，thatthelifeandactivityofeachpartbecomespossibleonlyonconditionofthelifeandactivityoftheremainingparts。
\"4。Inthatlifeandthedevelopmentofsocietyareindependent，andmoreprotractedthanthelifeanddevelopmentofanyoneoftheunitsconstitutingit，whichareborn，grow，act，reproducethemselves，anddieseparately；whilethepoliticalbodyformedfromthem，continuestolivegenerationaftergeneration，developinginmassinperfectionandfunctionalactivity。\"
Thepointsofdifferencebetweenorganismsandsocietygofarther；
anditisprovedthatthesedifferencesaremerelyapparent，butthatorganismsandsocietiesareabsolutelysimilar。
Fortheuninitiatedmanthequestionimmediatelypresentsitself：
\"Whatareyoutalkingabout？Whyismankindanorganism，orsimilartoanorganism？\"
Yousaythatsocietiesresembleorganismsinthesefourfeatures；
butitisnothingofthesort。Youonlytakeafewfeaturesoftheorganism，andbeneaththemyourangehumancommunities。Youbringforwardfourfeaturesofresemblance，thenyoutakefourfeaturesofdissimilarity，whichare，however，onlyapparent（accordingtoyou）；
andyouthenceconcludethathumansocietiescanberegardedasorganisms。Butsurely，thisisanemptygameofdialectics，andnothingmore。Onthesamefoundation，underthefeaturesofanorganism，youmayrangewhateveryouplease。Iwilltakethefistthingthatcomesintomyhead。Letussupposeittobeaforest，——
themannerinwhichitsowsitselfintheplain，andspreadsabroad。
1。Beginningwithasmallaggregate，itincreasesimperceptiblyinmass，andsoforth。Exactlythesamethingtakesplaceinthefields，whentheygraduallyseedthemselvesdown，andbringforthaforest。2。Inthebeginningthestructureissimple：afterwardsitincreasesincomplication，andsoforth。Exactlythesamethinghappenswiththeforest，——inthefirstplace，therewereonlybitch—
trees，thencamebrush—woodandhazel—bushes；atfirstallgrowerect，thentheyinterlacetheirbranches。3。Theinterdependenceofthepartsissoaugmented，thatthelifeofeachpartdependsonthelifeandactivityoftheremainingparts。Itispreciselysowiththeforest，——thehazel—bushwarmsthetree—boles（cutitdown，andtheothertreeswillfreeze），thehazel—bushprotectsfromthewind，theseed—bearingtreescarryonreproduction，thetallandleafytreesaffordshade，andthelifeofonetreedependsonthelifeofanother。4。Theseparatepartsmaydie，butthewholelives。Exactlythecasewiththeforest。Theforestdoesnotmournonetree。
Havingprovedthat，inaccordancewiththistheory，youmayregardtheforestasanorganism，youfancythatyouhaveprovedtothedisciplesoftheorganicdoctrinetheerroroftheirdefinition。
Nothingofthesort。Thedefinitionwhichtheygivetotheorganismissoinaccurateandsoelasticthatunderthisdefinitiontheymayincludewhattheywill。\"Yes，\"theysay；\"andtheforestmayalsoberegardedasanorganism。Theforestismutualre—actionofindividuals，whichdonotannihilateeachother，——anaggregate；itspartsmayalsoenterintoamoreintimateunion，asthehiveofbeesconstitutesitselfanorganism。\"Thenyouwillsay，\"Ifthatisso，thenthebirdsandtheinsectsandthegrassofthisforest，whichre—actuponeachother，anddonotdestroyeachother，mayalsoberegardedasoneorganism，incompanywiththetrees。\"Andtothisalsotheywillagree。Everycollectionoflivingindividuals，whichre—actuponeachother，anddonotdestroyeachother，mayberegardedasorganisms，accordingtotheirtheory。Youmayaffirmaconnectionandinteractionbetweenwhateveryouchoose，and，accordingtoevolution，youmayaffirm，that，outofwhateveryouplease，anyotherthingthatyoupleasemayproceed，inaverylongperiodoftime。
Andthemostremarkablethingofallis，thatthissameidenticalpositivesciencerecognizesthescientificmethodasthesignoftrueknowledge，andhasitselfdefinedwhatitdesignatesasthescientificmethod。
Bythescientificmethoditmeanscommon—sense。
Andcommon—senseconvictsitateverystep。AssoonasthePopesfeltthatnothingholyremainedinthem，theycalledthemselvesmostholy。
Assoonassciencefeltthatnocommon—sensewasleftinhershecalledherselfsensible，thatistosay，scientificscience。
CHAPTERIII。
Divisionoflaboristhelawofallexistingthings，and，therefore，itshouldbepresentinhumansocieties。Itisverypossiblethatthisisso；butstillthequestionremains，OfwhatnatureisthatdivisionoflaborwhichIbeholdinmyhumansociety？isitthatdivisionoflaborwhichshouldexist？Andifpeopleregardacertaindivisionoflaborasunreasonableandunjust，thennosciencewhatevercanconvincementhatthatshouldexistwhichtheyregardasunreasonableandunjust。
Divisionoflaboristheconditionofexistenceoforganisms，andofhumansocieties；butwhat，inthesehumansocieties，istoberegardedasanorganicdivisionoflabor？And，towhateverextentsciencemayhaveinvestigatedthedivisionoflaborinthecellsofworms，alltheseobservationsdonotcompelamantoacknowledgethatdivisionoflabortobecorrectwhichhisownsenseandconsciencedonotrecognizeascorrect。Nomatterhowconvincingmaybetheproofsofthedivisionoflaborofthecellsintheorganismsstudied，man，ifhehasnotpartedwithhisjudgment，willsay，nevertheless，thatamanshouldnotweavecalicoallhislife，andthatthisisnotdivisionoflabor，butpersecutionofthepeople。Spencerandotherssaythatthereisawholecommunityofweavers，andthattheprofessionofweavingisanorganicdivisionoflabor。Thereareweavers；so，ofcourse，thereissuchadivisionoflabor。Itwouldbewellenoughtospeakthusifthecolonyofweavershadarisenbythefreewillofitsmember’s；butweknowthatitisnotthusformedoftheirinitiative，butthatwemakeit。Henceitisnecessarytofindoutwhetherwehavemadetheseweaversinaccordancewithanorganiclaw，orwithsomeother。
Menlive。Theysupportthemselvesbyagriculture，asisnaturaltoallmen。Onemanhassetupablacksmith’sforge，andrepairedhisplough；hisneighborcomestohim，andaskshimtomendhisalso，andpromiseshiminreturneitherworkormoney。Athirdcomes，andafourth；andinthecommunityformedbythesemen，therearisesthefollowingdivisionoflabor，——ablacksmithiscreated。Anothermanhasinstructedhischildrenwell；hisneighborbringshischildrentohim，andrequestshimtoteachthemalso，andateacheriscreated。Butbothblacksmithandteacherhavebeencreated，andcontinuetobesuch，merelybecausetheyhavebeenasked；andtheyremainsuchaslongastheyarerequestedtobeblacksmithandteacher。Ifitshouldcometopassthatmanyblacksmithsandteachersshouldsetthemselvesup，orthattheirworkisnotrequited，theywillimmediately，ascommonsensedemandsandasalwayshappenswhenthereisnooccasionfordisturbingtheregularcourseofdivisionoflabor，——theywillimmediatelyabandontheirtrade，andbetakethemselvesoncemoretoagriculture。
Menwhobehavethusareguidedbytheirsense，theirconscience；andhencewe，themenendowedwithsenseandconscience，allassertthatsuchadivisionoflaborisright。Butifitshouldchancethattheblacksmithswereabletocompelotherpeopletoworkforthem，andshouldcontinuetomakehorse—shoeswhentheywerenotwanted，andiftheteachersshouldgoonteachingwhentherewasnoonetoteach，thenitisobvioustoeverysaneman，asaman，i。e。，asabeingendowedwithreasonandconscience，thatthiswouldnotbedivision，butappropriation，oflabor。Andyetpreciselythatsortofactivityiswhatiscalleddivisionoflaborbyscientificscience。Peopledothatwhichothersdonotthinkofrequiring，anddemandthattheyshallbesupportedforsodoing，andsaythatthisisjustbecauseitisdivisionoflabor。
ThatwhichconstitutesthecauseoftheeconomicalpovertyofourageiswhattheEnglishcallover—production（whichmeansthatamassofthingsaremadewhichareofnousetoanybody，andwithwhichnothingcanbedone）。
Itwouldbeoddtoseeashoemaker，whoshouldconsiderthatpeoplewereboundtofeedhimbecauseheincessantlymadebootswhichhadbeenofnousetoanyoneforalongtime；butwhatshallwesayofthosemenwhomakenothing，——whonotonlyproducenothingthatisvisible，butnothingthatisofuseforpeopleatlarge，——forwhosewarestherearenocustomers，andwhoyetdemand，withthesameboldness，onthegroundofdivisionoflabor，thattheyshallbesuppliedwithfinefoodanddrink，andthattheyshallbedressedwell？Theremaybe，andthereare，sorcerersforwhoseservicesademandmakesitselffelt，andforthispurposetherearebroughttothempancakesandflasks；butitisdifficulttoimaginetheexistenceofsorcererswhosespellsareuselesstoeveryone，andwhoboldlydemandthattheyshallbeluxuriouslysupportedbecausetheyexercisesorcery。Anditisthesameinourworld。Andallthiscomesaboutonthebasisofthatfalseconceptionofthedivisionoflabor，whichisdefinednotbyreasonandconscience，butbyobservation，whichmenofscienceavowwithsuchunanimity。
Divisionoflaborhas，inreality，alwaysexisted，andstillexists；
butitisrightonlywhenmandecideswithhisreasonandhisconsciencethatitshouldbeso，andnotwhenhemerelyinvestigatesit。Andreasonandconsciencedecidethequestionforallmenverysimply，unanimously，andinamannernottobedoubted。Theyalwaysdecideitthus：thatdivisionoflaborisrightonlywhenaspecialbranchofman’sactivityissoneedfultomen，thatthey，entreatinghimtoservethem，voluntarilyproposetosupporthiminrequitalforthatwhichheshalldoforthem。But，whenamancanlivefrominfancytotheageofthirtyyearsonthenecksofothers，promisingtodo，whenheshallhavebeentaught，somethingextremelyuseful，forwhichnooneaskshim；andwhen，fromtheageofthirtyuntilhisdeath，hecanliveinthesamemanner，stillmerelyonthepromisetodosomething，forwhichtherehasbeennorequest，thiswillnotbedivisionoflabor（and，asamatteroffact，thereisnosuchthinginoursociety），butitwillbewhatitalreadyis，——
merelytheappropriation，byforce，ofthetoilofothers；thatsameappropriationbyforceofthetoilofotherswhichthephilosophersformerlydesignatedbyvariousnames，——forinstance，asindispensableformsoflife，——butwhichscientificsciencenowcallstheorganicdivisionoflabor。
Thewholesignificanceofscientificscienceliesinthisalone。Ithasnowbecomeadistributerofdiplomasforidleness；foritalone，initssanctuaries，selectsanddetermineswhatisparasitical，andwhatisorganicactivity，inthesocialorganism。Justasthougheverymancouldnotfindthisoutforhimselfmuchmoreaccuratelyandmorespeedily，bytakingcounselofhisreasonandhisconscience。Itseemstomenofscientificscience，thattherecanbenodoubtofthis，andthattheiractivityisalsoindubitablyorganic；they，thescientificandartisticworkers，arethebraincells，andthemostpreciouscellsinthewholeorganism。
Eversincemen——reasoningbeings——haveexisted，theyhavedistinguishedgoodfromevil，andhaveprofitedbythefactthatmenhavemadethisdistinctionbeforethem；theyhavewarredagainstevil，andhavesoughtthegood，andhaveslowlybutuninterruptedlyadvancedinthatpath。Anddiversdelusionshavealwaysstoodbeforemen，hemminginthispath，andhavingfortheirobjecttodemonstratetothem，thatitwasnotnecessarytodothis，andthatitwasnotnecessarytoliveastheywereliving。Withfearfulconflictanddifficulty，menhavefreedthemselvesfrommanydelusions。Andbehold，anewandastillmoreevildelusionhassprungupinthepathofmankind，——thescientificdelusion。
Thisnewdelusionispreciselythesameinnatureastheoldones；
itsgistliesinsecretlyleadingastraytheactivityofourreasonandconscience，andofthosewhohavelivedbeforeus，bysomethingexternal。Inscientificscience，thisexternalthingis——
investigation。
Thecunningofthisscienceconsistsinthis，——that，afterpointingouttomenthecoarsestfalseinterpretationsoftheactivityofthereasonandconscienceofman，itdestroysinthemfaithintheirownreasonandconscience，andassuresthemthateverythingwhichtheirreasonandconsciencesaytothem，thatallthatthesehavesaidtotheloftiestrepresentativesofmanheretofore，eversincetheworldhasexisted，——thatallthisisconventionalandsubjective。\"Allthismustbeabandoned，\"theysay；\"itisimpossibletounderstandthetruthbythereason，forwemaybemistaken。Butthereexistsanotherunerringandalmostmechanicalpath：itisnecessarytoinvestigatefacts。\"
Butfactsmustbeinvestigatedonthefoundationofscientificscience，i。e。，ofthetwohypothesesofpositivismandevolution，whicharenotborneoutbyanything，andwhichgivethemselvesoutasundoubtedtruths。Andthereigningscienceannounces，withdelusivesolemnity，thatthesolutionofallproblemsoflifeispossibleonlythroughthestudyoffacts，ofnature，and，inparticular，oforganisms。Thecredulousmassofyoungpeople，overwhelmedbythenoveltyofthisauthority，whichhasnotyetbeenoverthrownoreventouchedbycriticism，flingsitselfintothestudyofnaturalsciences，intothatsolepath，which，accordingtotheassertionofthereigningscience，canleadtotheelucidationoftheproblemsoflife。
Butthefartherthedisciplesproceedinthisstudy，thefartherandfartherdoesnotonlythepossibility，buteventheveryidea，ofthesolutionoftheproblemsoflifewithdrawfromthem，andthemoreandmoredotheybecomeaccustomed，notsomuchtoinvestigate，astobelieveintheassertionsofotherinvestigators（tobelieveincells，inprotoplasm，inthefourthconditionofbodies，andsoforth）；themoreandmoredoestheformveilthecontentsfromthem；
themoreandmoredotheylosetheconsciousnessofgoodandevil，andthecapacityofunderstandingthoseexpressionsanddefinitionsofgoodandevilwhichhavebeenelaboratedthroughthewholeforegoinglifeofmankind；andthemoreandmoredotheyappropriatetothemselvesthespecialscientificjargonofconventionalexpressions，whichpossessesnouniversallyhumansignificance；andthedeeperanddeeperdotheyplungeintothedebrisofutterlyunilluminatedinvestigations；themoreandmoredotheylosethepower，notonlyofindependentthought，butevenofunderstandingthefreshhumanthoughtofothers，whichliesbeyondtheboundsoftheirTalmud。Buttheprincipalthingis，thattheypasstheirbestyearsingettingdisusedtolife；theygrowaccustomedtoconsidertheirpositionasjustifiable；andtheyconvertthemselvesphysicallyintoutterlyuselessparasites，andmentallytheydislocatetheirbrainsandbecomementaleunuchs。Andinpreciselythesamemanner，accordingtothemeasureoftheirfolly，dotheyacquireself—conceit，whichdeprivesthemforeverofallpossibilityofreturntoasimplelifeoftoil，toasimple，clear，anduniversallyhumantrainofreasoning。
Divisionoflaboralwayshasexistedinhumancommunities，andwillprobablyalwaysexist；butthequestionforusliesnotinthefactthatithasexisted，andthatitwillexist，butinthis，——howarewetogovernourselvessothatthisdivisionshallberight？Butifwetakeinvestigationasourruleofaction，webythisveryactrepudiateallrule；theninthatcaseweshallregardasrighteverydivisionoflaborwhichweshalldescryamongmen，andwhichappearstoustoberight——towhichconclusiontheprevailingscientificsciencealsoleads。
Divisionoflabor!
Somearebusiedinmentalormoral，othersinmuscularorphysical，labor。Withwhatconfidencepeopleenunciatethis!Theywishtothinkso，anditseemstothemthat，inpointoffact，aperfectlyregularexchangeofservicesdoestakeplace。
Butwe，inourblindness，havesocompletelylostsightoftheresponsibilitywhichwehaveassumed，thatwehaveevenforgotteninwhosenameourlaborisprosecuted；andtheverypeoplewhomwehaveundertakentoservehavebecometheobjectsofourscientificandartisticactivity。Westudyanddepictthemforouramusementanddiversion。Wehavetotallyforgottenthatwhatweneedtodoisnottostudyanddepictthem，buttoservethem。Tosuchadegreehavewelostsightofthisdutywhichwehavetakenuponus，thatwehavenotevennoticedthatwhatwehaveundertakentoperformintherealmofscienceandarthasbeenaccomplishednotbyus，butbyothers，andthatourplacehasturnedouttobeoccupied。
Itprovesthatwhilewehavebeendisputing，oneaboutthespontaneousoriginoforganisms，anotherastowhatelsethereisinprotoplasm，andsoon，thecommonpeoplehavebeeninneedofspiritualfood；andtheunsuccessfulandrejectedofartandscience，inobediencetothemandateofadventurerswhohaveinviewthesoleaimofprofit，havebeguntofurnishthepeoplewiththisspiritualfood，andstillsofurnishthem。ForthelastfortyyearsinEurope，andforthelasttenyearswithushereinRussia，millionsofbooksandpicturesandsong—bookshavebeendistributed，andstallshavebeenopened，andthepeoplegazeandsingandreceivespiritualnourishment，butnotfromuswhohaveundertakentoprovideit；whilewe，justifyingouridlenessbythatspiritualfoodwhichwearesupposedtofurnish，sitbyandwinkatit。
Butitisimpossibleforustowinkatit，forourlastjustificationisslippingfrombeneathourfeet。Wehavebecomespecialized。Wehaveourparticularfunctionalactivity。Wearethebrainsofthepeople。Theysupportus，andwehaveundertakentoteachthem。Itisonlyunderthispretencethatwehaveexcusedourselvesfromwork。Butwhathavewetaughtthem，andwhatarewenowteachingthem？Theyhavewaitedforyears——fortens，forhundredsofyears。Andwekeepondivertingourmindswithchatter，andweinstructeachother，andweconsoleourselves，andwehaveutterlyforgottenthem。Wehavesoentirelyforgottenthem，thatothershaveundertakentoinstructthem，andwehavenotevenperceivedit。Wehavespokenofthedivisionoflaborwithsuchlackofseriousness，thatitisobviousthatwhatwehavesaidaboutthebenefitswhichwehaveconferredonthepeoplewassimplyashamelessevasion。
CHAPTERIV。
Scienceandarthavearrogatedtothemselvestherightofidleness，andoftheenjoymentofthelaborofothers，andhavebetrayedtheircalling。Andtheirerrorshavearisenmerelybecausetheirservants，havingsetforthafalselyconceivedprincipleofthedivisionoflabor，haverecognizedtheirownrighttomakeuseofthelaborofothers，andhavelostthesignificanceoftheirvocation；havingtakenfortheiraim，nottheprofitofthepeople，butthemysteriousprofitofscienceandart，anddeliveredthemselvesovertoidlenessandvice——notsomuchofthesensesasofthemind。
Theysay，\"Scienceandarthavebestowedagreatdealonmankind。\"
Scienceandarthavebestowedagreatdealonmankind，notbecausethemenofartandscience，underthepretextofadivisionoflabor，liveonotherpeople，butinspiteofthis。
TheRomanRepublicwaspowerful，notbecausehercitizenshadthepowertoliveaviciouslife，butbecauseamongtheirnumbertherewereheroiccitizens。Itisthesamewithartandscience。Artandsciencehavebestowedmuchonmankind，butnotbecausetheirfollowersformerlypossessedonrareoccasions（andnowpossessoneveryoccasion）thepossibilityofgettingridoflabor；butbecausetherehavebeenmenofgenius，who，withoutmakinguseoftheserights，haveledmankindforward。
Theclassoflearnedmenandartists，whichhasadvanced，onthefictitiousbasisofadivisionoflabor，itsdemandstotherightofusingthelaborsofothers，cannotco—operateinthesuccessoftruescienceandtrueart，becausealiecannotbringforththetruth。
Wehavebecomesoaccustomedtothese，ourtenderlyrearedorweakenedrepresentativesofmentallabor，thatitseemstoushorriblethatamanofscienceoranartistshouldploughorcartmanure。Itseemstousthateverythingwouldgotodestruction，andthatallhiswisdomwouldberattledoutofhiminthecart，andthatallthosegrandpicturesqueimageswhichhebearsaboutinhisbreastwouldbesoiledinthemanure；butwehavebecomesoinuredtothis，thatitdoesnotstrikeusasstrangethatourservitorofscience——thatistosay，theservantandteacherofthetruth——bymakingotherpeopledoforhimthatwhichhemightdoforhimself，passeshalfhistimeindaintyeating，insmoking，intalking，infreeandeasygossip，inreadingthenewspapersandromances，andinvisitingthetheatres。Itisnotstrangetoustoseeourphilosopherinthetavern，inthetheatre，andattheball。Itisnotstrangeinoureyestolearnthatthoseartistswhosweetenandennobleoursoulshavepassedtheirlivesindrunkenness，cards，andwomen，ifnotinsomethingworse。
Artandscienceareverybeautifulthings；butjustbecausetheyaresobeautifultheyshouldnotbespoiledbythecompulsorycombinationwiththemofvice：thatistosay，amanshouldnotgetridofhisobligationtoservehisownlifeandthatofotherpeoplebyhisownlabor。Artandsciencehavecausedmankindtoprogress。
Yes；butnotbecausemenofartandscience，undertheguiseofdivisionoflabor，haveridthemselvesoftheveryfirstandmostindisputableofhumanobligations，——tolaborwiththeirhandsintheuniversalstruggleofmankindwithnature。
\"Butonlythedivisionoflabor，thefreedomofmenofscienceandofartfromthenecessityofearningthemliving，hasrenderedpossiblethatremarkablesuccessofsciencewhichwebeholdinourday，\"istheanswertothis。\"Ifallwereforcedtotillthesoil，thoseVASTresultswouldnothavebeenattainedwhichhavebeenattainedinourday；therewouldhavebeennoneofthoseSTRIKING
successeswhichhavesogreatlyaugmentedman’spowerovernature，wereitnotfortheseastronomicaldiscoveriesWHICHARESO
ASTOUNDINGTOTHEMINDOFMAN，andwhichhaveaddedtothesecurityofnavigation；therewouldbenosteamers，norailways，noneofthoseWONDERFULbridges，tunnels，steam—enginesandtelegraphs，photography，telephones，sewing—machines，phonographs，electricity，telescopes，spectroscopes，microscopes，chloroform，Lister’sbandages，andcarbolicacid。\"
Iwillnotenumerateeverythingonwhichouragethuspridesitself。Thisenumerationandprideofenthusiasmoverourselvesandourexploitscanbefoundinalmostanynewspaperandpopularpamphlet。Thisenthusiasmoverourselvesisoftenrepeatedtosuchadegreethatnoneofuscansufficientlyrejoiceoverourselves，thatweareseriouslyconvincedthatartandsciencehavenevermadesuchprogressasinourowntime。And，asweareindebtedforallthismarvellousprogresstothedivisionoflabor，whynotacknowledgeit？
Letusadmitthattheprogressmadeinourdayisnoteworthy，marvellous，unusual；letusadmitthatwearefortunatemortalstoliveinsucharemarkableepoch：butletusendeavortoappraisethisprogress，notonthebasisofourself—satisfaction，butofthatprinciplewhichdefendsitselfwiththisprogress，——thedivisionoflabor。Allthisprogressisveryamazing；butbyapeculiarlyunluckychance，admittedevenbythemenofscience，thisprogresshasnotsofarimproved，butithasratherrenderedworse，thepositionofthemajority，thatistosay，oftheworkingman。
Iftheworkingmancantravelontherailway，insteadofwalking，stillthatsamerailwayhasburneddownhisforest，hascarriedoffhisgrainunderhisverynose，andhasbroughthisconditionveryneartoslavery——tothecapitalist。If，thankstosteam—enginesandmachines，theworkingmancanpurchaseinferiorcalicoatacheaprate，ontheotherhandtheseenginesandmachineshavedeprivedhimofworkathome，andhavebroughthimintoastateofabjectslaverytothemanufacturer。Iftherearetelephonesandtelescopes，poems，romances，theatres，ballets，symphonies，operas，picture—galleries，andsoforth，ontheotherhandthelifeoftheworkingmanhasnotbeenbetteredbyallthis；forallofthem，bythesameunluckychance，areinaccessibletohim。
Sothat，onthewhole（andevenmenofscienceadmitthis），uptothepresenttime，alltheseremarkablediscoveriesandproductsofscienceandarthavecertainlynotamelioratedtheconditionoftheworkingman，if，indeed，theyhavenotmadeitworse。Sothat，ifwesetagainstthequestionastotherealityoftheprogressattainedbytheartsandsciences，notourownrapture，butthatstandarduponthebasisofwhichthedivisionoflaborisdefended，——thegoodofthelaboringman，——weshallseethatwehavenofirmfoundationsforthatself—satisfactioninwhichwearesofondofindulging。
Thepeasanttravelsontherailway，thewomanbuyscalico，intheisba（cottage）therewillbealampinsteadofapine—knot，andthepeasantwilllighthispipewithamatch，——thisisconvenient；butwhatrighthaveItosaythattherailwayandthefactoryhaveprovedadvantageoustothepeople？
Ifthepeasantridesontherailway，andbuyscalico，alamp，andmatches，itisonlybecauseitisimpossibletoforbidthepeasant’sbuyingthem；butsurelyweareallawarethattheconstructionofrailwaysandfactorieshasneverbeencarriedoutforthebenefitofthelowerclasses：sowhyshouldacasualconveniencewhichtheworkingmanenjoysleadtoaproofoftheutilityofalltheseinstitutionsforthepeople？
Thereissomethingusefulineveryinjuriousthing。Afteraconflagration，onecanwarmone’sself，andlightone’spipewithafirebrand；butwhydeclarethattheconflagrationisbeneficial？
Menofartandsciencemightsaythattheirpursuitsarebeneficialtothepeople，onlywhenmenofartandsciencehaveassignedtothemselvestheobjectofservingthepeople，astheynowassignthemselvestheobjectofservingtheauthoritiesandthecapitalists。Wemightsaythisifmenofartandsciencehadtakenastheiraimtheneedsofthepeople；buttherearenonesuch。Allscientistsarebusywiththeirpriestlyavocations，outofwhichproceedinvestigationsintoprotoplasm，thespectralanalysesofstars，andsoon。Butsciencehasneveroncethoughtofwhataxeorwhathatchetisthemostprofitabletochopwith，whatsawisthemosthandy，whatisthebestwaytomixbread，fromwhatflour，howtosetit，howtobuildandheatanoven，whatfoodanddrink，andwhatutensils，arethemostconvenientandadvantageousundercertainconditions，whatmushroomsmaybeeaten，howtopropagatethem，andhowtopreparetheminthemostsuitablemanner。Andyetallthisistheprovinceofscience。